Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7134569/

  This paper is the first in a three-part series on preterm birth, which is the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality in developed countries. […] Common reasons for indicated preterm births include pre-eclampsia or eclampsia, and intrauterine growth restriction. […] Births that follow spontaneous preterm labour and PPROM together called spontaneous preterm births are regarded as a syndrome resulting from multiple causes, including infection or inflammation, vascular disease, and uterine overdistension. […] Risk factors for spontaneous preterm births include a previous preterm birth, black race, periodontal disease, and low maternal body-mass index. […] A short cervical length and a raised cervical-vaginal fetal fibronectin concentration are the strongest predictors of spontaneous preterm birth.

• #1 Preterm birth – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterm_birth

  Preterm birth may be prevented in those at risk if the hormone progesterone is taken during pregnancy. […] The exact cause of spontaneous preterm birth is difficult to determine and it may be caused by many different factors at the same time as labor is a complex process. […] Four different pathways have been identified that can result in preterm birth and have considerable evidence: precocious fetal endocrine activation, uterine overdistension (placental abruption), decidual bleeding, and intrauterine inflammation or infection. […] Risk factors in the mother have been identified that are linked to a higher risk of a preterm birth. These include age (either very young or older), high or low body mass index (BMI), length of time between pregnancies, endometriosis, previous spontaneous (i.e., miscarriage) or surgical abortions, unintended pregnancies, untreated or undiagnosed celiac disease, fertility difficulties, heat exposure, and genetic variables.

• #1 Causes of preterm birth – O&G Magazine

  https://www.ogmagazine.org.au/21/1-21/causes-spontaneous-preterm-birth/

  Preterm birth (PTB) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the developed world and affects 518 per cent of births globally. Spontaneous preterm labour (PTL) is the cause of 4050 per cent of total preterm births with a further 2030 per cent due to premature rupture of membranes (PROM) precipitating labour. The remaining 2030 per cent of births are clinician initiated, due to maternal or fetal issues that complicate the pregnancy. […] Spontaneous preterm birth is hypothesised to be via one of the following four pathways: […] Premature activation of the maternal or fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis […] Exaggerated inflammatory response or infection […] Decidual haemorrhage […] Pathological uterine distention. […] Chronic maternal medical disorders are frequently associated with maternal or fetal complications causing medically indicated PTB as well as an increased risk for spontaneous PTB.

• #1 Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7134569/

  Microbiological studies suggest that intrauterine infection might account for 25-40% of preterm births; however, 25-40% might be a minimum estimate because intrauterine infection is difficult to detect with conventional culture techniques. […] Accumulating evidence suggests that intra-amniotic infection is a chronic process. […] The microorganisms most commonly reported in the amniotic cavity are genital Mycoplasma spp, and, specifically, Ureaplasma urealyticum, but many other organisms have been identified. […] Intrauterine infection can be confined to the decidua, extend to the space between the amnion and chorion, and reach the amniotic cavity and the fetus. […] Bacterial vaginosis is defined by a change in the microbial ecosystem of the vagina and has been associated with a 15-fold to 3-fold increase in the rate of preterm birth.

• #1 Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7134569/

  Preterm labour is now thought to be a syndrome initiated by multiple mechanisms, including infection or inflammation, uteroplacental ischaemia or haemorrhage, uterine overdistension, stress, and other immunologically mediated processes. […] An increasing number of risk factors are thought to interact to cause a transition from uterine quiescence toward preterm labour or PPROM. […] There is a raised risk of preterm birth in pregnancies arising within close temporal proximity to a previous delivery. […] Nutritional status during pregnancy can be described by indicators of body size such as body-mass index (BMI), nutritional intake, and serum assessments for various analytes. […] Intrauterine infection is a frequent and important mechanism leading to preterm birth. […] The mechanisms by which intrauterine infections lead to preterm labour are related to activation of the innate immune system.

• #1 Preterm Birth: Premature, Causes, Symptoms & Complications

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21479-premature-birth

  Premature births can happen suddenly, with no one cause. […] Women can also go into premature labor due to: Chronic health conditions, such as diabetes or heart disease. […] Placental conditions like placental abruption or placenta previa. […] Preeclampsia. […] Expecting multiples. About 60% of twins and triplets are born prematurely. […] Problems with the uterus or cervix. […] Vaginal bleeding or infections during pregnancy. […] Using substances like drugs and alcohol or smoking during pregnancy. […] You may be at an increased risk for a premature birth if you: Are Black or Hispanic. […] Are expecting multiples (twins, triplets or more). […] Are under the age of 17 or over the age of 35. […] Have a family or personal history of preterm births. […] Smoke, drink alcohol or use other substances while pregnant.

• #1 Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7134569/

  The mechanism by which bacterial vaginosis is associated with preterm birth is unknown, but microorganisms that cause the infection probably ascend into the uterus before or early during pregnancy. […] Several non-genital tract infections, such as pyelonephritis and asymptomatic bacteriuria, pneumonia, and appendicitis, are associated with, and probably predispose to, preterm birth. […] Periodontal disease has received widespread scrutiny with some case-control studies suggesting an increased risk independent of other factors. […] Intrauterine infection is a frequent and important mechanism leading to preterm birth.

• #1 What are the causes of premature (preterm) birth? | Tommy’sCloseleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowCloseReconfirm cookies choice

  https://www.tommys.org/pregnancy-information/premature-birth/causes-of-premature-birth

  If your baby has FGR, you are more likely to have pregnancy complications. […] If you have ICP your baby is more likely to be born prematurely. […] Spontaneous preterm birth is often linked with infection and inflammation. […] Urinary tract infections (UTIs) can increase the risk of pregnancy complications including premature birth. […] If you become pregnant in your teens or early 20s or over the age of 40, there is a higher risk of premature birth than for people between those ages. […] In England and Wales, babies in the Black ethnic group are the most likely to be born prematurely. […] Being underweight in pregnancy makes it more likely that you will have a spontaneous preterm birth. Being overweight makes it more likely that you will give birth prematurely, usually because of pregnancy complications leading to a planned preterm birth.

• #1 What are the causes of premature (preterm) birth? | Tommy’sCloseleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowCloseReconfirm cookies choice

  https://www.tommys.org/pregnancy-information/premature-birth/causes-of-premature-birth

  Placental abruption is when the placenta starts to come away from the inside of the womb. It increases the risk of premature birth. […] Polyhydramnios is when there is too much of it. Complications are rare but can include premature birth. […] Depending on the type and severity, it can increase the risk of premature birth. […] Bleeding in the first trimester of pregnancy increases the risk of preterm birth compared to people who don’t have bleeding. […] Sometimes the neck of the womb (the cervix) shortens and opens too soon in pregnancy. This is called having a weak cervix, or cervical incompetence or cervical insufficiency. It can lead to your baby being born prematurely. […] If you are pregnant with more than 1 baby they are more likely to be born prematurely. […] This is called twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS). It increases the risk of preterm birth.

• #1 Premature birth causes: What to know

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-premature-birth

  Substances such as alcohol and legal and illegal drugs pass through the placenta easily and can cause severe health complications to the fetus, some of which may be life threatening. This may result in premature birth or a complication that requires a doctor to induce labor early. […] Certain abnormalities in the uterus or cervix may increase the risk of premature birth. These include: If a pregnant person has an unusually shaped womb, such as a unicornuate uterus with one fallopian tube, they may be at increased risk of premature birth. A cervix may weaken and become unable to hold the fetus, which can result in premature birth. With this condition, the placenta obstructs the cervix, which can lead to hemorrhage. Placenta previa can be life threatening for the parent and fetus and may require a doctor to induce a preterm birth.

• #1 Cerebral Palsy from Premature Birth | Michigan Cerebral Palsy Attorneys

  https://www.michigancerebralpalsyattorneys.com/causes-and-risk-factors-of-cerebral-palsy/labor-and-delivery-problems/premature-birth/

  For this reason, it is important that medical professionals quickly prevent, diagnose, and treat the injuries and conditions associated with preterm birth. […] An incompetent (or insufficient) cervix is a serious medical condition that occurs when weak cervical tissues contribute to a miscarriage or premature birth. […] Growing pressures on the cervix during pregnancy cause it to open early, and the condition is thought to cause as many as 20%-25% of premature deliveries in the second trimester. […] Carrying more than one fetus during a pregnancy often heightens the risk for premature birth. […] A reduction of progesterone levels results in early labor or miscarriage. […] Early rupture of the amniotic sac results in nearly 4% of all preterm births. […] Physicians are obligated to carefully evaluate and test for factors that may lead to preterm birth and to closely monitor patients that show risk. […] Failure to properly assess and test for the risks factors, causes, signs, and symptoms of premature birth. […] Failure to diagnose and treat maternal or fetal conditions or infections that lead to preterm birth.

• #1 Causes and risk factors of Premature birth

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/prematurity/causes-and-risk-factors

  Approximately 1 in every 10 pregnant women will have a premature labour. […] In Spain, the prevalence is around 6-7% but in countries like the USA more than 12% of childbirths are preterm. […] This is caused, among other reasons, by the increase in assisted reproduction techniques, as well as the age of the pregnant women, which have consequences including a greater percentage of multiple gestations and more labours induced before week 37 due to maternal or foetal complications. […] The main risk factors for premature labour are summarised below: […] Women with a history of premature labour prior to week 34. This is the most important risk factor. The number of premature labours and the gestational age at which the preterm babies were born points to risk in the new pregnancy. […] Uterine factors. Uterine surgery, such as conisation or trachelectomy; uterine malformations, such as a septal or bicornuate uterus; myomas that deform the endometrial cavity.

• #1 Preterm Labor: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4498-premature-labor

  Age and race risk factors for preterm labor include: You’re younger than 17 or older than 35. You’re Black. […] Lifestyle risk factors for preterm labor include: Lack of prenatal care. You’re underweight or overweight before pregnancy. You don’t gain enough weight during pregnancy. You consume a poor diet. You smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol or use illegal drugs. You have a physically demanding job where you stand for several hours a day or work long hours. You’re highly stressed or anxious. You’re exposed to teratogens like chemicals, lead, radiation or other harmful substances. […] Medical risk factors for preterm labor include: Untreated vaginal infections (urinary tract infections, sexually transmitted infections or other uterine or vaginal infections). Connective tissue disorders like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (also called EDS). Placental problems like placental abruption or placenta previa. Too much amniotic fluid (polyhydramnios) or too little amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios). You have a short cervix or irregularly shaped uterus (like septate uterus or bicornuate uterus). You’ve had prior surgeries on your cervix or uterus. You have a medical condition like diabetes, high blood pressure or blood clotting disorders. You have intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (also called ICP), a liver condition that happens during pregnancy.

• #1 Premature birth causes: What to know

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-premature-birth

  A pregnant person carrying more than one fetus at a time has a higher risk of premature birth. According to a 2018 article, half of all twin pregnancies result in premature birth before 37 weeks, and 10% of people pregnant with twins give birth before 32 weeks of pregnancy. […] Several pregnancy complications may lead to premature birth. With certain complications, doctors often induce labor to cause premature birth and minimize risk to the parent and fetus. Examples of complications include: High blood pressure in pregnancy can be life threatening. Severe cases may necessitate the induction of premature birth. Infections may affect the health of the parent and the fetus and can weaken the lining of the amniotic sac. Infections that may cause premature birth include: sexually transmitted infections (STIs), urinary tract infections (UTIs), trichomoniasis, bacterial vaginosis. In FGR, a fetus is smaller than average and can develop various health complications. Fetuses with FGR are at higher risk of premature birth. Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that may occur during pregnancy. It can cause various health complications in the parent and fetus. In placental abruption, the placenta separates from the uterus lining too soon. This can cause premature birth and various health complications for the fetus and parent. Polyhydramnios occurs when too much amniotic fluid surrounds the fetus, possibly causing early labor. PPROM is when a persons water breaks too soon before labor. If this happens, a doctor may need to induce early labor. In pregnancies where twins share a placenta, there may be an imbalance of blood supply between the fetuses. This liver disorder may cause bile to build up in the body. ICP may lead to premature birth and can cause stillbirth.

• #1 What are the causes of premature (preterm) birth? | Tommy’sCloseleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowCloseReconfirm cookies choice

  https://www.tommys.org/pregnancy-information/premature-birth/causes-of-premature-birth

  Premature birth, also called preterm birth, is when a baby is born before 37 weeks of pregnancy. […] Most of the time, premature births happen spontaneously (naturally) and often doctors will not know why. Researchers at Tommy’s National Centre for Preterm Birth Research are working to find out more about the causes of premature birth and how to prevent it. […] Some things are known to increase the risk of preterm birth, so you may be told that you have a higher risk of giving birth prematurely. They include your past pregnancy history, your medical history and you and your baby’s health in this pregnancy. […] If you’ve given birth preterm before, you are more likely to give birth early again. […] This puts you at a higher risk of giving birth preterm, especially if you have placenta praevia.

• #1 Causes of Preterm Labour – Miracle Babies

  https://www.miraclebabies.org.au/causes-of-preterm-labour

  Placental insufficiency: This condition can prevent the baby from gaining essential nourishment. […] Pre-eclampsia: A complication of pregnancy where hypertension, high blood pressure, occurs in conjunction with high levels of protein in the urine and oedema. […] Preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM): A condition which occurs in pregnancy when the amniotic sac spontaneously ruptures before the onset of labour. […] Previous premature birth: Women who have had a premature delivery previously have an increased chance of having another pre-term delivery. […] Serious or an existing medical condition and other reasons: Conditions such as rhesus negative blood group, gestational diabetes, diabetes, kidney disease and high blood pressure can all affect a developing baby. […] Twin-to-twin Transfusion Syndrome (TTTS): A complication where two or more foetuses share a common placenta and associated with high morbidity and mortality.

• #1 Causes of preterm birth – O&G Magazine

  https://www.ogmagazine.org.au/21/1-21/causes-spontaneous-preterm-birth/

  Smoking is clearly identified to place a women at risk of preterm birth. […] Recommending women to space pregnancy intervals to at least 18 months and providing affordable access to effective contraception immediately postpartum has been shown to decrease the risk of subsequent PTB. […] Exercise and its effect on pregnancy has been the subject of much research in recent years. Exercising in pregnancy has been shown to be protective in lowering rates of PTB and this is attributed to the exerciser effect (that is, healthy women who are at less risk of preterm birth are more likely to continue to exercise in pregnancy). […] The association of first-trimester bleeding with preterm delivery before 34 weeks is related to either decidual haemorrhage causing rupture of membranes and PTB or iatrogenic resulting from of placental disease including PET, abruption, intrauterine growth restriction.

• #1 What are the causes of premature (preterm) birth? | Tommy’sCloseleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowCloseReconfirm cookies choice

  https://www.tommys.org/pregnancy-information/premature-birth/causes-of-premature-birth

  Most people with gestational diabetes have healthy pregnancies and healthy babies. But they are also more likely to give birth prematurely. […] Antiphospholipid syndrome or APS, sometimes called Hughes syndrome, is an immune system disorder that increases your risk of blood clots. It can cause pregnancy complications including premature birth due to problems with the placenta linked to blood flow or eclampsia/pre-eclampsia. […] If you have pre-eclampsia, you’ll probably be advised to have your baby at about 37 weeks but it could be earlier if your healthcare team is concerned about you or your baby. […] Preterm prelabour rupture of membranes (PPROM) is when your waters break before 37 weeks of pregnancy but you haven’t yet gone into labour. If this happens you have an increased risk of giving birth prematurely.

• #1 Preterm labor – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/preterm-labor/symptoms-causes/syc-20376842

  Preterm labor can result in a baby being born before 37 weeks of pregnancy. […] The cause of preterm labor often isn’t clear. Certain risk factors can raise the chance of preterm labor. But preterm labor can happen with no known risk factors. […] Preterm labor can affect any pregnancy. But many factors can raise the risk of preterm labor. They include the following. […] Preterm labor or premature birth in an earlier pregnancy. The risk is greater if this happened in the most recent pregnancy or in more than one pregnancy. […] Certain infections. This is mainly true of infections of the amniotic fluid and lower genital tract. […] Some ongoing conditions, called chronic conditions. These include high blood pressure, diabetes, autoimmune disease and depression. […] Pregnancy with twins, triplets or other multiples. […] Pregnancy before age 17 or after age 35. […] Certain conditions that are ongoing, also called chronic, may raise the risk for preterm labor. Examples include diabetes, high blood pressure and obesity.

• #1 Premature birth – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/premature-birth/symptoms-causes/syc-20376730

  A premature birth means a baby is born too early. The birth takes place before the 37th week of pregnancy. […] Often, the exact cause of premature birth isn’t clear. But certain things can raise the risk. […] Some risk factors linked to past and present pregnancies include: Pregnancy with twins, triplets or other multiples. […] Some health problems can raise the risk of premature birth, such as: Problems with the uterus, cervix or placenta. […] Lifestyle choices also can raise the risk of a preterm pregnancy, such as: Smoking cigarettes, taking illicit drugs or drinking alcohol often or heavily while pregnant. […] For unknown reasons, Black and Native people in the United States are more likely to have premature births than are women of other races. But premature birth can happen to anyone. In fact, many preterm births have no known risk factors. […] The exact cause of preterm birth is often unknown. But some things can be done to help lower the risk of preterm birth, including: Taking progesterone supplements.

• #1 Preterm labor and preterm birth: Are you at risk? | March of Dimes

  https://www.marchofdimes.org/find-support/topics/birth/preterm-labor-and-preterm-birth-are-you-risk

  We dont always know what causes preterm labor and preterm birth. We do know certain risk factors may make you more likely to give birth early. […] We do know some things may make you more likely than others to have preterm labor and preterm birth. These are called risk factors. Having a risk factor doesnt mean for sure that youll have preterm labor or give birth early. But it may increase your chances. […] Because many preterm babies are born with low birthweight, many risk factors for preterm labor and preterm birth are the same as for having a low-birthweight baby. […] These three risk factors make you most likely to have preterm labor and give birth early: Youve had a preterm baby in the past. […] Medical risk factors before pregnancy for preterm labor and preterm birth include having a family history of preterm birth.

• #1 A profile of prematurity of United States | PeriStats | March of Dimes

  https://www.marchofdimes.org/peristats/reports/united-states/prematurity-profile

  Birth spacing of less than 18 months increases the risk of preterm birth and other adverse outcomes. […] While obesity does not directly cause preterm birth, it does increase rates of medical complications (e.g., hypertension, diabetes) that contribute to preterm birth. […] Other factors contributing to preterm birth include: infection (especially genito-urinary), diabetes mellitus, hypertension, late or no prenatal care, alcohol and illicit drug use, and social determinants of health. […] Preterm birth, along with low birth weight babies, make up the second leading cause of infant deaths after birth defects. Health consequences of preterm birth include developmental delays, chronic respiratory problems and vision and hearing impairment. […] When causes of death related to preterm birth are grouped together, preterm-related causes account for 35.8% of infant deaths in United States.

• #1 Preterm Birth: Causes, Symptoms, Complications & Treatment

  https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/preterm-birth-causes-signs-risks-and-treatment/

  If the mother has had miscarriages previously in the early stages of pregnancy, they could be indicative of premature birth for the current one. […] The early breaking of the water is a strong sign as well. […] If the mother has grown up in a violent family or has faced domestic violence, the chances of premature birth are slightly higher. […] Any woman with a history of smoking and drug abuse is known to face preterm labour. […] If the mothers job involves long and arduous physical work, even during pregnancy, then the risk of premature delivery increase threefold. […] Being underweight or overweight can further increase the risk of complications, including preterm labour.

• #1 Causes of premature labour

  https://www2.hse.ie/pregnancy-birth/labour/premature-labour/causes/

  The reasons for premature labour are usually not known. […] There’s a greater risk of premature labour if you’ve previously had: a premature labour, a late miscarriage (miscarriage at between 12 and 24 weeks), treatment to remove part of your cervix (the neck of your womb). […] If you’re at risk of premature labour, you may be offered some treatments to prevent your cervix from opening too early. […] These treatments depend on your circumstances.

• #1 Preterm Birth | Maternal Infant Health | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/maternal-infant-health/preterm-birth/index.html

  Preterm birth is when a baby is born too early, before 37 weeks of pregnancy have been completed. […] Many times we do not know what causes women to deliver their babies early. Several factors may increase the likelihood that a woman could deliver early. […] Preventing preterm birth remains a challenge because causes may not always be well understood. […] Women who conceive through in vitro fertilization (IVF) or another assisted reproductive technology (ART) are at higher risk for preterm birth.

• #1 Premature birth causes: What to know

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-premature-birth

  In many cases, doctors and scientists do not know why premature birth occurs. A complex combination of biological, medical, and psychosocial factors may contribute to the occurrence and cause a spontaneous premature birth. […] Various risk factors may contribute to the likelihood of premature birth. These include: People younger than 18 and older than 35 are at higher risk of giving birth prematurely. People living in a low income setting or household are more likely to experience premature birth. Stress may lead to health complications such as high blood pressure, which may contribute to premature birth. African American, Alaskan Native, and American Indian pregnant people are more likely than white or Hispanic pregnant people to give birth prematurely. This may be due to certain socioeconomic factors, such as the below. These may include: lack of healthcare access or racial discrimination in care, domestic violence, including physical, sexual, or emotional abuse, lack of social support, long working hours with long periods of standing, exposure to environmental pollutants that may be harmful to health.

• #1 What are the causes of premature (preterm) birth? | Tommy’sCloseleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowleft-arrowCloseReconfirm cookies choice

  https://www.tommys.org/pregnancy-information/premature-birth/causes-of-premature-birth

  Some research suggests that stress during pregnancy may increase the risk of premature birth. […] Drinking alcohol in pregnancy increases the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth and premature birth. […] Smoking is harmful to you and your baby. It increases the risk of problems including preterm birth. […] Using recreational, street or illegal drugs can increase the risk of premature birth.

• #1 Premature Labor: View Causes, Symptoms and Treatments | 1mg

  https://www.1mg.com/diseases/premature-labor-247?srsltid=AfmBOoo6xI4TGKk2e00KLvm0EM7EuTqa8HGYQMG9eUSUZ-K-N7Gkui0Z

  For women who consumed seven or more drinks per week, the relative risk of very premature delivery is increased by many folds as compared to non-drinking women. […] Research has found that disruption in the 24-hour circadian rhythm (internal clock in the brain that regulates the cycles of alertness and sleepiness) increases the risk of miscarriages, preterm birth, and low birth weights. […] Research has found a significant relationship between exposure to air pollution and preterm birth, particularly if the pollutants are sulfur dioxide. […] Stress seems to increase the risk of preterm birth as it leads to high blood pressure during pregnancy. The high blood pressure further puts at risk of preeclampsia, and premature birth. […] Lack of social support aggravates mental stress, anxiety, and depression in a female sometimes leading to premature labor. […] Many studies have shown that women facing issues of physical, sexual, or emotional abuse are at a doubled risk of preterm labor and low birth weight infants.

• #1

  https://www.healthshare.com.au/questions/2235-what-causes-premature-birth/

  Preterm labour can be caused by a multitude of factors, some preventable, or modifiable, while some cannot be changed. […] Smoking has been directly linked with preterm birth. The risk has been found to increase the more you smoke. Babies of women who smoke are about 60% more likely to have a preterm baby. […] Alcohol in high levels, alcohol has been found to increase the risk of premature birth. However, alcohol should be avoided in pregnancy. No safe level in pregnancy has been identified. Alcohol has also been linked with abnormalities in babies. […] Many drugs, both legal and illegal, have been shown to contribute to premature birth. These include caffeine in large amounts, amphetamines, heroin and a variety of over-the-counter and herbal preparations. […] Women who are overweight have an increased risk of developing complications of pregnancy. Many of these complications increase the risk of premature delivery of the baby.

• #1 Preterm Birth: Premature, Causes, Symptoms & Complications

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21479-premature-birth

  Are underweight before pregnancy or don’t gain enough weight during pregnancy. […] A premature baby doesn’t have enough time to fully develop. […] This can cause serious health problems. […] Some of the most common health conditions that affect premature babies are: Anemia, or not having enough healthy red blood cells. […] Apnea of prematurity, or temporary pauses in breathing. […] Bronchopulmonary dysplasia, respiratory distress syndrome or underdeveloped lungs. […] Intraventricular hemorrhage, or bleeding in their brains. […] Newborn jaundice or hyperbilirubinemia, which means there are high levels of bilirubin in their blood. […] Necrotizing enterocolitis, or inflammation of their intestines. […] Neonatal sepsis, or blood infection. […] Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), or abnormal blood flow in their hearts.

• #1 Preterm Labor and Birth: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology and Risk Factors

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/260998-overview

  Preterm birth, defined as birth between 20 0/7 and 36 6/7 weeks of gestation, is the leading cause of neonatal mortality in nonanomalous fetuses and is the leading cause of long-term neurodevelopmental impairment. […] It is estimated that 15 million preterm births occur globally each year. […] Despite considerable investment in research and strategies to prevent preterm birth, little impact has been made on this goal, and there have not been substantial changes in the rates of preterm birth over the past decade. […] Preterm birth may be spontaneous or medically indicated. […] In spontaneous preterm birth (representing approximately two-thirds of preterm births), painful contractions and progressive cervical effacement and dilation lead to early delivery, whereas in medically indicated preterm birth, the patient is delivered early due to complications of pregnancy or medical conditions in which the risk to the mother or fetus of continuing with the pregnancy is greater than the risk of delivery at that gestational age.

• #1 Premature Birth Creates Emotional Challenges

  https://preeclampsia.org/the-news/community-support/premature-birth-creates-emotional-challenges

  about 380,000 babies are born prematurely each year. The preterm birth rate (the percent of babies born before 37 weeks each year) is 9.8 percent in the United States. This means 1 in 10 babies is born too soon. The U.S. preterm birth rate is among the worst of high-resource nations. […] Preeclampsia is a leading known cause of premature birth, contributing to about 1/5 of all premature deliveries. For many members of our community, time spent at the side of an incubator is a major part of their preeclampsia story. Premature birth is also a leading cause of infant loss, especially where preeclampsia is concerned. […] When a mother develops preeclampsia before her baby is mature, doctors must weigh the relative risks to the mother and baby of continuing the pregnancy against the risks to the baby of a preterm birth.

• #1 Premature birth | Definition, Causes, & Health Effects | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/premature-birth

  premature birth, in humans, any birth that occurs less than 37 weeks after conception. A full-term pregnancy lasts anywhere from 37 to 42 weeks. […] About 40 to 60 percent of premature births can be attributed to conditions such as multiple pregnancy, preeclampsia (maternal pregnancy-induced hypertension), abnormal attachment of the placenta, or congenital malformation of the infant. Poor maternal health, hygiene, and nutrition increase the likelihood of prematurity; maternal accidents and acute illness are insignificant as causes. Genetics may play a role as well. For example, variations (polymorphisms) in a gene known as FSHR (follicle stimulating hormone receptor) are thought to be associated with premature birth. […] Prematurity is to be distinguished from intrauterine growth retardation, in which weight and development are subnormal for fetal age. An estimated 1.5 to 2 percent of all babies are significantly below a birth weight proper to their fetal age. Deficiency of transplacental nutrition from various causes is frequently responsible. Other causes include fetal infections and some malformations.

• #1 Understanding the Causes of Preterm Birth | PreTRM®

  https://www.pretrm.com/about-preterm-birth/

  Preterm birth also called premature birth is a pregnancy complication affecting one in ten U.S. pregnancies. […] Premature birth can occur spontaneously known as spontaneous preterm birth (sPTB) or because of a medical intervention known as medically indicated preterm birth (miPTB). […] Sometimes, a preterm delivery is initiated by a physician because of certain risks to the mother or infant. Common reasons for miPTB include: Preeclampsia or eclampsia, Abnormal placental attachment to the uterine wall, Maternal illness, Intrauterine growth restriction, Hydrops (fetal swelling), Fetal heart rate abnormalities. […] Preterm birth is the most prevalent medical challenge facing pregnant mothers in the U.S. […] Preterm birth affects more than 1 in 10 U.S. pregnancies. […] Not all premature babies develop complications. However, preterm birth can cause a range of health problems. […] Preterm birth is the leading cause of U.S. newborn mortality. 34.2% of newborn deaths are attributed to preterm birth.

• #1 Preterm birth – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preterm_birth

  Medications during pregnancy, living conditions, air pollution, smoking, illicit drugs or alcohol, infection, or physical trauma may also cause a preterm birth. […] The frequency of infection in preterm birth is inversely related to the gestational age. Infectious microorganisms can be ascending, hematogenous, iatrogenic by a procedure, or retrograde through the fallopian tubes. […] There is believed to be a maternal genetic component in preterm birth. Estimated heritability of timing-of-birth in women was 34%. However, the occurrence of preterm birth in families does not follow a clear inheritance pattern, thus supporting the idea that preterm birth is a non-Mendelian trait with a polygenic nature. […] The absence of prenatal care has been associated with higher rates of preterm births.

• #1 Premature birth: causes, consequences and prevention | CURAPROX

  https://curaprox.in/blog/post/what-is-a-premature-birth-can-it-be-avoided-what-are-the-consequences?srsltid=AfmBOooih_K6m5GLZDlqlABO_4jM_AVhu6wykV0E-whUeZiuodaKb9uH

  Age can also be a risk factor: Women under 18 or over 35 have an increased risk of premature birth. […] Severe stress can trigger premature labour and thus lead to a premature birth. […] In fact, there appears to be a hereditary component to the risk of premature birth: Women who were either born prematurely themselves or have a sibling who was born prematurely have a 50 to 60 per cent higher risk of premature birth.

• #1 Causes Of Premature Birth | World Prematurity Day 2024

  https://heritagehospitals.com/blog/causes-of-premature-birth/

  Lifestyle choices during pregnancy significantly impact the risk of premature birth: Smoking: Exposes the fetus to harmful chemicals, reduces oxygen supply, and increases the risk of placental problems and preterm labor. […] Certain complications during pregnancy can directly lead to premature birth: Multiple Pregnancies: Carrying twins or multiples increases the likelihood of preterm labor due to increased uterine stretching. […] Identifying premature birth risk factors helps in providing extra care to pregnancies that may be at higher risk. Key factors include genetic influences, previous premature births, maternal age, and socioeconomic conditions. […] Genetics can contribute to the likelihood of preterm birth. Variations in certain genes affecting inflammatory responses and uterine function may predispose women to early labor.

• #1 Premature labour and birth – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/labour-and-birth/signs-of-labour/premature-labour-and-birth/

  You may be offered treatment to prevent early labour if you’ve given birth at less than 34 weeks pregnant before. […] The length of your cervix will also be measured, as having a cervix that is shorter than 25mm has been linked to a higher risk of early labour and birth. […] Babies born before full term (before 37 weeks) are vulnerable to problems associated with being born premature. The earlier in the pregnancy a baby is born, the more vulnerable they are. […] Twins and triplets are often born prematurely.

• #1 Premature birth causes: What to know

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-premature-birth

  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) point out that preventing preterm birth remains challenging because the causes are complex and poorly understood. However, a person may be able to take steps to help prevent premature birth in some cases by: eating a healthy diet, avoiding smoking, where applicable, avoiding alcohol and substance misuse, attending ultrasounds, attending a minimum of eight appointments with health professionals, starting before 12 weeks of pregnancy. […] There are various potential causes of premature birth. Doctors and scientists often do not know why premature birth occurs. However, contributing factors may include chronic health conditions, multiple pregnancies, and pregnancy complications. Risk factors include factors such as age, ethnicity, and other socioeconomic factors. Regular contact with health professionals and a healthy lifestyle may help prevent premature birth.

• #1 Preterm Labor: What Are the Causes & Symptoms? | University of Utah Health

  https://healthcare.utah.edu/womens-health/pregnancy-birth/preterm-birth/preterm-labor-causes-symptoms

  Possible causes of preterm birth include the following: maternal or fetal stress, infection or inflammation, vaginal bleeding that comes from inside your uterus, and overdistention of the uterus (Overdistention usually happens to women whove had twins or triplets or excess amniotic fluid during labor.) […] Infections During Pregnancy: When a woman has a spontaneous preterm birth at a very early gestational age (between 20 and 32 weeks gestation) the most common reason is infection or inflammation. […] In some cases, bacteria or viruses can cause an infection in your uterus, vagina, bladder, or some other part of your body. This can cause preterm birth. […] But some preterm deliveries happen when the mother has an abnormal or inflammatory response to normal vaginal or cervical bacteria. Even infection or inflammation in a moms gums and teeth (called periodontal disease) can cause preterm birth.

• #1 Premature infant: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001562.htm

  Other factors that increase the risk for preterm labor and a premature delivery include: Age of the mother (mothers who are younger than 16 or older than 35); Being African American; Lack of prenatal care; Low socioeconomic status; Use of tobacco, cocaine, or amphetamines. […] Prematurity can have long-term effects. Many premature infants have medical, developmental, or behavioral problems that continue into childhood or are permanent. The more premature the baby is and the smaller their birth weight is, the greater the risk for complications. However, it is impossible to predict a baby’s long-term outcome based on gestational age or birth weight. […] The best ways to prevent prematurity are to: Be in good health before getting pregnant; Get prenatal care as early as possible in the pregnancy; Continue to get prenatal care until the baby is born. Getting early and good prenatal care reduces the chance of premature birth. […] Premature labor can sometimes be treated or delayed by a medicine that blocks uterine contractions. Many times, however, attempts to delay premature labor are not successful.

• #1 Causes and risk factors of Premature birth

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/prematurity/causes-and-risk-factors

  Smokers have a greater risk of premature labour and delayed intrauterine foetal growth. […] Lower socioeconomic and educational levels, and psychosocial factors such as stress or depression, slightly increase the risk of prematurity. […] Although most of the time we do not know the ultimate cause of premature labour, there are a series of recommendations that can help reduce the risk of suffering this in a new pregnancy. […] Initial evaluation in a specialist Prematurity Unit to improve the obstetric result of the pregnancy. […] If there is a history of prematurity, it is recommended that there is a period between childbirth and a new pregnancy of at least 12 months. […] Quitting smoking and avoiding consumption of toxins before, or at any point in the pregnancy. […] Correction of nutritional shortfalls and anaemia. […] Omega-3 fatty acid supplements. […] Probiotics. The consumption of dairy products rich in probiotics could reduce the risk of premature labour due to their action on the vaginal flora and the prevention of bacterial vaginosis.

• #1 Summary | Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention | The National Academies Press

  https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/11622/chapter/2

  The persistent and troubling problem of preterm birth prompted the Institute of Medicine (IOM) to convene a committee, the Committee on Understanding Premature Birth and Assuring Healthy Outcomes, to assess the current state of the science on the causes and broad consequences of preterm birth. […] An IOM committee will define and address the health related and economic consequences of premature birth. […] The complexity of interrelated biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors that are involved in preterm birth necessitates a multidisciplinary approach to research directed at understanding its etiologies, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. […] It is clear that the causes of preterm labor are multifactorial and vary according to gestational age. […] The potential risk of preterm birth as a result of exposures to environmental pollutants is poorly understood. […] Funding agencies should be committed to sustained and vigorous support for research on the etiologies of preterm birth to fill critical knowledge gaps.

• #1 Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20669423/

  In 2004, 12.5 percent of births in the United States were preterm; that is, born at less than 37 completed weeks of gestation. This rate has increased steadily in the past decade. […] Preterm birth is a complex cluster of problems with a set of overlapping factors of influence. Its causes may include individual-level behavioral and psychosocial factors, neighborhood characteristics, environmental exposures, medical conditions, infertility treatments, biological factors, and genetics. Many of these factors occur in combination, particularly in those who are socioeconomically disadvantaged or who are members of racial and ethnic minority groups. […] The current methods for the diagnosis and treatment of preterm labor are currently based on an inadequate literature, and little is know about how preterm birth can be prevented. Treatment has been focused on inhibiting contractions.

• #1 Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention | The National Academies Press

  https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/11622/preterm-birth-causes-consequences-and-prevention

  The increasing prevalence of preterm birth in the United States is a complex public health problem that requires multifaceted solutions. Preterm birth is a cluster of problems with a set of overlapping factors of influence. Its causes may include individual-level behavioral and psychosocial factors, sociodemographic and neighborhood characteristics, environmental exposure, medical conditions, infertility treatments, and biological factors. […] Many of these factors co-occur, particularly in those who are socioeconomically disadvantaged or who are members of racial and ethnic minority groups. […] This book addresses the need for research involving clinical, basic, behavioral, and social science disciplines. By defining and addressing the health and economic consequences of premature birth, this book will be of particular interest to health care professionals, public health officials, policy makers, professional associations and clinical, basic, behavioral, and social science researchers.

• #2 Summary | Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention | The National Academies Press

  https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/11622/chapter/2

  In 2004, 12.5 percent of births in the United States were preterm; that is, born at less than 37 completed weeks of gestation. […] Preterm birth is a complex cluster of problems with a set of overlapping factors of influence. Its causes may include individual-level behavioral and psychosocial factors, neighborhood characteristics, environmental exposures, medical conditions, infertility treatments, biological factors, and genetics. […] The current methods for the diagnosis and treatment of preterm labor are currently based on an inadequate literature, and little is known about how preterm birth can be prevented. […] The birth of a preterm infant results in significant health consequences to the infant and emotional and economic costs for families and communities. […] The prevalence of preterm birth in the United States constitutes a public health problem, but unlike many health problems, the rate of preterm birth has increased in the last decade.

• #2 Preterm Labor and Birth: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology and Risk Factors

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/260998-overview

  Preterm birth, defined as birth between 20 0/7 and 36 6/7 weeks of gestation, is the leading cause of neonatal mortality in nonanomalous fetuses and is the leading cause of long-term neurodevelopmental impairment. […] It is estimated that 15 million preterm births occur globally each year. […] Despite considerable investment in research and strategies to prevent preterm birth, little impact has been made on this goal, and there have not been substantial changes in the rates of preterm birth over the past decade. […] Preterm birth may be spontaneous or medically indicated. […] In spontaneous preterm birth (representing approximately two-thirds of preterm births), painful contractions and progressive cervical effacement and dilation lead to early delivery, whereas in medically indicated preterm birth, the patient is delivered early due to complications of pregnancy or medical conditions in which the risk to the mother or fetus of continuing with the pregnancy is greater than the risk of delivery at that gestational age.

• #2 Premature birth causes: What to know

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-premature-birth

  A pregnant person carrying more than one fetus at a time has a higher risk of premature birth. According to a 2018 article, half of all twin pregnancies result in premature birth before 37 weeks, and 10% of people pregnant with twins give birth before 32 weeks of pregnancy. […] Several pregnancy complications may lead to premature birth. With certain complications, doctors often induce labor to cause premature birth and minimize risk to the parent and fetus. Examples of complications include: High blood pressure in pregnancy can be life threatening. Severe cases may necessitate the induction of premature birth. Infections may affect the health of the parent and the fetus and can weaken the lining of the amniotic sac. Infections that may cause premature birth include: sexually transmitted infections (STIs), urinary tract infections (UTIs), trichomoniasis, bacterial vaginosis. In FGR, a fetus is smaller than average and can develop various health complications. Fetuses with FGR are at higher risk of premature birth. Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that may occur during pregnancy. It can cause various health complications in the parent and fetus. In placental abruption, the placenta separates from the uterus lining too soon. This can cause premature birth and various health complications for the fetus and parent. Polyhydramnios occurs when too much amniotic fluid surrounds the fetus, possibly causing early labor. PPROM is when a persons water breaks too soon before labor. If this happens, a doctor may need to induce early labor. In pregnancies where twins share a placenta, there may be an imbalance of blood supply between the fetuses. This liver disorder may cause bile to build up in the body. ICP may lead to premature birth and can cause stillbirth.

• #2 Causes of Preterm Labor | Healthline

  https://www.healthline.com/health/pregnancy/third-trimester-preterm-delivery

  If you are at risk for preterm labor, several screening tests can help you and your doctor determine the extent of your risk. […] When a baby is born before the 37th week of pregnancy, it is called a preterm delivery. Some preterm births happen on their own a mother goes into labor and her baby comes early. In other cases, problems with the pregnancy prompt doctors to deliver a baby earlier than planned. About three quarters of preterm births are spontaneous and about one quarter occur because of medical complications. Overall, about one in eight pregnant women deliver early. […] Preterm delivery has several causes. Sometimes a woman goes into labor early for no obvious reason. At other times there may be a medical reason for early labor and delivery. […] The chart below lists the causes of preterm delivery and the percentages of women who deliver early due to each cause. In this chart, the category “preterm labor” refers to women who have no known reason for early labor and delivery. […] Premature rupture of membranes 30% […] Preterm labor (no known cause) 25% […] Bleeding during pregnancy (antepartum hemorrhage) 20% […] Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy 14% […] Weak cervix (incompetent cervix) 9% […] Other 2%

• #2 Causes of Preterm Labour – Miracle Babies

  https://www.miraclebabies.org.au/causes-of-preterm-labour

  Placental insufficiency: This condition can prevent the baby from gaining essential nourishment. […] Pre-eclampsia: A complication of pregnancy where hypertension, high blood pressure, occurs in conjunction with high levels of protein in the urine and oedema. […] Preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM): A condition which occurs in pregnancy when the amniotic sac spontaneously ruptures before the onset of labour. […] Previous premature birth: Women who have had a premature delivery previously have an increased chance of having another pre-term delivery. […] Serious or an existing medical condition and other reasons: Conditions such as rhesus negative blood group, gestational diabetes, diabetes, kidney disease and high blood pressure can all affect a developing baby. […] Twin-to-twin Transfusion Syndrome (TTTS): A complication where two or more foetuses share a common placenta and associated with high morbidity and mortality.

• #2 Prematurity: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/975909-overview

  Premature delivery can be the result of preterm labor and preterm premature rupture of the membranes (PPROM), or it can be due to maternal indications (eg, pregnancy-induced hypertension). […] Rates of perinatal mortality, neonatal infection, and respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) increase in the presence of maternal fever and chorioamnionitis. […] Intrauterine growth restriction is significantly associated with perinatal mortality and long-term morbidity. […] Pregnancies complicated by diabetes and poor glycemic control are associated with a high incidence of prematurity, macrosomia, malformation, fetal death, and neonatal death. […] Women with multiple gestation pregnancies are at high risk of preterm labor and delivery and account for an increasing percentage of preterm births and ELBW infants.

• #2 Prior Preterm Birth | Riley Children’s Health

  https://www.rileychildrens.org/health-info/prior-preterm-birth

  Early births can pose health risks for both mothers and their children. Approximately one in ten babies are born early, according to the Centers for Disease Prevention and Control. Infants born before 37 weeks of pregnancy (gestation) are considered preterm deliveries. […] Women who deliver a child between 16 to 36 weeks gestation have a higher risk of preterm birth in a later pregnancy. Women with two preterm births have about a 25 to 30 percent chance of another preterm birth in a later pregnancy. African Americans are also at a higher risk; about one in five women of African-American descent will have a preterm birth. […] When a birth occurs prior to 37 weeks and it is not induced or scheduled Cesarean section, it is known as a spontaneous preterm birth. Causes of spontaneous preterm birth can include: Infection in the genital tract, Non-uterine infections like a kidney infection, pneumonia or appendicitis, Urinary tract infections known as asymptomatic bacteriuria, Problems with the placenta, A large uterus, which can be common with women carrying more than one child, Structural abnormalities of the uterus or cervix, After-effects of abdominal surgery during pregnancy.

• #2 Causes and risk factors of Premature birth

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/prematurity/causes-and-risk-factors

  Complications in the current pregnancy. Multiple gestation; bleeding in the 2nd or 3rd trimester; alterations in the volume of amniotic liquid (too much or too little); risk of premature labour; premature rupture of membranes; systemic infection such as pyelonephritis, pneumonia, or appendicitis. […] Women of African-American or Afro-Caribbean origin have twice the risk of a premature labour than white women. […] Very thin women with a BMI less than 19 have a higher risk of prematurity, possibly related to the decreased uterine flow due to malnutrition. […] Similarly, obesity is also considered a risk factor since adipose tissue produces inflammatory proteins that trigger spontaneous delivery. […] If the period between the birth of one child and a new pregnancy is less than 6 months, the risk of premature labour doubles.

• #2 Prematurity: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/975909-overview

  The rate of preterm births increases in pregnancies in which the mother is older than 40 years. […] Tobacco use is a risk factor for placental abruption and accounts as a factor for 15% of preterm births and 20-30% of ELBW infants. […] Maternal marijuana use appears to be associated with an increased risk of neonatal morbidity (eg, infection and neurologic morbidity) or death.

• #2 Preterm Birth: Premature, Causes, Symptoms & Complications

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21479-premature-birth

  Premature births can happen suddenly, with no one cause. […] Women can also go into premature labor due to: Chronic health conditions, such as diabetes or heart disease. […] Placental conditions like placental abruption or placenta previa. […] Preeclampsia. […] Expecting multiples. About 60% of twins and triplets are born prematurely. […] Problems with the uterus or cervix. […] Vaginal bleeding or infections during pregnancy. […] Using substances like drugs and alcohol or smoking during pregnancy. […] You may be at an increased risk for a premature birth if you: Are Black or Hispanic. […] Are expecting multiples (twins, triplets or more). […] Are under the age of 17 or over the age of 35. […] Have a family or personal history of preterm births. […] Smoke, drink alcohol or use other substances while pregnant.

• #2 Why Are Some Women At Risk Of Premature Birth? : Shots – Health News : NPR

  https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/07/22/630838528/scientists-search-for-causes-of-preterm-birth-and-better-ways-to-test-for-risk

  For researchers working on the problem, understanding the biology of preterm birth is just one piece of the puzzle. Risk for preterm birth is also associated with poverty and other social and environmental factors, says Stanford’s Stevenson. […] Stress is a contributor to inflammation, which affects likelihood of preterm birth, Stevenson says. All birth, he explains, is an inflammatory process. Too much inflammation early in pregnancy, like infection, is associated with early labor.

• #2 Prior Preterm Birth | Riley Children’s Health

  https://www.rileychildrens.org/health-info/prior-preterm-birth

  If a woman has had a prior preterm birth, her pregnancy is considered high-risk. […] If a woman has had a preterm birth before, it is important that she has good prenatal care throughout her pregnancy. At-risk mothers may be prescribed medications that can help reduce the risk of another preterm delivery. One such option is hydroxyprogesterone caproate (HPC), an FDA-approved drug that has been shown to reduce the recurrence of preterm delivery by 30 to 40 percent. […] Preterm labor or delivery has a number of possible causes, including infections, problems with the cervix or placenta.

• #2 Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20669423/

  Therapies and interventions for the prediction and the prevention of preterm birth are thus needed. […] Upon review of the literature assessing the causes and consequences of preterm birth, the diagnosis and treatment of women at risk for preterm labor, and treatments for infants born preterm, the committee proposes a research agenda for investigating the problem of preterm birth that is intended to help focus and direct research efforts.

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