Rak jądra
Etiologia i przyczyny

Rak jądra to nowotwór złośliwy wywodzący się z komórek rozrodczych jąder, najczęstszy u mężczyzn w wieku 15-35 lat. Etiologia jest wieloczynnikowa, obejmująca zmiany genetyczne, takie jak izochromosom 12p (i12p) oraz mutacje w wielu genach, a także czynniki środowiskowe i rozwojowe. Ryzyko jest szczególnie podwyższone u pacjentów z wnętrzniactwem (24-krotnie), u krewnych pierwszego stopnia (względne ryzyko 4-10), a także u mężczyzn z zespołem Klinefeltera czy niewrażliwością na androgeny. Inne czynniki ryzyka to wcześniejsza historia raka jądra (3-4% ryzyko rozwoju w drugim jądrze), rasa (większe ryzyko u mężczyzn rasy białej), infekcja HIV, niepłodność oraz ekspozycja na kancerogeny środowiskowe, takie jak pestycydy, metale ciężkie i dym tytoniowy. Patogeneza wiąże się z neoplazją in situ komórek rozrodczych (GCNIS) i zespołem dysgenezji jąder (TDS), a także czynnikami wewnątrzmacicznymi i okołoporodowymi, jak niska masa urodzeniowa czy wysoki wiek matki.

  1. Etiopatogeneza raka jądra
    1. Mechanizm powstawania raka jądra
    2. Czynniki genetyczne
    3. Wnętrzniactwo (niezstąpione jądro)
    4. Inne czynniki ryzyka
    5. Czynniki środowiskowe
    6. Zespół dysgenezji jąder
  2. Rola czynników wieloczynnikowych
    1. Potencjalne czynniki zapobiegawcze
  3. Podsumowanie aktualnego stanu wiedzy
    1. Kolejne rozdziały

Etiopatogeneza raka jądra

Rak jądra (inaczej rak jądra) to nowotwór złośliwy wywodzący się z tkanek jądra. Mimo że stosunkowo rzadki, stanowi najczęstszy typ nowotworu złośliwego u mężczyzn między 15. a 35. rokiem życia.12 Zachorowalność na ten typ nowotworu stale rośnie w krajach rozwiniętych na przestrzeni ostatnich dekad, a dokładne przyczyny tego wzrostu pozostają niewyjaśnione.12

Mechanizm powstawania raka jądra

Rak jądra rozwija się, gdy dochodzi do zmian w DNA komórek jądra. DNA zawiera instrukcje mówiące komórce, co ma robić. Zmiany te powodują, że komórki rosną i namnażają się szybko. Komórki nowotworowe żyją nadal, podczas gdy zdrowe komórki obumierałyby jako część swojego naturalnego cyklu życiowego. Powoduje to powstawanie wielu dodatkowych komórek w jądrze, które mogą tworzyć masę zwaną guzem.12

Prawie wszystkie przypadki raka jądra zaczynają się w komórkach rozrodczych (germinalnych). Są to komórki w jądrach, które produkują plemniki. Nie jest jasne, co powoduje zmiany DNA w tych komórkach.12 Nowotwory te mogą być wywołane przez zmiany w chromosomach, które aktywują onkogeny lub dezaktywują geny supresorowe guza.1

Badacze zidentyfikowali charakterystyczną zmianę genetyczną występującą w większości komórek raka jądra – dodatkowe kopie fragmentu chromosomu 12 (izochromosom 12p lub i12p). Niektóre raki jądra mają również zmiany w innych chromosomach, a nawet nieprawidłową liczbę chromosomów (często zbyt wiele). Naukowcy badają te zmiany DNA i chromosomów, aby dowiedzieć się więcej o genach, które są dotknięte, i o tym, jak może to prowadzić do raka jądra.123

Czynniki genetyczne

Badania wykazały, że czynniki genetyczne odgrywają istotną rolę w rozwoju raka jądra. Ryzyko zachorowania jest wyższe u krewnych pierwszego stopnia pacjentów z rakiem jądra niż w populacji ogólnej.1 Około 2% pacjentów z rakiem jądra zgłasza posiadanie dotkniętego nim krewnego.1

Rodzeństwo jest szczególnie narażone na zwiększone ryzyko, z względnym ryzykiem wynoszącym 8-10. W przypadku synów mężczyzn dotkniętych tym nowotworem, względne ryzyko wynosi 4-6.12 Właściwy rodzinny rak jądra, tj. dwóch lub więcej dotkniętych mężczyzn w tej samej linii krwi, jest dość rzadki, choć oszacowano, że występuje w około 3% rodzin.1

Choć większość przypadków nie jest bezpośrednio dziedziczona, posiadanie bliskiego krewnego, takiego jak ojciec lub brat z rakiem jądra, zwiększa ryzyko. Niektóre odziedziczone schorzenia, takie jak zespół niewrażliwości na androgeny i zespół Klinefeltera, są związane z większym ryzykiem raka jądra.12

Według przeglądu badań z 2019 roku, ryzyko raka jądra może być od czterech do sześciu razy wyższe, jeśli rodzic miał tę chorobę, i od 8 do 10 razy wyższe, jeśli ma się rodzeństwo z historią raka jądra.1

Badacze zidentyfikowali 78 lokalizacji genów wpływających na ryzyko raka jądra. Chociaż możliwe jest, że mutacja w tylko jednym z tych genów może spowodować raka jądra, bardziej typowe jest, że mutacje w wielu genach są przyczyną.1

Wnętrzniactwo (niezstąpione jądro)

Jednym z najważniejszych czynników ryzyka raka jądra jest wnętrzniactwo (kryptorchidyzm), stan, w którym jedno lub oba jądra nie zstępują do moszny podczas rozwoju płodowego.12 Mężczyźni z historią wnętrzniactwa mają 24-krotnie zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju raka jądra.1

Ryzyko raka jądra wśród osób z wnętrznictwem jest 3,7-7,5 razy wyższe niż w normalnej populacji.1 Nawet jeśli jądro zostanie chirurgicznie umieszczone w mosznie po urodzeniu, ryzyko raka jądra jest nieco wyższe u mężczyzn z jądrem, które nigdy nie zstąpiło, niż u tych, u których jądra zstępują normalnie.1

Ryzyko może być wyższe, jeśli jądro pozostało w jamie brzusznej, w przeciwieństwie do takiego, które zstąpiło przynajmniej częściowo.1 Duże badanie kohortowe wykazało, że naprawa wnętrzniactwa przed okresem dojrzewania wiąże się z dwukrotnym wzrostem ryzyka raka jądra; opóźnienie naprawy do czasu po 12. roku życia zwiększa ryzyko pięciokrotnie.1

Inne czynniki ryzyka

Oprócz czynników genetycznych i wnętrzniactwa, zidentyfikowano szereg innych czynników zwiększających ryzyko rozwoju raka jądra:

  • Wcześniejsza historia raka jądra: Mężczyźni, którzy przeszli raka jądra, mają zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju raka w drugim jądrze. Około 3-4% mężczyzn, którzy zostali wyleczeni z raka w jednym jądrze, z czasem rozwinie raka w drugim jądrze.12
  • Wiek: Rak jądra występuje najczęściej u mężczyzn między 15. a 35. rokiem życia, chociaż może wystąpić w każdym wieku, w tym u niemowląt i starszych mężczyzn.12
  • Rasa i pochodzenie etniczne: Mężczyźni rasy białej mają od 5 do 10 razy większe ryzyko raka jądra niż mężczyźni rasy czarnej i ponad dwukrotnie większe ryzyko niż mężczyźni pochodzenia azjatyckiego.12
  • Infekcja HIV: Badania wykazały, że mężczyźni zakażeni wirusem HIV, szczególnie ci, u których rozwinął się AIDS, mają zwiększone ryzyko raka jądra.12
  • Bezpłodność: Mężczyźni z historią niepłodności mają zwiększone ryzyko raka jądra. Badania wykazały, że mężczyźni z czynnikiem niepłodności męskiej mają prawie 3 razy większe prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju późniejszego raka jądra.12
  • Zespół Klinefeltera: Genetyczne zaburzenie, w którym mężczyzna ma dodatkowy chromosom X, może zwiększać ryzyko raka jądra.12

Czynniki środowiskowe

Obserwacje epidemiologiczne sugerują, że czynniki środowiskowe odgrywają rolę w określaniu ryzyka raka jądra, chociaż dowody epidemiologiczne nie potwierdzają konsekwentnie żadnego konkretnego czynnika ryzyka.1

Ekspozycja na szkodliwe chemikalia, takie jak pestycydy, herbicydy, polichlorowane bifenyle (PCB) i metale ciężkie, jak ołów, kadm i rtęć, była kojarzona ze zwiększonym prawdopodobieństwem rozwoju raka jądra. Substancje te, często znajdowane w środowiskach rolniczych i przemysłowych, mogą zakłócać poziomy hormonów i ingerować w normalny rozwój jąder.1

Palenie jest dobrze ustalonym czynnikiem ryzyka, szczególnie dla nienasieniakowatych guzów komórek rozrodczych. Kancerogeny w dymie tytoniowym mogą uszkadzać DNA w komórkach jądra, a nawet ekspozycja na dym z drugiej ręki może przyczyniać się do podwyższonego ryzyka, szczególnie u młodszych osób, które są bardziej podatne na toksyny środowiskowe.1

Nawyki żywieniowe i masa ciała również odgrywają znaczącą rolę w ryzyku raka jądra. Diety bogate w tłuszcze nasycone, szczególnie ze źródeł zwierzęcych, mogą wpływać na poziomy hormonów i mogą przyczyniać się do rozwoju raka, podczas gdy niska podaż owoców i warzyw pozbawia organizm przeciwutleniaczy, które chronią przed stresem oksydacyjnym i stanem zapalnym.1

Otyłość, szczególnie w okresie dojrzewania, jest kolejnym pojawiającym się czynnikiem ryzyka, ponieważ nadmiar tkanki tłuszczowej może zakłócać równowagę hormonalną i tworzyć środowisko sprzyjające wzrostowi guza.1

Zespół dysgenezji jąder

Patogeneza raka jądra związanego z neoplazją in situ komórek rozrodczych (GCNIS) częściowo pokrywa się z innymi zaburzeniami rozwojowymi męskiego układu rozrodczego w ramach zespołu dysgenezji jąder (TDS). Związek raka jądra ze słabą funkcją jąder, wnętrznictwem, spodzieniem i nieprawidłowym rozwojem jąder doprowadził do hipotezy, że słaby rozwój gonad i neoplazja jąder są etiologicznie powiązane.1

Zwiększona częstość występowania raka jądra wśród osób z wrodzonymi błędami rozwoju gonad silnie sugeruje zaangażowanie czynników wewnątrzmacicznych i okołoporodowych. Związek z rakiem jądra odnotowano w szeregu nieprawidłowości rozwojowych, takich jak wnętrzniactwo, zespół Downa, a także niska masa urodzeniowa i niespecyficzne czynniki okołoporodowe, np. przedwczesny poród, kolejność urodzenia, wysokie poziomy estrogenów matczynych lub krwawienie podczas ciąży, wysoki wiek matki i żółtaczka noworodkowa.12

Rola czynników wieloczynnikowych

Rak jądra stanowi szczególny przykład interakcji między czynnikami genetycznymi a środowiskowymi. Względna rzadkość tego schorzenia ograniczyła możliwość przeprowadzenia dużych badań powiązań, a także zbadania kilku modyfikowalnych czynników, takich jak leki i dieta.1

Kompleksowe podejście, które uwzględnia zarówno epidemiologiczne, jak i genetyczne czynniki ryzyka, jest konieczne do dokładnej oceny indywidualnego ryzyka rozwoju raka jądra.1

Istnieje rosnący konsensus, że może istnieć wiele mechanizmów i że rak jądra jest zaburzeniem wieloczynnikowym i wielogenowym. Wysoka częstość występowania raka jądra u osób z wrodzonymi błędami rozwoju gonad silnie sugeruje zaangażowanie czynników wewnątrzmacicznych i okołoporodowych.1

Naukowcy zidentyfikowali trzy możliwe mechanizmy patogenetyczne, wychodząc od identyfikacji zaangażowanych loci. Mechanizmy transformacji nowotworowej wczesnych komórek rozrodczych nie są znane, ale istnieje rosnący konsensus, że może istnieć wiele mechanizmów.12

Potencjalne czynniki zapobiegawcze

Ze względu na niejasną etiologię raka jądra, nie ma obecnie ustalonych metod zapobiegania temu nowotworowi. Większość mężczyzn z rakiem jądra nie ma żadnych znanych czynników ryzyka, co utrudnia opracowanie strategii zapobiegawczych.1

Badania wskazują, że mężczyźni, którzy są aktywni fizycznie, mają zmniejszone ryzyko rozwoju choroby, podczas gdy ci, którzy prowadzą siedzący tryb życia, są narażeni na zwiększone ryzyko.1

Warto zauważyć, że w przeciwieństwie do przekonań niektórych osób, nie ma związku między zabiegiem wazektomii a rakiem jądra.1 Podobnie, urazy jąder, nadwyrężenia sportowe, gorące kąpiele lub noszenie ciasnych ubrań nie są powiązane z rakiem jądra.12

Podsumowanie aktualnego stanu wiedzy

Mimo intensywnych badań, dokładna przyczyna większości przypadków raka jądra pozostaje nieznana. Badacze zidentyfikowali szereg czynników ryzyka, ale większość mężczyzn z rakiem jądra nie ma żadnego z tych znanych czynników.12

Najwyraźniejsze są związki genetyczne (w tym historia rodzinna), wnętrzniactwo oraz wcześniejsza historia raka jądra. Czynniki środowiskowe, hormonalne i związane ze stylem życia prawdopodobnie również odgrywają rolę, ale ich dokładny wkład jest trudniejszy do określenia.12

Badania nad etiologią raka jądra są kontynuowane, a naukowcy mają nadzieję na lepsze zrozumienie przyczyn tego nowotworu w przyszłości, co może prowadzić do skuteczniejszych strategii profilaktycznych i leczniczych.12

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Testicular Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563159/
    Testicular cancer is one of the most common malignancies in men aged 15 to 45 years. Etiology is multifactorial, comprising various genetic and environmental factors. […] Complex environmental and genetic factors are involved in the development of testicular cancer; common risk factors include cryptorchidism, family history of testicular cancer, personal history of testicular cancer in the contralateral testis, age, and ethnicity. […] Both genetic and environmental factors have been studied in the development of testicular cancers. […] Epidemiological risk factors: They include cryptorchidism, decreased spermatogenesis evidenced by sub- or infertility, disorders of sexual development, familial history of testicular tumors among first-degree relatives, the presence of a contralateral tumor or germ-cell neoplasia in-situ (GCNIS), etc.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Management with Focus on Endocrine Aspects – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278992/
    Testicular cancer comprises different neoplasms, depending on the cell of origin and the typical age at presentation, but germ cell-derived tumors constitute the vast majority of cases. […] Pathogenesis of TGCT associated with GCNIS partly overlaps with that of other developmental disorders of the male reproductive system within the testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS). […] The association of testicular cancer with poor testicular function, cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and abnormal testicular development led to a hypothesis that poor gonadal development and testicular neoplasia are etiologically linked. […] Epidemiology of testicular germ cell tumors (TGCT) has attracted the growing attention of researchers, because of the steadily rising incidence. […] An association with testicular cancer has been noted in a number of developmental abnormalities, such as cryptorchidism, Down syndrome but also low birth weight and unspecific perinatal factors, e.g., premature birth, birth order, high levels of maternal estrogens or bleeding during pregnancy, high maternal age and neonatal jaundice.
  • #1 Testicular cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/testicular-cancer-care/symptoms-causes/syc-20352986
    Testicular cancer starts when something causes changes to the DNA of testicle cells. A cell’s DNA holds the instructions that tell the cell what to do. The changes tell the cells to grow and multiply quickly. The cancer cells go on living when healthy cells would die as part of their natural life cycle. This causes a lot of extra cells in the testicle that can form a mass called a tumor. […] Nearly all testicular cancers begin in the germ cells. The germ cells in the testicle make sperm. It’s not clear what causes DNA changes in the germ cells. […] It’s not clear what causes most testicular cancers.
  • #1 What Causes Testicular Cancer? | Causes of Testicular Cancer | American Cancer Society
    https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/testicular-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html
    The exact cause of most testicular cancers is not known. But scientists have found that the disease is linked with a number of other conditions. A great deal of research is being done to learn more about the causes. […] Researchers are learning how certain changes in a cells DNA can cause the cell to become cancer. […] Cancers can be caused by changes in chromosomes that turn on oncogenes or turn off tumor suppressor genes. […] Most testicular cancer cells have extra copies of a part of chromosome 12 (called isochromosome 12p or i12p). Some testicular cancers have changes in other chromosomes as well, or even abnormal numbers of chromosomes (often too many). Scientists are studying these DNA and chromosome changes to learn more about which genes are affected and how this might lead to testicular cancer.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/279007-overview
    Primary testicular tumors are the most common solid malignant tumor in men 20 to 35 years of age in the United States. For unknown reasons, the incidence of this cancer principally, testicular seminomas increased during the last century. Germ cell cancers account for more than 90% of all testicular cancers. […] The cause of testicular cancer is not known. The characteristic genetic change found is an isochromosome of the short arm of chromosome 12 [i(12p)], which is often seen in sporadic cancers. This suggests that genes in this region are important in the development of germ cell tumors. A number of other genes that have a relatively weak effect are also involved in the development of testicular cancer. […] That genetic factors have a role in the development of testicular cancer is shown by the fact that the risk for the disease is higher in first-degree relatives of cancer patients than in the general population. About 2% of testicular cancer patients report having an affected relative. Siblings are at particularly increased risk, with a relative risk of 810. For sons of affected men, the relative risk is 46. […] Epidemiologic observations have suggested that environmental factors are instrumental in determining risk for testicular cancers. However, epidemiologic evidence does not consistently support any specific risk factor.
  • #1 Risk Factors for Testicular Cancer: Environment, Genes and Infections—Is It All?
    https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/724
    The overall risk of developing testicular cancer in patients who were or are cryptorchid is 3.7–7.5 times higher than in the normal population. […] Based on clinical observations and systematic investigations, it has been suggested that a family history of testicular cancer represents a major risk factor for this kind of cancer. […] A proper familiar testicular cancer, i.e., two or more affected men in the same bloodline, is quite uncommon, although it has been estimated to occur in about 3% of families. […] A recent meta-analysis suggested how low birth weight, perinatal inguinal hernia, and twinning, in addition to cryptorchidism, are associated with an increased risk of testicular cancer. […] The relation between infections and testicular cancer relies mostly on the response to chronic inflammation which is involved in several different steps leading to carcinogenesis.
  • #1 Risk factors causes stats – Testicular Cancer Society
    https://testicularcancersociety.org/pages/risk-factors-causes-stats
    The exact cause of most testicular cancers remains unknown, but scientists have linked the disease to certain genetic and chromosomal changes. […] Most testicular cancer cells contain extra copies of a segment of chromosome 12, known as isochromosome 12p (i12p), and some exhibit abnormalities in other chromosomes, including extra copies. […] While most cases are not directly inherited, having a close relative such as a father or brother with testicular cancer increases the risk. […] Certain inherited conditions, such as Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome, are associated with a greater risk of testicular cancer.
  • #1 Is Testicular Cancer Genetic or Environmental?
    https://www.healthline.com/health/cancer/is-testicular-cancer-genetic
    Many people with testicular cancer dont have a family history of it. Still, your risk may be much higher if you have a parent or sibling with the disease. But environment and hormones also play a role. […] Testicular cancer results from DNA changes in testicular cells. But these changes occur due to many influences, including: random mutations, inherited mutations, carcinogens, like pesticides, radiation, or cigarette smoke, infections, like HIV, hormonal influences. […] About 90% of people with testicular cancer dont have a family history of it. Still, your risk of developing testicular cancer may be much higher if you have a parent or sibling who has it. […] According to a 2019 research review, your risk of testicular cancer might be four to six times higher if a parent had the disease. It might be 8 to 10 times higher if you have a sibling with testicular cancer history.
  • #1 Is Testicular Cancer Genetic or Environmental?
    https://www.healthline.com/health/cancer/is-testicular-cancer-genetic
    As of 2021, scientists have identified 78 gene locations influencing testicular cancer risk. While its possible for a mutation in just one of these genes to cause testicular cancer, its more typical for mutations in multiple genes to be the cause. […] About 1 in 250 people assigned male at birth may develop testicular cancer. […] While family history may significantly increase your risk of testicular cancer, other risk factors play a role. […] Having an undescended testicle (cryptorchidism) may increase your risk of testicular by almost nine times. […] Certain viruses can increase your risk of cancer. According to 2019 research, only two viruses tend to have a link to an increased risk of testicular cancer: HIV and Epstein-Barr virus. […] Even after effectively treating testicular cancer in one testicle, about 3% to 4% of people will develop it in their other testicle.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563159/
    The most common environmental risk factors for testicular cancers can be summarized as below: Cryptorchidism 24 fold increase in risk. […] Family history relative risk increased 610 fold in brothers or sons of affected man. […] Infections – Human papillomavirus (HPV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Cytomegalovirus (CMV), Parvovirus B-19, and Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). […] High maternal estrogen levels. […] Genetic risk factors: Multiple genetic changes have been described in the etiology of testicular cancer. The isochromosome of the short arm of chromosome 12 (i12p) is pathognomonic of all types of adult germ cell tumors (GCTs), as well as GCNIS. […] Genetic polymorphisms in the PTEN tumor suppressor gene and the risk of testicular cancer (TC) have also been described. […] However, current genetic studies have not revealed any evidence for a major single high-penetrance gene known to cause increased testicular cancer susceptibility.
  • #1 What causes testicular cancer? | Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center – Buffalo, NY
    https://www.roswellpark.org/cancertalk/202204/what-causes-testicular-cancer
    Doctors and scientists dont know the exact cause of testicular cancer but agree there are several factors that may increase the risk of a diagnosis. […] An undescended testicle is the most common risk. […] Even if the testicle is surgically attached to the scrotum after birth, the risk of testicular cancer is somewhat higher for males with a testicle that never descended than for those whose testes descend normally. […] People with a family history of testicular cancer, such as a parent or sibling, are at an increased risk for also being diagnosed. […] Other risk factors include: Age. Testicular cancer affects males from infants to seniors, but about half of cases are diagnosed between the ages of 20 and 34. […] Race and Ethnicity. White men are diagnosed about four to five times more than Black or Asian-American men.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer Risk Factors | Risks For Testicular Cancer | American Cancer Society
    https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/testicular-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html
    A risk factor is anything that changes your chance of getting a disease such as cancer. […] Scientists have found few risk factors that make someone more likely to develop testicular cancer. […] One of the main risk factors for testicular cancer is a condition called cryptorchidism, or undescended testicle(s). […] The risk of testicular cancer might be a little higher for men whose testicle stayed in the abdomen as opposed to one that has descended at least partway. […] Having a father or brother with testicular cancer increases the risk that you will get it, too. […] Klinefelter’s syndrome is an inherited disease that’s also linked to an increased risk of testicular cancer. […] Some evidence has shown that men infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), particularly those with AIDS, are at increased risk.
  • #1 Diagnosis and Treatment of Testicular Cancer | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0215/p469.html
    Testicular cancer is the most common malignancy in men 20 to 35 years of age and has an annual incidence of four per 100,000. […] Risk factors for testicular cancer include cryptorchidism (i.e., undescended testicles), family history, infertility, tobacco use, and white race. […] The incidence of testicular cancer has doubled over the past 40 years and continues to rise, particularly in white men. […] Cryptorchidism is an important risk factor; 10 percent of patients with testicular cancer have a history of this condition. […] A large cohort study found that cryptorchidism repair before puberty is associated with a twofold increase in the risk of testicular cancer; delaying repair until after 12 years of age increases the risk fivefold. […] There is also a genetic link associated with testicular cancer. Having a brother with testicular cancer increases a man’s risk six- to 10-fold.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer Risk Factors | Risks For Testicular Cancer | American Cancer Society
    https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/testicular-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html
    A personal history of testicular cancer is another risk factor. […] About half of testicular cancers occur in men between the ages of 20 and 34. […] White, American Indian, and Alaska Native men are several times more likely to get testicular cancer than Black, Asian American, and Pacific Islander men. […] Several studies have found that tall men have a somewhat higher risk of testicular cancer, but some other studies have not. […] Prior injury or trauma to the testicles and recurrent actions such as horseback riding do not appear to be related to the development of testicular cancer.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer
    https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/cancer/type/testicular.html
    Most testicular cancers occur between the ages of 15 and 40. However, this cancer can affect males of any age, including infants and elderly men. […] The risk of testicular cancer among White men is about 5 to 10 times that of African American men and more than twice that of Asian American men. The risk for Hispanics is between that of Asians and non-Hispanic Whites. […] A recent study from Sweden identified body size as a risk factor. The highest risk was seen in tall, slim men.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Management with Focus on Endocrine Aspects – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278992/
    For endocrinologists and andrologists it is essential to know that male infertility (the type linked to TDS) is one of the commonest risk factors for testicular cancer. […] The presence of testicular atrophy increases the risk of bilateral neoplasia considerably. […] The mechanisms of neoplastic transformation of early germ cell are not known. […] There is a growing consensus that there may be multiple mechanisms and testicular cancer is a multifactorial and polygenic disorder. […] The high incidence of testicular cancer in subjects with congenital errors of gonadal development strongly implicates the involvement of intrauterine factors and perinatal factors. […] The evidence for the role of endocrine disrupters in the etiology of TGCT remains scarce.
  • #1 Familial Testicular Cancer Study – NCI
    https://dceg.cancer.gov/research/cancer-types/testes/familial-testicular-cancer-study
    Testicular cancer is the most common form of cancer in young men ages 15 to 35. […] DCEG investigators are conducting the Familiar Testicular Cancer Study to pursue research into the genetic causes of testicular cancer, using carefully-collected biological samples from members of multiple-case families, in which we are also studying the relationship between testicular microlithiasis (calcium deposits within testicular tissue) and the risk of familial testicular cancer. […] The current hypothesis is that familial testicular cancer results from the combined effects of many genes, each of which by itself causes only a small increase in cancer risk. Those genes appear to be deeply involved in the normal growth and development of the testes in the fetus, and in regulating male fertility and the production of sperm.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer: Early Signs, Stages, Causes, Symptoms,Diagnosis, and Latest Research in 2025 – OncoDaily
    https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/testicular-cancer
    Recent research has identified key genetic mutations associated with testicular cancer risk. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have highlighted DNA variations in regions linked to cancer susceptibility, including mutations in the DAZL gene, which plays a role in sperm development. Additionally, inherited mutations in genes like WT1 important for cell differentiation suggest that genetic predisposition plays a larger role than previously thought. Somatic mutations, such as alterations in the KIT gene (common in seminomas) and BRAF mutations, have also been identified. […] Testicular cancer risk is influenced by a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Exposure to harmful chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and mercury has been associated with an increased likelihood of developing testicular cancer. These substances, often found in agricultural and industrial settings, may disrupt hormone levels and interfere with normal testicular development.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer: Early Signs, Stages, Causes, Symptoms,Diagnosis, and Latest Research in 2025 – OncoDaily
    https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/testicular-cancer
    Additionally, smoking is a well-established risk factor, particularly for non-seminomatous germ cell tumors. Carcinogens in tobacco smoke can damage DNA in testicular cells, and even exposure to secondhand smoke may contribute to an elevated risk, especially in younger individuals who are more susceptible to environmental toxins. Dietary habits and body weight also play a significant role in testicular cancer risk. Diets high in saturated fats, especially from animal sources, can influence hormone levels and may contribute to cancer development, while a low intake of fruits and vegetables deprives the body of antioxidants that protect against oxidative stress and inflammation. […] Obesity, particularly during adolescence, is another emerging risk factor, as excess body fat can disrupt hormonal balance and create an environment that promotes tumor growth. While ongoing research continues to refine our understanding of these risk factors, maintaining a healthy diet, avoiding exposure to harmful chemicals, and eliminating tobacco use may help reduce the risk of developing testicular cancer.
  • #1 Risk Factors for Testicular Cancer: Environment, Genes and Infections—Is It All?
    https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/724
    Overall, three possible pathogenic mechanisms have been hypothesized starting from the identification of these involved loci. […] Testicular cancer represents a particular example of the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. […] The relative rarity of the condition has limited the possibility to perform large linkage studies as well as investigate several modifiable factors such as drugs and diet. […] A comprehensive approach that takes into account both epidemiologic and genetic risk factors is necessary to accurately assess individual risks of developing testicular cancer.
  • #1 Open Search
    https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/cancer/testicular-cancer
    We dont know what causes testicular cancer. Most people who have testicular cancer dont have any risk factors, so there isnt much that can be done to prevent it. […] We dont know exactly what causes testicular cancer. Most people who have testicular cancer dont have any risk factors, so there isnt much that can be done to prevent it. […] However, there are some things that may increase your risk of developing testicular cancer. You may be more likely to get testicular cancer if you: […] If you have risk factors or are otherwise worried about getting testicular cancer, talk to your doctor or nurse about your concerns.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer – Causes and Risk Factors
    https://www.medindia.net/health/conditions/testicular-cancer-causes-and-risk.htm
    The causes of testicular cancer remain unknown; risk factors include undescended testes (Cryptorchidism) and family history. […] The causes of testicular cancer remain unknown but experts have identified a few risk factors that predispose an individual to develop the cancer. A family history of testicular cancer naturally increases the chances for any person to develop the condition. […] Some of the other risk factors include: […] Cryptorchidism (or undescended testicles) generates a 10-40 fold increase in risk of developing testicular cancer […] Majority of men who develop testicular cancer do not harbor these known risk factors. Men who are physically active have decreased risks for developing the disease while those who lead sedentary lives are at an increased risk.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer – Symptoms, Diagnosis, & Treatment
    http://www.advancedurologyinstitute.com/condition/testicular-cancer/
    Testicular cancer is highly treatable when caught early. […] When abnormal cells grow out of control in the testes, testicular cancer can develop. […] The cause of most testicular cancers is unknown. But these factors seem to increase risk: Abnormal testicle development, History of undescended testicle(s), Family history of testicular cancer, Klinefelter syndrome. […] Despite what some people believe, there’s no link between vasectomy and testicular cancer.
  • #1 Testicular cancer | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council
    https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/testicular-cancer
    Testicular cancer is not a common cancer but it is the second most common cancer in young men (aged 20 to 39) excluding non-melanoma skin cancer. […] Some factors that may increase risk of testicular cancer include: undescended testicle (when an infant), family history (having a father or brother who has had testicular cancer), personal history if you have had cancer in one testicle you are more likely to develop cancer in the other testicle, infertility, HIV and AIDS, Physical features people born with Hypospadias, which causes the urethra to open on the underside of the penis, are at an increased risk of testicular cancer, Cannabis use there is some evidence linking regular cannabis use to the development of testicular cancer, Intersex variations – risk is higher in people with some intersex variations, such as partial androgen insensitivity syndrome. […] There is no known link between testicular cancer and injury to the testicles, sporting strains, hot baths or wearing tight clothes.
  • #1 Testicular Cancer
    https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/cancer/type/testicular.html
    The cause of testicular cancer is largely unknown, but scientists have found a few risk factors. However, most men with testicular cancer do not have any of the known risk factors, which include: […] The main risk factor for testicular cancer is a condition called cryptorchidism, or undescended testicle(s). […] A family history of testicular cancer. […] Two recent studies by the American Cancer Society have shown that an unusual condition in which multiple pigmented spots or moles are found, mainly on the back, chest, abdomen, and face, is associated with an increased risk of developing testicular cancer. […] Some studies have shown men infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), particularly those with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), are at increased risk. […] A history of testicular cancer. Men who have been cured of cancer in one testicle have an increased risk of eventually developing cancer in the other testicle.
  • #1 What Is Testicular Cancer? | UCLA Medical School
    https://medschool.ucla.edu/news-article/testicular-cancer-symptoms-treatment-and-causes
    Testicular cancer is relatively rare, accounting for only around 1% of all cancers in men. However, it is the most common type of cancer in young men aged 18 to 40. And the incidence of testicular cancer has been increasing over the past few decades. According to the American Cancer Society, about 9,190 new cases of testicular cancer will be diagnosed in the United States in 2023. […] The exact cause of testicular cancer is not known: „There’s really no great answer for the WHY ME? question. Did I do something? The answer to that is NO.” […] „There’s nothing that a person can do behaviorally to cause testicular cancer,” Dr. Litwin clarifies. „But beyond that we don’t really know what causes it. It’s probably genetic at some level, but we just don’t understand the underlying reasons for testicular cancer.”
  • #2 Testicular Cancer: Symptoms, Signs, Causes & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12183-testicular-cancer
    Testicular cancer forms when malignant (cancer) cells develop in the tissues of one or (less commonly) both testicles. […] Testicular cancer develops when cells multiply faster than usual, eventually forming a lump or tumor. Researchers aren’t sure what causes cells to behave this way. They do know that the cells that become testicular cancer are usually germ cells. […] Several factors may increase your testicular cancer risk. Risk factors don’t cause testicular cancer, but they may increase its likelihood of developing. […] Risk factors for testicular cancer include: Age: Testicular cancer most commonly affects people between ages 15 and 35. […] Testicular cancer is curable. While a cancer diagnosis is always serious, the good news about testicular cancer is that it is treated successfully in 95% of cases. If treated early, the cure rate rises to 98%.
  • #2 Risk Factors for Testicular Cancer: Environment, Genes and Infections—Is It All?
    https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/724
    The incidence of testicular cancer is steadily increasing over the past several decades in different developed countries. […] The reasons for the increase in testicular cancer are however unknown while risk factors are still poorly understood. […] Several studies have suggested that exposure to various factors in adolescence as well as in adulthood could be linked to the development of testicular cancer. […] The exact causes of testicular cancer are not well understood, but several risk factors have been identified, including age, cryptorchidism, abnormal testicle development, personal and familiar history of testicular cancer, ethnicity, and a weakened immune system. […] Despite several environmental and hormonal factors that have been hypothesized to be related to testis carcinogenesis, nevertheless, the only factors clearly associated with testicular cancer are prior unilateral testicular cancer, family history of testicular cancer, and congenital anomalies such as cryptorchidism.
  • #2 Testicular cancer: Symptoms, causes, and treatments
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/166993
    Testicular cancer is a relatively rare type of cancer that occurs in the testicles, or testes. […] Most testicular cancers start in the germ cells. These are the cells in the testicles that produce immature sperm. […] Doctors do not know why testicular cells become cancerous, but some genetic factors may increase the risk. […] Testicular cancer is more likely to occur in people with the following risk factors: cryptorchidism, or an undescended testicle; a family history of testicular cancer; being white, rather than black or Asian. […] Having HIV might increase the risk. […] It is not possible to prevent testicular cancer, as doctors do not know what causes it, and because genetic factors may play a role. A person cannot change these factors. […] There are no proven lifestyle-related factors that increase the risk of developing testicular cancer.
  • #2 Risk factors causes stats – Testicular Cancer Society
    https://testicularcancersociety.org/pages/risk-factors-causes-stats
    The exact cause of most testicular cancers remains unknown, but scientists have linked the disease to certain genetic and chromosomal changes. […] Most testicular cancer cells contain extra copies of a segment of chromosome 12, known as isochromosome 12p (i12p), and some exhibit abnormalities in other chromosomes, including extra copies. […] While most cases are not directly inherited, having a close relative such as a father or brother with testicular cancer increases the risk. […] Certain inherited conditions, such as Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome, are associated with a greater risk of testicular cancer.
  • #2 Is Testicular Cancer Genetic or Environmental?
    https://www.healthline.com/health/cancer/is-testicular-cancer-genetic
    Many people with testicular cancer dont have a family history of it. Still, your risk may be much higher if you have a parent or sibling with the disease. But environment and hormones also play a role. […] Testicular cancer results from DNA changes in testicular cells. But these changes occur due to many influences, including: random mutations, inherited mutations, carcinogens, like pesticides, radiation, or cigarette smoke, infections, like HIV, hormonal influences. […] About 90% of people with testicular cancer dont have a family history of it. Still, your risk of developing testicular cancer may be much higher if you have a parent or sibling who has it. […] According to a 2019 research review, your risk of testicular cancer might be four to six times higher if a parent had the disease. It might be 8 to 10 times higher if you have a sibling with testicular cancer history.
  • #2 Testicular Cancer – Causes & Risk Factors
    https://www.webmd.com/cancer/understanding-testicular-cancer-basics
    If you or a loved one is diagnosed with testicular cancer, a natural question you may ask is: What caused this? […] And the answer is doctors don’t know for sure why a man may get it. But they have been able to find some links to other conditions. […] Researchers have found several things that seem to increase a mans chances of getting this kind of cancer. They include: […] Testicular cancer happens more often in men who were born with a condition called cryptorchidism. […] It may also run through the generations, from parent to child. […] Men with the genetic disorder Down syndrome have a higher chance of getting it. […] If youve already been cured of cancer in one testicle, you have a 4% chance of getting it again in the other one. […] If you have trouble making a woman pregnant, you are more likely to be diagnosed with testicular cancer. […] The virus that causes AIDS has been linked with it. […] Conditions related to your mothers pregnancy may play a role as well. They include abnormal bleeding and estrogen, or hormone, therapy.
  • #2 What Causes Testicular Cancer? Risk Factors to Know
    https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/testicular-cancer/risk-factors
    Testicular cancer is several times more likely to occur in males with cryptorchordism, and it is more likely to develop in the undescended testicles. Testicular cancer develops in the normally descended testicle in approximately 25 percent of cases. […] Some research suggests that infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) may increase testicular cancer risks, especially in individuals who have developed acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). […] Approximately 3 percent to 4 percent of men who have had cancer in one testicle will later develop cancer in the other testicle.
  • #2 Testicular Cancer Risk Factors | Risks For Testicular Cancer | American Cancer Society
    https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/testicular-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html
    A personal history of testicular cancer is another risk factor. […] About half of testicular cancers occur in men between the ages of 20 and 34. […] White, American Indian, and Alaska Native men are several times more likely to get testicular cancer than Black, Asian American, and Pacific Islander men. […] Several studies have found that tall men have a somewhat higher risk of testicular cancer, but some other studies have not. […] Prior injury or trauma to the testicles and recurrent actions such as horseback riding do not appear to be related to the development of testicular cancer.
  • #2 Testicular Cancer Risk Factors | Risks For Testicular Cancer | American Cancer Society
    https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/testicular-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html
    A risk factor is anything that changes your chance of getting a disease such as cancer. […] Scientists have found few risk factors that make someone more likely to develop testicular cancer. […] One of the main risk factors for testicular cancer is a condition called cryptorchidism, or undescended testicle(s). […] The risk of testicular cancer might be a little higher for men whose testicle stayed in the abdomen as opposed to one that has descended at least partway. […] Having a father or brother with testicular cancer increases the risk that you will get it, too. […] Klinefelter’s syndrome is an inherited disease that’s also linked to an increased risk of testicular cancer. […] Some evidence has shown that men infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), particularly those with AIDS, are at increased risk.
  • #2 Testicular Cancer Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/279007-clinical
    Walsh et al have reported that men with male factor infertility are nearly 3 times more likely to develop subsequent testicular cancer. […] Exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) in utero is associated with cryptorchidism. Increased risk has been suggested with Agent Orange exposure and numerous industrial occupations.
  • #2 Testicular Cancer: Early Signs, Stages, Causes, Symptoms,Diagnosis, and Latest Research in 2025 – OncoDaily
    https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/testicular-cancer
    Testicular cancer is a relatively rare malignancy, but it holds a unique position in oncology due to its high curability and increasing incidence in young men. The exact cause of testicular cancer remains unclear, but researchers have identified several key risk factors that may contribute to its development. Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY) is a genetic condition where males have an extra X chromosome. This condition leads to hormonal imbalances and can increase the risk of testicular cancer. Men with Klinefelter syndrome tend to have smaller testes, lower testosterone levels, and an increased risk of developing germ cell tumors, which are the most common type of testicular cancer. […] Men with a history of cryptorchidism, where one or both testes fail to descend into the scrotum during fetal development, are at an increased risk of testicular cancer. Even if the condition is corrected surgically, the risk remains elevated, though the exact cause of the association is still being studied. This is considered a risk factor, especially for seminoma (a type of testicular cancer). A family history of testicular cancer significantly increases an individual’s risk. Men with a father or brother who has had testicular cancer are more likely to develop the disease themselves.
  • #2 Testicular Cancer: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Management with Focus on Endocrine Aspects – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278992/
    For endocrinologists and andrologists it is essential to know that male infertility (the type linked to TDS) is one of the commonest risk factors for testicular cancer. […] The presence of testicular atrophy increases the risk of bilateral neoplasia considerably. […] The mechanisms of neoplastic transformation of early germ cell are not known. […] There is a growing consensus that there may be multiple mechanisms and testicular cancer is a multifactorial and polygenic disorder. […] The high incidence of testicular cancer in subjects with congenital errors of gonadal development strongly implicates the involvement of intrauterine factors and perinatal factors. […] The evidence for the role of endocrine disrupters in the etiology of TGCT remains scarce.
  • #2 Risk Factors for Testicular Cancer: Environment, Genes and Infections—Is It All?
    https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/724
    Overall, three possible pathogenic mechanisms have been hypothesized starting from the identification of these involved loci. […] Testicular cancer represents a particular example of the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. […] The relative rarity of the condition has limited the possibility to perform large linkage studies as well as investigate several modifiable factors such as drugs and diet. […] A comprehensive approach that takes into account both epidemiologic and genetic risk factors is necessary to accurately assess individual risks of developing testicular cancer.
  • #2 Risks and causes of testicular cancer | Cancer Research UK
    https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/testicular-cancer/risks-causes
    We don’t know what causes most cases of testicular cancer. But there are some factors that may increase your risk of developing it. […] There is an increased risk of testicular cancer in people with undescended testicles. […] If left untreated, GCNIS can develop into cancer within 5 years in about 50 out of 100 (about 50%) of the men who have it. […] Brothers or sons of men who have had testicular cancer have an increased risk of getting this cancer. […] If you have had testicular cancer already, there is a small increased risk of developing cancer in the other testicle. […] Men who are born with an abnormality of the penis and urethra have an increased risk of developing testicular cancer. […] People with HIV or AIDS have an increased risk of testicular cancer. […] In the UK, white men have a higher risk of testicular cancer than men from other ethnic groups.
  • #2 Testicular Cancer: Early Signs, Stages, Causes, Symptoms,Diagnosis, and Latest Research in 2025 – OncoDaily
    https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/testicular-cancer
    Additionally, smoking is a well-established risk factor, particularly for non-seminomatous germ cell tumors. Carcinogens in tobacco smoke can damage DNA in testicular cells, and even exposure to secondhand smoke may contribute to an elevated risk, especially in younger individuals who are more susceptible to environmental toxins. Dietary habits and body weight also play a significant role in testicular cancer risk. Diets high in saturated fats, especially from animal sources, can influence hormone levels and may contribute to cancer development, while a low intake of fruits and vegetables deprives the body of antioxidants that protect against oxidative stress and inflammation. […] Obesity, particularly during adolescence, is another emerging risk factor, as excess body fat can disrupt hormonal balance and create an environment that promotes tumor growth. While ongoing research continues to refine our understanding of these risk factors, maintaining a healthy diet, avoiding exposure to harmful chemicals, and eliminating tobacco use may help reduce the risk of developing testicular cancer.
  • #2 What Is Testicular Cancer? | UCLA Medical School
    https://medschool.ucla.edu/news-article/testicular-cancer-symptoms-treatment-and-causes
    Testicular cancer risk factors include: Abnormal Testicle Development: Men who have a condition called cryptorchidism where one or both testicles fail to descend into the scrotum during fetal development have a higher risk of testicular cancer. […] „Testicular cancer does have a tendency to run in families. So if a person has a father or a brother with a history of testicular cancer history, their chances of it are increased,” says Dr. Litwin. „And it’s a good idea to get extra checkups by a primary doctor or urologist.” […] Important note: Having one or more of these risk factors does not necessarily mean that a man will develop testicular cancer. On the flip side, many men who develop the disease have no known risk factors.
  • #3 Testicular Cancer: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/279007-overview
    Primary testicular tumors are the most common solid malignant tumor in men 20 to 35 years of age in the United States. For unknown reasons, the incidence of this cancer principally, testicular seminomas increased during the last century. Germ cell cancers account for more than 90% of all testicular cancers. […] The cause of testicular cancer is not known. The characteristic genetic change found is an isochromosome of the short arm of chromosome 12 [i(12p)], which is often seen in sporadic cancers. This suggests that genes in this region are important in the development of germ cell tumors. A number of other genes that have a relatively weak effect are also involved in the development of testicular cancer. […] That genetic factors have a role in the development of testicular cancer is shown by the fact that the risk for the disease is higher in first-degree relatives of cancer patients than in the general population. About 2% of testicular cancer patients report having an affected relative. Siblings are at particularly increased risk, with a relative risk of 810. For sons of affected men, the relative risk is 46. […] Epidemiologic observations have suggested that environmental factors are instrumental in determining risk for testicular cancers. However, epidemiologic evidence does not consistently support any specific risk factor.

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aneuploidia niepłodność męska izochromosom 12p zmiana DNA wazektomia bezpłodność dysgenezja jąder kryptorchidyzm nowotwór złośliwy zespół dysgenezji jąder zespół Klinefeltera GCNIS polichlorowane bifenyle zespół niewrażliwości na androgeny metale ciężkie niezstąpione jądro onkogen komórki rozrodcze zespół Downa spodziectwo żółtaczka noworodkowa czynnik genetyczny rak jądra gen supresorowy guza