Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8744124/

  The WHO has recognised iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) as the most common nutritional deficiency in the world, with 30% of the population being affected with this condition. […] Although the most common causes of IDA are gastrointestinal bleeding and menstruation in women, decreased dietary iron and decreased iron absorption are also culpable causes. […] Iron is required for various cellular functions, including but not limited to enzymatic processes, DNA synthesis, oxygen transport and mitochondrial energy generation. […] Iron deficiency occurs in many chronic inflammatory conditions, including congestive cardiac failure, chronic kidney disease and inflammatory bowel disease. […] Iron is an essential element and is controlled primarily by dietary intake, intestinal absorption and iron recycling.

• #2 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  The WHO has recognised iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) as the most common nutritional deficiency in the world, with 30% of the population being affected with this condition. […] Although the most common causes of IDA are gastrointestinal bleeding and menstruation in women, decreased dietary iron and decreased iron absorption are also culpable causes. […] Iron is required for various cellular functions, including but not limited to enzymatic processes, DNA synthesis, oxygen transport and mitochondrial energy generation. […] This resultant hypoxemia can subsequently cause a compensatory decrease in intestinal blood flow, leading to motility disorder, malabsorption, nausea, weight loss and abdominal pain. […] Iron is an essential element and is controlled primarily by dietary intake, intestinal absorption and iron recycling.

• #3 Iron Deficiency Anemia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448065/

  Iron deficiency anemia is the most common cause of anemia worldwide, which results in microcytic and hypochromic red cells on the peripheral smear. […] Iron is essential for the production of hemoglobin. The depletion of iron stores may result from blood loss, decreased intake, impaired absorption, or increased demand. Iron-deficiency anemia could arise from occult gastrointestinal bleeding. […] Iron deficiency will lead to microcytic hypochromic anemia on the peripheral blood smear.

• #4 Iron-Deficiency Anemia: Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/iron-deficiency-anemia

  Having low levels of iron can mean you have iron-deficiency anemia. It can occur for many reasons, including not consuming enough iron or experiencing blood loss. […] Iron-deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia. It occurs when your body doesn’t have enough iron, which your body needs to make hemoglobin. When there isn’t enough iron in your blood, the rest of your body can’t get the amount of oxygen it needs. […] According to the ASH, iron deficiency is the most common cause of anemia. There are many reasons that a person might become deficient in iron. These include: […] Eating too little iron over an extended amount of time can cause a shortage in your body. […] Heavy menstrual bleeding is a common cause of iron-deficiency anemia in women of childbearing age. So is pregnancy, because your body needs more iron during this time in order to create enough oxygen for the baby.

• #5 Iron Deficiency Anemia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448065/

  Iron deficiency anemia is the most common cause of anemia worldwide, which results in microcytic and hypochromic red cells on the peripheral smear. […] Iron is essential for the production of hemoglobin. The depletion of iron stores may result from blood loss, decreased intake, impaired absorption, or increased demand. Iron-deficiency anemia could arise from occult gastrointestinal bleeding. […] Iron deficiency will lead to microcytic hypochromic anemia on the peripheral blood smear.

• #6 Iron deficiency anemia pathogenesis and lab diagnosis | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/iron-deficiency-anemia-pathogenesis-and-lab-diagnosis/47656420

  Iron deficiency is the most common anaemia. 83-90% of all anemia constitute IDA […] Pathogenesis of iron deficiency anemia There are three pathogenic factors Impaired Hb synthesis d/t reduced iron supply Generalized defect in cellular proliferation Survival of erythroid precursor and erythrocytes is reduced When transferrin saturation 15%, marrow supply of iron reduced and is inadequate to meet basal requirement for Hb production. erythrocyte protoporphyrin raised each RBC contain less Hb so microcytic and hypochromic […] Clinical features of iron deficiency anemia Fatigue and Other Nonspecific Symptoms irritability, palpitations, dizziness, breathlessness, headache, and fatigue Neuromuscular System impair muscular performance, abnormalities in muscle metabolism, behavioral disturbances, Neurologic development in infants and scholastic performance in older children may be impaired. Sometimes neuralgia pains, vasomotor disturbances, or numbness and tingling.

• #7 Iron Deficiency Anemia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/202333-overview

  Iron deficiency anemia develops when body stores of iron drop too low to support normal red blood cell (RBC) production. Inadequate dietary iron, impaired iron absorption, bleeding, or loss of body iron in the urine may be the cause. […] Iron equilibrium in the body normally is regulated carefully to ensure that sufficient iron is absorbed in order to compensate for body losses of iron. […] Iron is vital for all living organisms because it is essential for multiple metabolic processes, including oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport. Iron equilibrium in the body is regulated carefully to ensure that sufficient iron is absorbed in order to compensate for body losses of iron. […] Either diminished absorbable dietary iron or excessive loss of body iron can cause iron deficiency. Diminished absorption usually is due to an insufficient intake of dietary iron in an absorbable form. Hemorrhage is the most common cause of excessive loss of body iron, but it can occur with hemoglobinuria from intravascular hemolysis.

• #8 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8744124/

  The WHO has recognised iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) as the most common nutritional deficiency in the world, with 30% of the population being affected with this condition. […] Although the most common causes of IDA are gastrointestinal bleeding and menstruation in women, decreased dietary iron and decreased iron absorption are also culpable causes. […] Iron is required for various cellular functions, including but not limited to enzymatic processes, DNA synthesis, oxygen transport and mitochondrial energy generation. […] Iron deficiency occurs in many chronic inflammatory conditions, including congestive cardiac failure, chronic kidney disease and inflammatory bowel disease. […] Iron is an essential element and is controlled primarily by dietary intake, intestinal absorption and iron recycling.

• #9 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  The WHO has recognised iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) as the most common nutritional deficiency in the world, with 30% of the population being affected with this condition. […] Although the most common causes of IDA are gastrointestinal bleeding and menstruation in women, decreased dietary iron and decreased iron absorption are also culpable causes. […] Iron is required for various cellular functions, including but not limited to enzymatic processes, DNA synthesis, oxygen transport and mitochondrial energy generation. […] This resultant hypoxemia can subsequently cause a compensatory decrease in intestinal blood flow, leading to motility disorder, malabsorption, nausea, weight loss and abdominal pain. […] Iron is an essential element and is controlled primarily by dietary intake, intestinal absorption and iron recycling.

• #10 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  The clinical manifestations seen in iron deficiency are attributed to depletion of iron stores. […] The functions of iron in all cells includes; metabolism of energy, regulation of genes, growth and differentiation of cells, binding and transport of oxygen, use and storage of oxygen in the muscles, enzyme reactions, synthesis of proteins and neurotransmitters. […] Thus, deficiency of iron is a multi-systemic disorder, rather than a purely haematological condition associated with anaemia only. […] Adverse health effects of iron deficiency in children includes; growth retardation, impaired immune function, impaired behavioural, mental and psychomotor development as well as decreased work capacity. […] Iron is required for cell growth and differentiation. […] The iron-containing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase initiates the synthesis of DNA, which is a limiting factor in the rate of the replication of the cells.

• #11 Iron Deficiency Anemia – Hematology and Oncology – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/anemias-caused-by-deficient-erythropoiesis/iron-deficiency-anemia

  Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anemia and usually results from blood loss; malabsorption, such as occurs in celiac disease, is a much less common cause. […] Iron is distributed in active metabolic and storage pools. Total body iron is approximately 3.5 to 4.5 mg/kg of body weight in healthy men (~4 g of iron), but is lower in premenopausal women; the difference in the total body iron relates to women’s smaller body size and dearth of stored iron because of iron loss due to menses. […] Iron absorption is determined by its source and by what other substances are ingested with it. Iron absorption is best when food contains heme iron (meat). […] In iron depletion, absorption increases due to the suppression of hepcidin, a key regulator of iron metabolism; however, absorption rarely increases to 6 mg/day unless supplemental iron is added.

• #12 Iron-deficiency anemia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-deficiency_anemia

  Whereas systemic infection or inflammation (especially involving the cytokine IL-6) or increased circulating iron levels stimulate hepcidin expression. […] Iron is a mineral that is important in the formation of red blood cells in the body, particularly as a critical component of hemoglobin. […] About 70% of the iron found in the body is bound to hemoglobin. […] Iron is primarily absorbed in the small intestine, in particular the duodenum and jejunum. […] Certain factors increase or decrease absorption of iron. […] For example, taking Vitamin C with a source of iron is known to increase absorption. […] Some medications such as tetracyclines and antacids can decrease absorption of iron. […] After being absorbed in the small intestine, iron travels through blood, bound to transferrin, and eventually ends up in the bone marrow, where it is involved in red blood cell formation.

• #13 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  The WHO has recognised iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) as the most common nutritional deficiency in the world, with 30% of the population being affected with this condition. […] Although the most common causes of IDA are gastrointestinal bleeding and menstruation in women, decreased dietary iron and decreased iron absorption are also culpable causes. […] Iron is required for various cellular functions, including but not limited to enzymatic processes, DNA synthesis, oxygen transport and mitochondrial energy generation. […] This resultant hypoxemia can subsequently cause a compensatory decrease in intestinal blood flow, leading to motility disorder, malabsorption, nausea, weight loss and abdominal pain. […] Iron is an essential element and is controlled primarily by dietary intake, intestinal absorption and iron recycling.

• #14 Iron-deficiency anemia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-deficiency_anemia

  Anemia can result from significant iron deficiency. […] When the body has sufficient iron to meet its needs (functional iron), the remainder is stored for later use in cells, mostly in the bone marrow and liver. […] These stores are called ferritin complexes and are part of the human (and other animals) iron metabolism systems. […] Hepcidin is a peptide hormone produced in the liver that is responsible for regulating iron levels in the body. […] Hepcidin decreases the amount of iron available for erythropoesis (red blood cell production). […] Hepcidin binds to and induces the degradation of ferroportin, which is responsible for exporting iron from cells and mobilizing it to the bloodstream. […] Conditions such as high levels of erythropoesis, iron deficiency and tissue hypoxia inhibit hepcidin expression.

• #15 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  Dietary iron can be found in two forms: haem and non-haem iron. […] Compounds such as phytate, oxalate, polyphenols and tannin, which are found in plants, diminish the uptake of non-haem iron, as do some drugs, such as proton pump inhibitors. […] Hepcidin, a hepatic peptide hormone, controls ferroportin, the sole iron exporter, by promoting its endocytosis. […] Hepcidin is increased in the presence of inflammation, which then promotes the degradation of ferroportin and subsequently impairs the exportation of cellular iron into plasma. […] The WHO defines anaemia as blood Hb level below 130g/L in men and 120g/L in women. […] In isolated iron deficiency, serum ferritin (the storage molecule for iron) should be less than 30ug/L. […] Thus, if there is evidence of concomitant inflammation, such as elevated C reactive protein, ferritin less than 100ug/L is indicative of IDA.

• #16 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  Dietary iron can be found in two forms: haem and non-haem iron. […] Compounds such as phytate, oxalate, polyphenols and tannin, which are found in plants, diminish the uptake of non-haem iron, as do some drugs, such as proton pump inhibitors. […] Hepcidin, a hepatic peptide hormone, controls ferroportin, the sole iron exporter, by promoting its endocytosis. […] Hepcidin is increased in the presence of inflammation, which then promotes the degradation of ferroportin and subsequently impairs the exportation of cellular iron into plasma. […] The WHO defines anaemia as blood Hb level below 130g/L in men and 120g/L in women. […] In isolated iron deficiency, serum ferritin (the storage molecule for iron) should be less than 30ug/L. […] Thus, if there is evidence of concomitant inflammation, such as elevated C reactive protein, ferritin less than 100ug/L is indicative of IDA.

• #17

  https://www.vin.com/apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?id=5709923&pid=11372&print=1

  Hepcidin exerts its effects by binding to the iron efflux protein, ferroportin, and inducing its internalization and degradation. […] This interaction inhibits absorption of dietary iron and inhibits release of storage iron, thus resulting in functional iron deficiency. […] True iron deficiency (aka absolute iron deficiency) has long been recognized as a cause of anemia. […] Iron deficiency anemia can be regenerative or nonregenerative. […] The classic hematologic picture with iron deficiency is microcytic (subnormal MCV), hypochromic (subnormal MCHC) anemia.

• #18 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8744124/

  Dietary iron can be found in two forms: haem and non-haem iron. […] Compounds such as phytate, oxalate, polyphenols and tannin, which are found in plants, diminish the uptake of non-haem iron, as do some drugs, such as proton pump inhibitors. […] Hepcidin production and circulation are regulated by plasma iron concentration and iron stores. Hepcidin is increased in the presence of inflammation, which then promotes the degradation of ferroportin and subsequently impairs the exportation of cellular iron into plasma. […] IDA occurs in many chronic inflammatory conditions, including congestive cardiac failure (CCF), CKD and IBD. […] In CCF, IDA is one of the most prevalent comorbid conditions and can be a result of multiple factors including reduced appetite, increased GI blood losses as a result of antiplatelet or anticoagulant medication and decreased GI absorption due to oedema.

• #19 Iron-deficiency anemia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-deficiency_anemia

  Anemia can result from significant iron deficiency. […] When the body has sufficient iron to meet its needs (functional iron), the remainder is stored for later use in cells, mostly in the bone marrow and liver. […] These stores are called ferritin complexes and are part of the human (and other animals) iron metabolism systems. […] Hepcidin is a peptide hormone produced in the liver that is responsible for regulating iron levels in the body. […] Hepcidin decreases the amount of iron available for erythropoesis (red blood cell production). […] Hepcidin binds to and induces the degradation of ferroportin, which is responsible for exporting iron from cells and mobilizing it to the bloodstream. […] Conditions such as high levels of erythropoesis, iron deficiency and tissue hypoxia inhibit hepcidin expression.

• #20

  https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=102737

  Iron deficiency is defined as a condition with depletion of iron stores characterized by signs of a compromised supply of iron to tissues, including the erythrocytes. […] The concentration of iron in biological fluids is tightly regulated to maintain iron levels as needed and to avoid toxicity, as excess iron can lead to the generation of reactive oxygen species. […] Dysregulation of hepcidin expression results in iron disorders. […] Liposomal iron is the breakthrough in the management of IDA, non-responsive to conventional oral iron preparations. […] Liposomal iron, a new generation oral iron preparation of ferric pyrophosphate carried within a phospholipid and lecithin membrane, shows a high GI absorption and high bioavailability with lower incidence of side effects. […] Through Trojan Horse-like mechanism, the liposome is directly absorbed in the intestinal lumen by the microfold cells (M cells) of the small intestine, which is the part of lymphatic system.

• #21 Iron-Refractory Iron Deficiency Anemia (IRIDA) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/irida

  Iron-refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA) is a rare form of iron deficiency anemia. Iron deficiency anemia occurs when red blood cell counts are low due to a lack of iron. […] While iron deficiency anemia is generally an acquired disease and due to insufficient iron in the child’s diet or chronic blood loss, children with IRIDA are born with a gene mutation that causes iron deficiency. […] IRIDA is caused by mutations in the gene TMPRSS6. It is inherited as an autosomal recessive disorder, which means both parents must have a copy of the gene mutation and pass it on to their child. Therefore it may be seen in several of the child’s family members. The TMPRSS6 gene encodes a particular liver protein that regulates the production of hepcidin, an iron regulatory hormone. In children with IRIDA, the TMPRSS6 mutation causes elevated levels of hepcidin, which ultimately impairs the body’s ability to both absorb and use iron.

• #22 Iron-deficiency anemia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron-deficiency_anemia

  Whereas systemic infection or inflammation (especially involving the cytokine IL-6) or increased circulating iron levels stimulate hepcidin expression. […] Iron is a mineral that is important in the formation of red blood cells in the body, particularly as a critical component of hemoglobin. […] About 70% of the iron found in the body is bound to hemoglobin. […] Iron is primarily absorbed in the small intestine, in particular the duodenum and jejunum. […] Certain factors increase or decrease absorption of iron. […] For example, taking Vitamin C with a source of iron is known to increase absorption. […] Some medications such as tetracyclines and antacids can decrease absorption of iron. […] After being absorbed in the small intestine, iron travels through blood, bound to transferrin, and eventually ends up in the bone marrow, where it is involved in red blood cell formation.

• #23 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  Various laboratory tests for the detection of iron deficiency such as MCV, serum ferritin and transferrin saturation (Tfsat) are limited in their value because their sensitivities and specificities may be affected by acute inflammatory conditions, chronic inflammations, genetic polymorphisms, and by sickle cell disease states. […] The World Health Organization (WHO) recommended combination of various laboratory tests to define iron status in a population. […] Iron is a cation necessary for blood formation. […] Iron is reused effectively from ageing RBCs in humans. […] The demand for iron is highest during periods of high growth found in infancy and adolescence. […] The form of iron when consumed determines how well it is absorbed. […] Iron absorption takes place primarily at the small intestine, at the apical surface of the duodenum and the upper of the jejunum.

• #24 Iron Deficiency Anemia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/202333-overview

  Iron uptake in the proximal small bowel occurs by 3 separate pathways. These are the heme pathway and 2 distinct pathways for ferric and ferrous iron. […] Ferric iron utilizes a different pathway to enter cells than ferrous iron. […] Most iron delivered to nonintestinal cells is bound to transferrin. […] In the classical transferrin pathway, the transferrin iron complex enters the cell within an endosome. […] Nonintestinal cells also possess the mobilferrin integrin and DMT-1 pathways.

• #25 Iron Deficiency Anemia: A Closer Look

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/iron-deficiency-anemia-a-closer-look

  It is important to maintain equilibrium between iron absorption and iron loss in the body to ensure multiple metabolic processes, such as oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport. […] Iron is absorbed in the proximal small intestine. Iron uptake occurs by three separate pathways: the heme pathway and two separate pathways for ferric and ferrous iron. […] Iron from the intestinal mucosal cell is transferred to transferrin, an iron-transport protein synthesized in the liver; transferrin can transport iron from cells (intestinal, macrophages) to specific receptors on erythroblasts, placental cells, and liver cells. […] Absorption of iron is determined by the type of iron molecule and by other substances that are ingested. Iron absorption is best when food contains heme iron (e.g., meat).

• #26 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  Dietary iron can be found in two forms: haem and non-haem iron. […] Compounds such as phytate, oxalate, polyphenols and tannin, which are found in plants, diminish the uptake of non-haem iron, as do some drugs, such as proton pump inhibitors. […] Hepcidin, a hepatic peptide hormone, controls ferroportin, the sole iron exporter, by promoting its endocytosis. […] Hepcidin is increased in the presence of inflammation, which then promotes the degradation of ferroportin and subsequently impairs the exportation of cellular iron into plasma. […] The WHO defines anaemia as blood Hb level below 130g/L in men and 120g/L in women. […] In isolated iron deficiency, serum ferritin (the storage molecule for iron) should be less than 30ug/L. […] Thus, if there is evidence of concomitant inflammation, such as elevated C reactive protein, ferritin less than 100ug/L is indicative of IDA.

• #27 Iron Deficiency Anemia – Hematology and Oncology – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/anemias-caused-by-deficient-erythropoiesis/iron-deficiency-anemia

  Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anemia and usually results from blood loss; malabsorption, such as occurs in celiac disease, is a much less common cause. […] Iron is distributed in active metabolic and storage pools. Total body iron is approximately 3.5 to 4.5 mg/kg of body weight in healthy men (~4 g of iron), but is lower in premenopausal women; the difference in the total body iron relates to women’s smaller body size and dearth of stored iron because of iron loss due to menses. […] Iron absorption is determined by its source and by what other substances are ingested with it. Iron absorption is best when food contains heme iron (meat). […] In iron depletion, absorption increases due to the suppression of hepcidin, a key regulator of iron metabolism; however, absorption rarely increases to 6 mg/day unless supplemental iron is added.

• #28 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  Dietary iron can be found in two forms: haem and non-haem iron. […] Compounds such as phytate, oxalate, polyphenols and tannin, which are found in plants, diminish the uptake of non-haem iron, as do some drugs, such as proton pump inhibitors. […] Hepcidin, a hepatic peptide hormone, controls ferroportin, the sole iron exporter, by promoting its endocytosis. […] Hepcidin is increased in the presence of inflammation, which then promotes the degradation of ferroportin and subsequently impairs the exportation of cellular iron into plasma. […] The WHO defines anaemia as blood Hb level below 130g/L in men and 120g/L in women. […] In isolated iron deficiency, serum ferritin (the storage molecule for iron) should be less than 30ug/L. […] Thus, if there is evidence of concomitant inflammation, such as elevated C reactive protein, ferritin less than 100ug/L is indicative of IDA.

• #29 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  Dietary iron can be found in two forms: haem and non-haem iron. […] Compounds such as phytate, oxalate, polyphenols and tannin, which are found in plants, diminish the uptake of non-haem iron, as do some drugs, such as proton pump inhibitors. […] Hepcidin, a hepatic peptide hormone, controls ferroportin, the sole iron exporter, by promoting its endocytosis. […] Hepcidin is increased in the presence of inflammation, which then promotes the degradation of ferroportin and subsequently impairs the exportation of cellular iron into plasma. […] The WHO defines anaemia as blood Hb level below 130g/L in men and 120g/L in women. […] In isolated iron deficiency, serum ferritin (the storage molecule for iron) should be less than 30ug/L. […] Thus, if there is evidence of concomitant inflammation, such as elevated C reactive protein, ferritin less than 100ug/L is indicative of IDA.

• #30 Iron deficiency Anemia – Causes • The Blood Project

  https://www.thebloodproject.com/cases-archive/iron-deficiency-anemia-causes/iron-deficiency-anemia-causes/

  Causes of iron deficiency. The predominant mechanism for iron deficiency is blood loss (each mL of blood contains 0.4–0.5 mg of iron). […] The next major cause is malabsorption of iron. […] Celiac disease can also lead to iron deficiency through gastrointestinal blood loss and malabsorption. […] The use of proton pump inhibitors or histamine-2 receptor antagonists may lead to iron deficiency from the dose-dependent and duration-dependent inhibitory effect of achlorhydria on iron absorption. […] Iron deficiency develops in 20% of patients after gastrectomy (for cancer) or gastric bypass surgery (for obesity). […] The most common source of blood loss is from menstrual periods or from gastrointestinal bleeding (for example, colon cancer, angiodysplasia, colonic polyps, gastritis and peptic ulcer). […] Other causes of iron deficiency not shown in the above scheme include chronic hookworm infection and inflammatory bowel disease.

• #31

  http://www.spring8.or.jp/en/news_publications/press_release/2018/180820/

  Iron metabolism is finely regulated in humans. A healthy adult contains approximately 5 g iron, where it is needed for making red blood cells or stored in liver or distributed in various proteins involved in human biological processes. Apart from this, 1 2 mg of iron is loss every day, through skin and minor blood losses. This loss is balanced by 1 2 mg of daily dietary iron intake. The failure to compensate this loss lead to iron deficiency anemia, the most widespread micronutritional disorder worldwide today. […] The reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ is the key step in iron absorption. For the reduction from Fe3+ to Fe2+, duodenal cytochrome b (Dcyt b) works on the cell membrane of duodenal enterocyte. The Dcyt b transfers an electron from vitamin C on the cytoplasmic side to the Fe3+ on the gut lumen side, thereby reducing Fe3+ to Fe2+.

• #32 Iron Deficiency Anemia – Hematology and Oncology – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/anemias-caused-by-deficient-erythropoiesis/iron-deficiency-anemia

  Iron deficiency develops in stages. In the first stage, iron requirement exceeds intake, causing progressive depletion of bone marrow iron stores. As stores decrease, absorption of dietary iron increases in compensation. During later stages, deficiency impairs RBC synthesis, ultimately causing anemia. […] Severe and prolonged iron deficiency also may cause dysfunction of iron-containing cellular enzymes.

• #33 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  Iron deficiency is a nutritional disorder, it is the most common nutritional disorder worldwide. […] There are three stages involved when iron stores in the body is reduced, this ranges from iron depletion, to iron deficiency and then, iron deficiency anemia. […] When there is iron depletion, the amount of Iron required in the body is more than the amount ingested leading to a gradual reduction in iron stores. […] The reduction in iron stores shows up as low concentration of serum ferritin. […] In Iron deficiency, stored iron is low, associated low absorption of iron to replace normal body losses, there is low mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and serum ferritin. […] The last and most severe stage is Iron deficiency anaemia; it is characterized by red blood cells (RBCs) with a lower level of iron, low MCV, low mean MCH, low haemoglobin (Hb) level and a reduction serum ferritin.

• #34 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  Iron deficiency is a nutritional disorder, it is the most common nutritional disorder worldwide. […] There are three stages involved when iron stores in the body is reduced, this ranges from iron depletion, to iron deficiency and then, iron deficiency anemia. […] When there is iron depletion, the amount of Iron required in the body is more than the amount ingested leading to a gradual reduction in iron stores. […] The reduction in iron stores shows up as low concentration of serum ferritin. […] In Iron deficiency, stored iron is low, associated low absorption of iron to replace normal body losses, there is low mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and serum ferritin. […] The last and most severe stage is Iron deficiency anaemia; it is characterized by red blood cells (RBCs) with a lower level of iron, low MCV, low mean MCH, low haemoglobin (Hb) level and a reduction serum ferritin.

• #35 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  Iron deficiency is a nutritional disorder, it is the most common nutritional disorder worldwide. […] There are three stages involved when iron stores in the body is reduced, this ranges from iron depletion, to iron deficiency and then, iron deficiency anemia. […] When there is iron depletion, the amount of Iron required in the body is more than the amount ingested leading to a gradual reduction in iron stores. […] The reduction in iron stores shows up as low concentration of serum ferritin. […] In Iron deficiency, stored iron is low, associated low absorption of iron to replace normal body losses, there is low mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and serum ferritin. […] The last and most severe stage is Iron deficiency anaemia; it is characterized by red blood cells (RBCs) with a lower level of iron, low MCV, low mean MCH, low haemoglobin (Hb) level and a reduction serum ferritin.

• #36 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  Iron deficiency is a nutritional disorder, it is the most common nutritional disorder worldwide. […] There are three stages involved when iron stores in the body is reduced, this ranges from iron depletion, to iron deficiency and then, iron deficiency anemia. […] When there is iron depletion, the amount of Iron required in the body is more than the amount ingested leading to a gradual reduction in iron stores. […] The reduction in iron stores shows up as low concentration of serum ferritin. […] In Iron deficiency, stored iron is low, associated low absorption of iron to replace normal body losses, there is low mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and serum ferritin. […] The last and most severe stage is Iron deficiency anaemia; it is characterized by red blood cells (RBCs) with a lower level of iron, low MCV, low mean MCH, low haemoglobin (Hb) level and a reduction serum ferritin.

• #37 Iron Deficiency Anemia – Hematology and Oncology – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/anemias-caused-by-deficient-erythropoiesis/iron-deficiency-anemia

  Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anemia and usually results from blood loss; malabsorption, such as occurs in celiac disease, is a much less common cause. […] Iron is distributed in active metabolic and storage pools. Total body iron is approximately 3.5 to 4.5 mg/kg of body weight in healthy men (~4 g of iron), but is lower in premenopausal women; the difference in the total body iron relates to women’s smaller body size and dearth of stored iron because of iron loss due to menses. […] Iron absorption is determined by its source and by what other substances are ingested with it. Iron absorption is best when food contains heme iron (meat). […] In iron depletion, absorption increases due to the suppression of hepcidin, a key regulator of iron metabolism; however, absorption rarely increases to 6 mg/day unless supplemental iron is added.

• #38 Iron Deficiency Anemia – Hematology and Oncology – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/anemias-caused-by-deficient-erythropoiesis/iron-deficiency-anemia

  Iron deficiency develops in stages. In the first stage, iron requirement exceeds intake, causing progressive depletion of bone marrow iron stores. As stores decrease, absorption of dietary iron increases in compensation. During later stages, deficiency impairs RBC synthesis, ultimately causing anemia. […] Severe and prolonged iron deficiency also may cause dysfunction of iron-containing cellular enzymes.

• #39 Pathophysiology | Iron Deficiency Anemia

  https://u.osu.edu/irondeficiencyanemia/pathophysiology/

  IDA is a hypochromic-microcytic anemia red blood cells (RBCs) are abnormally small with low levels of hemoglobin (hgb) […] Despite the cause, IDA occurs when the bodys iron demand exceeds that of its supply […] Two types: iron store depletion vs. metabolic/functional […] Inflammatory response of body in response to infection may also contribute to an acute form of IDA […] Mechanism low iron stores leads to demand supply […] Mechanism depleting iron stores faster than replacing combined while increasing bodys demand for iron […] Mechanism delivery to bone marrow to be utilized in the production of RBCs is impaired […] Mechanism even when delivered, there is impaired use of iron in the bone marrow to produce RBCs […] Iron regulates immune effector mechanisms cytokine activity, nitric oxide formation, and T-cell proliferation […] Acquired IDA may be bodys response to a pathogen many pathogens require iron to survive […] Reduction in iron transport to bone marrow, causing iron-deficient RBC production (hemoglobin content of RBC is reduced) […] Small, hemoglobin-deficient cells enter circulation, replacing normal RBC.

• #40 Pathophysiology | Iron Deficiency Anemia

  https://u.osu.edu/irondeficiencyanemia/pathophysiology/

  IDA is a hypochromic-microcytic anemia red blood cells (RBCs) are abnormally small with low levels of hemoglobin (hgb) […] Despite the cause, IDA occurs when the bodys iron demand exceeds that of its supply […] Two types: iron store depletion vs. metabolic/functional […] Inflammatory response of body in response to infection may also contribute to an acute form of IDA […] Mechanism low iron stores leads to demand supply […] Mechanism depleting iron stores faster than replacing combined while increasing bodys demand for iron […] Mechanism delivery to bone marrow to be utilized in the production of RBCs is impaired […] Mechanism even when delivered, there is impaired use of iron in the bone marrow to produce RBCs […] Iron regulates immune effector mechanisms cytokine activity, nitric oxide formation, and T-cell proliferation […] Acquired IDA may be bodys response to a pathogen many pathogens require iron to survive […] Reduction in iron transport to bone marrow, causing iron-deficient RBC production (hemoglobin content of RBC is reduced) […] Small, hemoglobin-deficient cells enter circulation, replacing normal RBC.

• #41 Pathophysiology | Iron Deficiency Anemia

  https://u.osu.edu/irondeficiencyanemia/pathophysiology/

  IDA is a hypochromic-microcytic anemia red blood cells (RBCs) are abnormally small with low levels of hemoglobin (hgb) […] Despite the cause, IDA occurs when the bodys iron demand exceeds that of its supply […] Two types: iron store depletion vs. metabolic/functional […] Inflammatory response of body in response to infection may also contribute to an acute form of IDA […] Mechanism low iron stores leads to demand supply […] Mechanism depleting iron stores faster than replacing combined while increasing bodys demand for iron […] Mechanism delivery to bone marrow to be utilized in the production of RBCs is impaired […] Mechanism even when delivered, there is impaired use of iron in the bone marrow to produce RBCs […] Iron regulates immune effector mechanisms cytokine activity, nitric oxide formation, and T-cell proliferation […] Acquired IDA may be bodys response to a pathogen many pathogens require iron to survive […] Reduction in iron transport to bone marrow, causing iron-deficient RBC production (hemoglobin content of RBC is reduced) […] Small, hemoglobin-deficient cells enter circulation, replacing normal RBC.

• #42 Pathophysiology | Iron Deficiency Anemia

  https://u.osu.edu/irondeficiencyanemia/pathophysiology/

  IDA is a hypochromic-microcytic anemia red blood cells (RBCs) are abnormally small with low levels of hemoglobin (hgb) […] Despite the cause, IDA occurs when the bodys iron demand exceeds that of its supply […] Two types: iron store depletion vs. metabolic/functional […] Inflammatory response of body in response to infection may also contribute to an acute form of IDA […] Mechanism low iron stores leads to demand supply […] Mechanism depleting iron stores faster than replacing combined while increasing bodys demand for iron […] Mechanism delivery to bone marrow to be utilized in the production of RBCs is impaired […] Mechanism even when delivered, there is impaired use of iron in the bone marrow to produce RBCs […] Iron regulates immune effector mechanisms cytokine activity, nitric oxide formation, and T-cell proliferation […] Acquired IDA may be bodys response to a pathogen many pathogens require iron to survive […] Reduction in iron transport to bone marrow, causing iron-deficient RBC production (hemoglobin content of RBC is reduced) […] Small, hemoglobin-deficient cells enter circulation, replacing normal RBC.

• #43 Causes of anemia | eClinpath

  https://eclinpath.com/hematology/anemia/causes-of-anemia/

  Iron deficiency anemias can be regenerative or non-regenerative. The reason why some iron deficiency anemias are regenerative and others is unknown. […] Red blood cell lifespan is also reduced in iron deficiency anemia. This has been recently attributed to eryptosis. Iron-deficient RBCs show features of apoptosis (shrinkage, membrane blebbing, phosphatidylserine exposure) and are removed by splenic macrophages. […] There is also evidence of RBC fragmentation (keratocytes, acanthocytes, schistocytes) in iron deficiency in dogs and cats. […] Causes of an iron deficient anemia due to absolute iron deficiency are: 1) Dietary deficiency of iron: This is an uncommon cause of iron deficiency in animals. […] 2) Chronic external blood loss: The most common source of blood loss is the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. bleeding ulcers, colonic ectasia, blood-sucking parasites) in adult animals.

• #44 Iron deficiency anemia pathogenesis and lab diagnosis | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/iron-deficiency-anemia-pathogenesis-and-lab-diagnosis/47656420

  Iron deficiency is the most common anaemia. 83-90% of all anemia constitute IDA […] Pathogenesis of iron deficiency anemia There are three pathogenic factors Impaired Hb synthesis d/t reduced iron supply Generalized defect in cellular proliferation Survival of erythroid precursor and erythrocytes is reduced When transferrin saturation 15%, marrow supply of iron reduced and is inadequate to meet basal requirement for Hb production. erythrocyte protoporphyrin raised each RBC contain less Hb so microcytic and hypochromic […] Clinical features of iron deficiency anemia Fatigue and Other Nonspecific Symptoms irritability, palpitations, dizziness, breathlessness, headache, and fatigue Neuromuscular System impair muscular performance, abnormalities in muscle metabolism, behavioral disturbances, Neurologic development in infants and scholastic performance in older children may be impaired. Sometimes neuralgia pains, vasomotor disturbances, or numbness and tingling.

• #45 Iron Deficiency Anemia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/202333-overview

  Iron deficiency anemia develops when body stores of iron drop too low to support normal red blood cell (RBC) production. Inadequate dietary iron, impaired iron absorption, bleeding, or loss of body iron in the urine may be the cause. […] Iron equilibrium in the body normally is regulated carefully to ensure that sufficient iron is absorbed in order to compensate for body losses of iron. […] Iron is vital for all living organisms because it is essential for multiple metabolic processes, including oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport. Iron equilibrium in the body is regulated carefully to ensure that sufficient iron is absorbed in order to compensate for body losses of iron. […] Either diminished absorbable dietary iron or excessive loss of body iron can cause iron deficiency. Diminished absorption usually is due to an insufficient intake of dietary iron in an absorbable form. Hemorrhage is the most common cause of excessive loss of body iron, but it can occur with hemoglobinuria from intravascular hemolysis.

• #46 Iron deficiency anemia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/iron-deficiency-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355034

  Iron deficiency anemia occurs when your body doesn’t have enough iron to produce hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the part of red blood cells that gives blood its red color and enables the red blood cells to carry oxygenated blood throughout your body. […] If you aren’t consuming enough iron, or if you’re losing too much iron, your body can’t produce enough hemoglobin, and iron deficiency anemia will eventually develop. […] Causes of iron deficiency anemia include: Blood loss. Blood contains iron within red blood cells. So if you lose blood, you lose some iron. Women with heavy periods are at risk of iron deficiency anemia because they lose blood during menstruation. Slow, chronic blood loss within the body such as from a peptic ulcer, a hiatal hernia, a colon polyp or colorectal cancer can cause iron deficiency anemia. Gastrointestinal bleeding can result from regular use of some over-the-counter pain relievers, especially aspirin.

• #47 Iron deficiency anemia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/iron-deficiency-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355034

  Iron deficiency anemia occurs when your body doesn’t have enough iron to produce hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the part of red blood cells that gives blood its red color and enables the red blood cells to carry oxygenated blood throughout your body. […] If you aren’t consuming enough iron, or if you’re losing too much iron, your body can’t produce enough hemoglobin, and iron deficiency anemia will eventually develop. […] Causes of iron deficiency anemia include: Blood loss. Blood contains iron within red blood cells. So if you lose blood, you lose some iron. Women with heavy periods are at risk of iron deficiency anemia because they lose blood during menstruation. Slow, chronic blood loss within the body such as from a peptic ulcer, a hiatal hernia, a colon polyp or colorectal cancer can cause iron deficiency anemia. Gastrointestinal bleeding can result from regular use of some over-the-counter pain relievers, especially aspirin.

• #48 Iron deficiency anemia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/iron-deficiency-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355034

  Iron deficiency anemia occurs when your body doesn’t have enough iron to produce hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the part of red blood cells that gives blood its red color and enables the red blood cells to carry oxygenated blood throughout your body. […] If you aren’t consuming enough iron, or if you’re losing too much iron, your body can’t produce enough hemoglobin, and iron deficiency anemia will eventually develop. […] Causes of iron deficiency anemia include: Blood loss. Blood contains iron within red blood cells. So if you lose blood, you lose some iron. Women with heavy periods are at risk of iron deficiency anemia because they lose blood during menstruation. Slow, chronic blood loss within the body such as from a peptic ulcer, a hiatal hernia, a colon polyp or colorectal cancer can cause iron deficiency anemia. Gastrointestinal bleeding can result from regular use of some over-the-counter pain relievers, especially aspirin.

• #49 Iron deficiency anemia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/iron-deficiency-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355034

  Iron deficiency anemia occurs when your body doesn’t have enough iron to produce hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the part of red blood cells that gives blood its red color and enables the red blood cells to carry oxygenated blood throughout your body. […] If you aren’t consuming enough iron, or if you’re losing too much iron, your body can’t produce enough hemoglobin, and iron deficiency anemia will eventually develop. […] Causes of iron deficiency anemia include: Blood loss. Blood contains iron within red blood cells. So if you lose blood, you lose some iron. Women with heavy periods are at risk of iron deficiency anemia because they lose blood during menstruation. Slow, chronic blood loss within the body such as from a peptic ulcer, a hiatal hernia, a colon polyp or colorectal cancer can cause iron deficiency anemia. Gastrointestinal bleeding can result from regular use of some over-the-counter pain relievers, especially aspirin.

• #50 Iron deficiency anemia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/iron-deficiency-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355034

  A lack of iron in your diet. Your body regularly gets iron from the foods you eat. If you consume too little iron, over time your body can become iron deficient. […] An inability to absorb iron. Iron from food is absorbed into your bloodstream in your small intestine. An intestinal disorder, such as celiac disease, which affects your intestine’s ability to absorb nutrients from digested food, can lead to iron deficiency anemia. If part of your small intestine has been bypassed or removed surgically, that may affect your ability to absorb iron and other nutrients. […] Pregnancy. Without iron supplementation, iron deficiency anemia occurs in many pregnant women because their iron stores need to serve their own increased blood volume as well as be a source of hemoglobin for the growing fetus.

• #51 Iron deficiency anemia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/iron-deficiency-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355034

  A lack of iron in your diet. Your body regularly gets iron from the foods you eat. If you consume too little iron, over time your body can become iron deficient. […] An inability to absorb iron. Iron from food is absorbed into your bloodstream in your small intestine. An intestinal disorder, such as celiac disease, which affects your intestine’s ability to absorb nutrients from digested food, can lead to iron deficiency anemia. If part of your small intestine has been bypassed or removed surgically, that may affect your ability to absorb iron and other nutrients. […] Pregnancy. Without iron supplementation, iron deficiency anemia occurs in many pregnant women because their iron stores need to serve their own increased blood volume as well as be a source of hemoglobin for the growing fetus.

• #52 Iron deficiency anemia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/iron-deficiency-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355034

  A lack of iron in your diet. Your body regularly gets iron from the foods you eat. If you consume too little iron, over time your body can become iron deficient. […] An inability to absorb iron. Iron from food is absorbed into your bloodstream in your small intestine. An intestinal disorder, such as celiac disease, which affects your intestine’s ability to absorb nutrients from digested food, can lead to iron deficiency anemia. If part of your small intestine has been bypassed or removed surgically, that may affect your ability to absorb iron and other nutrients. […] Pregnancy. Without iron supplementation, iron deficiency anemia occurs in many pregnant women because their iron stores need to serve their own increased blood volume as well as be a source of hemoglobin for the growing fetus.

• #53 Iron Deficiency Anemia: A Closer Look

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/iron-deficiency-anemia-a-closer-look

  Because iron absorption is so limited, the body recycles and conserves iron. Transferrin grasps and recycles available iron from aging red blood cells undergoing phagocytosis by mononuclear phagocytes. […] Iron deficiency caused solely by diet is uncommon in adults in countries where meat is an important part of the diet. […] Prolonged achlorhydria may produce iron deficiency because acidic conditions are required to release ferric iron from food. […] The severity of the anemia can be documented by a CBC. In chronic iron deficiency anemia, the cellular indices show a microcytic and hypochromic erythropoiesis; both the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) have values below the normal range for the laboratory performing the test. […] A bone marrow aspirate can be used to diagnose iron deficiency. The absence of stainable iron in a bone marrow aspirate that contains spicules and the presence of stainable iron in a simultaneous control specimen permit establishment of a diagnosis of iron deficiency without other laboratory tests. […] Iron therapy without pursuit of the cause of iron deficiency is a poor practice. The response to treatment is assessed by serial hemoglobin measurements until normal red blood cell values are achieved.

• #54 Iron deficiency anemia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/iron-deficiency-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355034

  A lack of iron in your diet. Your body regularly gets iron from the foods you eat. If you consume too little iron, over time your body can become iron deficient. […] An inability to absorb iron. Iron from food is absorbed into your bloodstream in your small intestine. An intestinal disorder, such as celiac disease, which affects your intestine’s ability to absorb nutrients from digested food, can lead to iron deficiency anemia. If part of your small intestine has been bypassed or removed surgically, that may affect your ability to absorb iron and other nutrients. […] Pregnancy. Without iron supplementation, iron deficiency anemia occurs in many pregnant women because their iron stores need to serve their own increased blood volume as well as be a source of hemoglobin for the growing fetus.

• #55 A Review on Major Causes of Anemia and its Prevention Mechanism

  https://juniperpublishers.com/ijcsmb/IJCSMB.MS.ID.555686.php

  Infants, children, adolescents who need additional iron requirements for growth and pregnant women that need additional iron to supply the mothers expanding blood volume and to support the needs of the growing fetus are highly at risk of iron deficiency. […] Women of childbearing age, who have higher iron loses due to menstrual blood loss also develop iron deficiency. […] Chronic blood loss due to hookworm, schistosomes, Trichuris trichiura and iron absorption blockage due to Ascaris lumbricoides are a significant cause of anemia. […] The major clinical features of chronic hookworm infection are anemia and malnutrition which resulted from blood sucked by the parasite. […] In chronic intestinal blood loss, iron deficiency anemia develops when blood loss exceeds the intake and reserves of iron and protein in the host.

• #56 A Review on Major Causes of Anemia and its Prevention Mechanism

  https://juniperpublishers.com/ijcsmb/IJCSMB.MS.ID.555686.php

  Infants, children, adolescents who need additional iron requirements for growth and pregnant women that need additional iron to supply the mothers expanding blood volume and to support the needs of the growing fetus are highly at risk of iron deficiency. […] Women of childbearing age, who have higher iron loses due to menstrual blood loss also develop iron deficiency. […] Chronic blood loss due to hookworm, schistosomes, Trichuris trichiura and iron absorption blockage due to Ascaris lumbricoides are a significant cause of anemia. […] The major clinical features of chronic hookworm infection are anemia and malnutrition which resulted from blood sucked by the parasite. […] In chronic intestinal blood loss, iron deficiency anemia develops when blood loss exceeds the intake and reserves of iron and protein in the host.

• #57 A Review on Major Causes of Anemia and its Prevention Mechanism

  https://juniperpublishers.com/ijcsmb/IJCSMB.MS.ID.555686.php

  Iron deficiency anemia induced by hookworms depends on the species. […] Severe anemia is more firmly resulted from Schistosoma haematobium although all three forms can cause it. […] Anemia, the most widespread public health problems, causes impaired mental and psychomotor development, reduced work performance, and growth retardation in children. It is mainly caused by nutritional deficiencies and parasitic infections. Nutritional deficiency including iron deficiency anemia, vitamin B12 deficiency anemia and foliate deficiency anemia are the major causes of anemia. Blood loss due to hookworm, schistosomes, Trichuris trichiura and iron absorption blockage due to Ascaris lumbricoides are a significant cause of anemia.

• #58 Helicobacter pylori-Associated Iron Deficiency Anemia in Childhood and Adolescence-Pathogenesis and Clinical Management Strategy

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/24/7351

  Many epidemiological studies and meta-analyses show that persistent Helicobacter pylori infection in the gastric mucosa can lead to iron deficiency or iron deficiency anemia (IDA), particularly in certain populations of children and adolescents. […] However, the pathogenesis and specific risk factors leading to this clinical outcome in H. pylori-infected children remain poorly understood. […] It is known that H. pylori is closely associated with the development of IDA in children. […] Improvement of the associated IDA by eradication of H. pylori appears to be dependent primarily upon pediatric age groups, which might not be generalizable to adult populations. […] These facts lead to a hypothesis that the pathogenesis of the IDA differs from that of gastric ulcer or cancer caused by long-term infection of H. pylori.

• #59 Helicobacter pylori-Associated Iron Deficiency Anemia in Childhood and Adolescence-Pathogenesis and Clinical Management Strategy

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/24/7351

  It is thought that the pathogenesis and clinical outcome of H. pylori-associated diseases, including IDA, depend upon multiple factors, including but not limited to bacterial virulence and environmental factors, as well as host genetic and acquired factors. […] However, the specific mechanisms underlying H. pylori-associated IDA remain poorly understood. […] IDA can be directly caused by blood loss from H. pylori-induced mucosal injury and gastroduodenal lesions such as erosions and ulcerations. […] In H. pylori-infected children, however, the most common clinical diagnosis at diagnostic upper endoscopy is chronic gastritis without any hemorrhagic mucosal lesions. […] Thus, upper gastrointestinal mucosal lesions do not appear to play a direct or central role for IDA pathogenesis in H. pylori-infected children.

• #60 Helicobacter pylori-Associated Iron Deficiency Anemia in Childhood and Adolescence-Pathogenesis and Clinical Management Strategy

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/24/7351

  Impaired iron absorption due to reduced gastric acidity and ascorbic acid concentration, both of which are related to H. pylori gastritis and, in particular, atrophic gastritis, are suggested as important pathogenetic factors of H. pylori-associated IDA in adults. […] However, gastric acid secretion is not universally impaired in children with H. pylori chronic gastritis, although the secretion is markedly increased in those with H. pylori-associated duodenal ulcers. […] Hepcidin plays a key mediator of hypoferremia observed and associated with inflammation. […] Studies have demonstrated that IL-6 induces hepcidin expression in hepatic cells. […] It has been recently hypothesized that competition between H. pylori and humans for iron availability could lead to IDA. […] If this hypothesis is right, it is speculated that some of H. pylori strains are not harmful for the host, and the others aggressively steal bioavailable iron from the host, resulting in ID/IDA.

• #61 Helicobacter pylori-Associated Iron Deficiency Anemia in Childhood and Adolescence-Pathogenesis and Clinical Management Strategy

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/24/7351

  Impaired iron absorption due to reduced gastric acidity and ascorbic acid concentration, both of which are related to H. pylori gastritis and, in particular, atrophic gastritis, are suggested as important pathogenetic factors of H. pylori-associated IDA in adults. […] However, gastric acid secretion is not universally impaired in children with H. pylori chronic gastritis, although the secretion is markedly increased in those with H. pylori-associated duodenal ulcers. […] Hepcidin plays a key mediator of hypoferremia observed and associated with inflammation. […] Studies have demonstrated that IL-6 induces hepcidin expression in hepatic cells. […] It has been recently hypothesized that competition between H. pylori and humans for iron availability could lead to IDA. […] If this hypothesis is right, it is speculated that some of H. pylori strains are not harmful for the host, and the others aggressively steal bioavailable iron from the host, resulting in ID/IDA.

• #62

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10354-016-0505-7

  Iron deficiency anemia results from a reduction of the body’s iron content due to blood loss, inadequate dietary iron intake, its malabsorption, or increased iron demand. […] Immune activation drives a diversion of iron fluxes from the erythropoietic bone marrow, where hemoglobinization takes place, to storage sites, particularly the mononuclear phagocytes system in liver and spleen. This results in iron-limited erythropoiesis and anemia. […] Functional ID has a more complex pathophysiology and is commonly defined as a redistribution of iron from the key sites of its utilization (erythron, epidermis, mucosal surfaces) to storage sites, particularly the hepatic and splenic mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). […] The activation of immune cells by infectious agents, auto-antigens, or neoplastic cells initiates and maintains the development of AI by several mechanisms which coexist and are cross-regulatory.

• #63 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8744124/

  Dietary iron can be found in two forms: haem and non-haem iron. […] Compounds such as phytate, oxalate, polyphenols and tannin, which are found in plants, diminish the uptake of non-haem iron, as do some drugs, such as proton pump inhibitors. […] Hepcidin production and circulation are regulated by plasma iron concentration and iron stores. Hepcidin is increased in the presence of inflammation, which then promotes the degradation of ferroportin and subsequently impairs the exportation of cellular iron into plasma. […] IDA occurs in many chronic inflammatory conditions, including congestive cardiac failure (CCF), CKD and IBD. […] In CCF, IDA is one of the most prevalent comorbid conditions and can be a result of multiple factors including reduced appetite, increased GI blood losses as a result of antiplatelet or anticoagulant medication and decreased GI absorption due to oedema.

• #64 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8744124/

  Dietary iron can be found in two forms: haem and non-haem iron. […] Compounds such as phytate, oxalate, polyphenols and tannin, which are found in plants, diminish the uptake of non-haem iron, as do some drugs, such as proton pump inhibitors. […] Hepcidin production and circulation are regulated by plasma iron concentration and iron stores. Hepcidin is increased in the presence of inflammation, which then promotes the degradation of ferroportin and subsequently impairs the exportation of cellular iron into plasma. […] IDA occurs in many chronic inflammatory conditions, including congestive cardiac failure (CCF), CKD and IBD. […] In CCF, IDA is one of the most prevalent comorbid conditions and can be a result of multiple factors including reduced appetite, increased GI blood losses as a result of antiplatelet or anticoagulant medication and decreased GI absorption due to oedema.

• #65 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  Ferric maltol, a novel preparation, is a non-salt oral iron formulation composed of stable ferric iron complexed with a sugar derivative, tri-maltol. […] This subsequently increases the bioavailability of iron such that lower doses of elemental iron are required to treat IDA compared with the ferrous iron preparations. […] An alternative to oral iron supplementation is parenteral administration. […] The primary advantage of intravenous iron is that it bypasses the GI tract absorption, thereby avoiding further mucosal aggravation and inflammation and producing less side effects. […] IDA occurs in many chronic inflammatory conditions, including congestive cardiac failure, chronic kidney disease and inflammatory bowel disease. […] In CCF, IDA is one of the most prevalent comorbid conditions and can be a result of multiple factors including reduced appetite, increased GI blood losses as a result of antiplatelet or anticoagulant medication and decreased GI absorption due to oedema.

• #66 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8744124/

  The causes of IDA in CKD are similar to those in CCF, namely, reduced GI iron absorption, poor nutrition and blood loss caused by dialysis and frequent blood sampling. […] IDA has been acknowledged as one of the most common extra intestinal manifestations of IBD. […] Impaired GI iron absorption is caused by chronically inflamed bowel, chronic blood losses, bowel resection and malnutrition.

• #67 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  The causes of IDA in CKD are similar to those in CCF, namely, reduced GI iron absorption, poor nutrition and blood loss caused by dialysis and frequent blood sampling. […] IDA has been acknowledged as one of the most common extra intestinal manifestations of IBD. […] Improvement in iron status through treatment with intravenous iron has led to significant improvement in QoL in patients with IBD. […] A meta-analysis of trial data shows treatment of iron deficiency with both oral and intravenous iron reduces blood transfusion requirements and increases Hb levels but does not significantly impact mortality. […] Anaemia in pregnancy is defined as Hb 110g/L with ferritin levels 100g/L. […] The usual recommended dose of elemental iron is 80mg, which is equivalent to 250mg of oral iron sulphate tablets. […] However, a meta-analysis has demonstrated intravenous iron sucrose improved Hb (mean difference 7.17g/L) and serum ferritin levels (mean difference 49.66ug/L) while ferric carboxymaltose improved Hb levels (mean difference 8.52g/L), compared with oral ferrous sulphate.

• #68 Mechanism of action of AURYXIA

  https://www.auryxiahcp.com/iron-deficiency-anemia/about-auryxia/mechanism-of-action/

  Chronic kidney disease, CKD, is characterized by a gradual loss of kidney function, causing insufficient synthesis of erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates red blood cell (RBC) production and a lack of which causes anemia. Iron deficiency also causes anemia in CKD patients. AURYXIA is a unique formulation of ferric citrate coordination complexes that treats iron deficiency anemia in adults with CKD not receiving dialysis. Upon swallowing AURYXIA, ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron by the enzyme ferric reductase in the gastrointestinal tract, where the molecules are absorbed in the same highly regulated physiological pathway as dietary iron. In the bloodstream, ferrous iron is oxidized back to ferric iron, which binds to transferrin, an iron transfer protein that transports iron to the bone marrow for incorporation into hemoglobin for RBC production. AURYXIA treats iron deficiency anemia in non-dialysis patients with CKD. AURYXIA is a unique formulation of ferric citrate coordination complexes that treats iron deficiency anemia in adults with CKD not receiving dialysis. Ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron by the enzyme ferric reductase in the gastrointestinal tract. The molecules are absorbed in the same highly regulated physiological pathway as dietary iron. In the bloodstream, ferrous iron is oxidized back to ferric iron, which binds to transferrin. Transferrin transports iron to the bone marrow for incorporation into hemoglobin for red blood cell production. AURYXIA (ferric citrate) is indicated for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia in adult patients with chronic kidney disease not on dialysis.

• #69 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8744124/

  The causes of IDA in CKD are similar to those in CCF, namely, reduced GI iron absorption, poor nutrition and blood loss caused by dialysis and frequent blood sampling. […] IDA has been acknowledged as one of the most common extra intestinal manifestations of IBD. […] Impaired GI iron absorption is caused by chronically inflamed bowel, chronic blood losses, bowel resection and malnutrition.

• #70 Iron deficiency anaemia: pathophysiology, assessment, practical management | BMJ Open Gastroenterology

  https://bmjopengastro.bmj.com/content/9/1/e000759

  The causes of IDA in CKD are similar to those in CCF, namely, reduced GI iron absorption, poor nutrition and blood loss caused by dialysis and frequent blood sampling. […] IDA has been acknowledged as one of the most common extra intestinal manifestations of IBD. […] Improvement in iron status through treatment with intravenous iron has led to significant improvement in QoL in patients with IBD. […] A meta-analysis of trial data shows treatment of iron deficiency with both oral and intravenous iron reduces blood transfusion requirements and increases Hb levels but does not significantly impact mortality. […] Anaemia in pregnancy is defined as Hb 110g/L with ferritin levels 100g/L. […] The usual recommended dose of elemental iron is 80mg, which is equivalent to 250mg of oral iron sulphate tablets. […] However, a meta-analysis has demonstrated intravenous iron sucrose improved Hb (mean difference 7.17g/L) and serum ferritin levels (mean difference 49.66ug/L) while ferric carboxymaltose improved Hb levels (mean difference 8.52g/L), compared with oral ferrous sulphate.

• #71

  https://haematologica.org/article/view/5094

  The most obvious cause of anemia in celiac disease is impaired absorption of iron and other nutrients including folate and cobalamin. Villous atrophy of the intestinal mucosa is an important cause of abnormal iron absorption and this is reflected in the clearcut laboratory evidence of iron deficiency anemia in most anemic patients with celiac disease. Abnormal iron absorption is also supported by the failure to increase serum iron following oral iron loading, and refractoriness to oral iron treatment. […] […] As discussed above, pro-inflammatory cytokines play an essential role in the inflammatory and cytotoxic mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of celiac disease. Such cytokines, in particular interferon- (IFN-), and IL6, are powerful mediators of hypoferremia in inflammation inducing the synthesis of the iron regulatory hormone hepcidin. Increased hepcidin synthesis in turn is responsible for increased ferroportin degradation and the inhibition of iron release from macrophages and enterocytes leading to the well known abnormalities in iron homeostasis associated with the anemia of chronic disease. […]

• #72

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10354-016-0505-7

  Iron deficiency anemia results from a reduction of the body’s iron content due to blood loss, inadequate dietary iron intake, its malabsorption, or increased iron demand. […] Immune activation drives a diversion of iron fluxes from the erythropoietic bone marrow, where hemoglobinization takes place, to storage sites, particularly the mononuclear phagocytes system in liver and spleen. This results in iron-limited erythropoiesis and anemia. […] Functional ID has a more complex pathophysiology and is commonly defined as a redistribution of iron from the key sites of its utilization (erythron, epidermis, mucosal surfaces) to storage sites, particularly the hepatic and splenic mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). […] The activation of immune cells by infectious agents, auto-antigens, or neoplastic cells initiates and maintains the development of AI by several mechanisms which coexist and are cross-regulatory.

• #73

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10354-016-0505-7

  The excessive production of inflammatory mediators diverts iron to the MPS, rendering it relatively unavailable for erythroid progenitors. […] HAMP is the hormonal negative-feedback regulator of serum iron, as it limits iron-fluxes to the circulation. […] Increased HAMP levels are also well documented in infections, rheumatoid disorders, and IBD. […] The liver is a key organ initiating and maintaining AI. […] Hepatocytes are the key source of HAMP, while Kupffer cells (KC) are a major site of inflammation-driven iron storage. […] The spleen contributes to the pathogenesis of AI as site of iron retention in macrophages. […] While hepatic HAMP formation is increased during inflammation, EPO production in the kidney is subject to inhibition by inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and IL-1. […] A resistance of the erythron to EPO is another mechanism underlying AI, since it reduces the erythropoietic drive even in the setting of normal or adequately increased serum EPO concentrations.

• #74 Iron Deficiency Anemia – Hematology and Oncology – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology-and-oncology/anemias-caused-by-deficient-erythropoiesis/iron-deficiency-anemia

  Iron deficiency develops in stages. In the first stage, iron requirement exceeds intake, causing progressive depletion of bone marrow iron stores. As stores decrease, absorption of dietary iron increases in compensation. During later stages, deficiency impairs RBC synthesis, ultimately causing anemia. […] Severe and prolonged iron deficiency also may cause dysfunction of iron-containing cellular enzymes.

• #75 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  The clinical manifestations seen in iron deficiency are attributed to depletion of iron stores. […] The functions of iron in all cells includes; metabolism of energy, regulation of genes, growth and differentiation of cells, binding and transport of oxygen, use and storage of oxygen in the muscles, enzyme reactions, synthesis of proteins and neurotransmitters. […] Thus, deficiency of iron is a multi-systemic disorder, rather than a purely haematological condition associated with anaemia only. […] Adverse health effects of iron deficiency in children includes; growth retardation, impaired immune function, impaired behavioural, mental and psychomotor development as well as decreased work capacity. […] Iron is required for cell growth and differentiation. […] The iron-containing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase initiates the synthesis of DNA, which is a limiting factor in the rate of the replication of the cells.

• #76 Iron deficiency anemia pathophysiology – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Iron_deficiency_anemia_pathophysiology

  Iron deficiency anemia occurs when there is: Low dietary intake, Increased demands of iron, Impaired absorption of iron, Excessive loss of iron (blood loss), Increased hepcidin (chronic inflammation). […] Iron is required for haemoglobin synthesis, so deficiency of iron leads to depletion of haemoglobin. […] Decrease in haemoglobin leads to anemia. […] Due to low haemoglobin, oxygen is not transported effectively to cells and results in hypoxia.

• #77 Iron Deficiency Anemia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448065/

  Iron deficiency anemia is the most common cause of anemia worldwide, which results in microcytic and hypochromic red cells on the peripheral smear. […] Iron is essential for the production of hemoglobin. The depletion of iron stores may result from blood loss, decreased intake, impaired absorption, or increased demand. Iron-deficiency anemia could arise from occult gastrointestinal bleeding. […] Iron deficiency will lead to microcytic hypochromic anemia on the peripheral blood smear.

• #78 Causes of anemia | eClinpath

  https://eclinpath.com/hematology/anemia/causes-of-anemia/

  Iron deficiency anemias can be regenerative or non-regenerative. The reason why some iron deficiency anemias are regenerative and others is unknown. […] Red blood cell lifespan is also reduced in iron deficiency anemia. This has been recently attributed to eryptosis. Iron-deficient RBCs show features of apoptosis (shrinkage, membrane blebbing, phosphatidylserine exposure) and are removed by splenic macrophages. […] There is also evidence of RBC fragmentation (keratocytes, acanthocytes, schistocytes) in iron deficiency in dogs and cats. […] Causes of an iron deficient anemia due to absolute iron deficiency are: 1) Dietary deficiency of iron: This is an uncommon cause of iron deficiency in animals. […] 2) Chronic external blood loss: The most common source of blood loss is the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. bleeding ulcers, colonic ectasia, blood-sucking parasites) in adult animals.

• #79 Causes of anemia | eClinpath

  https://eclinpath.com/hematology/anemia/causes-of-anemia/

  Iron deficiency anemias can be regenerative or non-regenerative. The reason why some iron deficiency anemias are regenerative and others is unknown. […] Red blood cell lifespan is also reduced in iron deficiency anemia. This has been recently attributed to eryptosis. Iron-deficient RBCs show features of apoptosis (shrinkage, membrane blebbing, phosphatidylserine exposure) and are removed by splenic macrophages. […] There is also evidence of RBC fragmentation (keratocytes, acanthocytes, schistocytes) in iron deficiency in dogs and cats. […] Causes of an iron deficient anemia due to absolute iron deficiency are: 1) Dietary deficiency of iron: This is an uncommon cause of iron deficiency in animals. […] 2) Chronic external blood loss: The most common source of blood loss is the gastrointestinal tract (e.g. bleeding ulcers, colonic ectasia, blood-sucking parasites) in adult animals.

• #80 Iron deficiency anemia pathogenesis and lab diagnosis | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/iron-deficiency-anemia-pathogenesis-and-lab-diagnosis/47656420

  Iron deficiency is the most common anaemia. 83-90% of all anemia constitute IDA […] Pathogenesis of iron deficiency anemia There are three pathogenic factors Impaired Hb synthesis d/t reduced iron supply Generalized defect in cellular proliferation Survival of erythroid precursor and erythrocytes is reduced When transferrin saturation 15%, marrow supply of iron reduced and is inadequate to meet basal requirement for Hb production. erythrocyte protoporphyrin raised each RBC contain less Hb so microcytic and hypochromic […] Clinical features of iron deficiency anemia Fatigue and Other Nonspecific Symptoms irritability, palpitations, dizziness, breathlessness, headache, and fatigue Neuromuscular System impair muscular performance, abnormalities in muscle metabolism, behavioral disturbances, Neurologic development in infants and scholastic performance in older children may be impaired. Sometimes neuralgia pains, vasomotor disturbances, or numbness and tingling.

• #81 Iron deficiency anemia pathogenesis and lab diagnosis | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/iron-deficiency-anemia-pathogenesis-and-lab-diagnosis/47656420

  Iron deficiency is the most common anaemia. 83-90% of all anemia constitute IDA […] Pathogenesis of iron deficiency anemia There are three pathogenic factors Impaired Hb synthesis d/t reduced iron supply Generalized defect in cellular proliferation Survival of erythroid precursor and erythrocytes is reduced When transferrin saturation 15%, marrow supply of iron reduced and is inadequate to meet basal requirement for Hb production. erythrocyte protoporphyrin raised each RBC contain less Hb so microcytic and hypochromic […] Clinical features of iron deficiency anemia Fatigue and Other Nonspecific Symptoms irritability, palpitations, dizziness, breathlessness, headache, and fatigue Neuromuscular System impair muscular performance, abnormalities in muscle metabolism, behavioral disturbances, Neurologic development in infants and scholastic performance in older children may be impaired. Sometimes neuralgia pains, vasomotor disturbances, or numbness and tingling.

• #82 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  Thus, iron deficiency limits cellular proliferation. […] Iron deficiency thus leads to reduced learning capacity and impaired cognitive function. […] Studies have also reported that iron deficiency during early life can have lasting cognitive effects even after iron repletion. […] The treatment of iron deficiency is done with oral iron salts, most of the time, over-the-counter ferrous sulfate, which is cheap and well absorbed relatively.

• #83 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  Thus, iron deficiency limits cellular proliferation. […] Iron deficiency thus leads to reduced learning capacity and impaired cognitive function. […] Studies have also reported that iron deficiency during early life can have lasting cognitive effects even after iron repletion. […] The treatment of iron deficiency is done with oral iron salts, most of the time, over-the-counter ferrous sulfate, which is cheap and well absorbed relatively.

• #84 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  The clinical manifestations seen in iron deficiency are attributed to depletion of iron stores. […] The functions of iron in all cells includes; metabolism of energy, regulation of genes, growth and differentiation of cells, binding and transport of oxygen, use and storage of oxygen in the muscles, enzyme reactions, synthesis of proteins and neurotransmitters. […] Thus, deficiency of iron is a multi-systemic disorder, rather than a purely haematological condition associated with anaemia only. […] Adverse health effects of iron deficiency in children includes; growth retardation, impaired immune function, impaired behavioural, mental and psychomotor development as well as decreased work capacity. […] Iron is required for cell growth and differentiation. […] The iron-containing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase initiates the synthesis of DNA, which is a limiting factor in the rate of the replication of the cells.

• #85 Pathophysiology | Iron Deficiency Anemia

  https://u.osu.edu/irondeficiencyanemia/pathophysiology/

  IDA is a hypochromic-microcytic anemia red blood cells (RBCs) are abnormally small with low levels of hemoglobin (hgb) […] Despite the cause, IDA occurs when the bodys iron demand exceeds that of its supply […] Two types: iron store depletion vs. metabolic/functional […] Inflammatory response of body in response to infection may also contribute to an acute form of IDA […] Mechanism low iron stores leads to demand supply […] Mechanism depleting iron stores faster than replacing combined while increasing bodys demand for iron […] Mechanism delivery to bone marrow to be utilized in the production of RBCs is impaired […] Mechanism even when delivered, there is impaired use of iron in the bone marrow to produce RBCs […] Iron regulates immune effector mechanisms cytokine activity, nitric oxide formation, and T-cell proliferation […] Acquired IDA may be bodys response to a pathogen many pathogens require iron to survive […] Reduction in iron transport to bone marrow, causing iron-deficient RBC production (hemoglobin content of RBC is reduced) […] Small, hemoglobin-deficient cells enter circulation, replacing normal RBC.

• #86 Iron-deficiency anemia as a risk factor for acute lower respiratory tract infections in children younger than 5 years | The Egyptian Journal of Bronchology | Full Text

  https://ejb.springeropen.com/articles/10.4103/ejb.ejb_67_17

  Anemia was found in 74% of cases and 38% of controls. IDA was present in 60% of cases and 24% of controls. […] There was a statistically significant increased incidence of anemia [odds ratio (OR) was 4.64] and presence of IDA (OR was 4.75) in group I compared with group II. […] Children with IDA were found to be four times more susceptible to ALRTI and ten times more susceptible to recurrent chest infections when compared with children without anemia.

• #87 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  The clinical manifestations seen in iron deficiency are attributed to depletion of iron stores. […] The functions of iron in all cells includes; metabolism of energy, regulation of genes, growth and differentiation of cells, binding and transport of oxygen, use and storage of oxygen in the muscles, enzyme reactions, synthesis of proteins and neurotransmitters. […] Thus, deficiency of iron is a multi-systemic disorder, rather than a purely haematological condition associated with anaemia only. […] Adverse health effects of iron deficiency in children includes; growth retardation, impaired immune function, impaired behavioural, mental and psychomotor development as well as decreased work capacity. […] Iron is required for cell growth and differentiation. […] The iron-containing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase initiates the synthesis of DNA, which is a limiting factor in the rate of the replication of the cells.

• #88 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  The clinical manifestations seen in iron deficiency are attributed to depletion of iron stores. […] The functions of iron in all cells includes; metabolism of energy, regulation of genes, growth and differentiation of cells, binding and transport of oxygen, use and storage of oxygen in the muscles, enzyme reactions, synthesis of proteins and neurotransmitters. […] Thus, deficiency of iron is a multi-systemic disorder, rather than a purely haematological condition associated with anaemia only. […] Adverse health effects of iron deficiency in children includes; growth retardation, impaired immune function, impaired behavioural, mental and psychomotor development as well as decreased work capacity. […] Iron is required for cell growth and differentiation. […] The iron-containing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase initiates the synthesis of DNA, which is a limiting factor in the rate of the replication of the cells.

• #89 Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in children: physiology, epidemiology, aetiology, clinical effects, laboratory diagnosis and treatment: literature review – Animasahun – Journal of Xiangya Medicine

  https://jxym.amegroups.org/article/view/7381/html

  The clinical manifestations seen in iron deficiency are attributed to depletion of iron stores. […] The functions of iron in all cells includes; metabolism of energy, regulation of genes, growth and differentiation of cells, binding and transport of oxygen, use and storage of oxygen in the muscles, enzyme reactions, synthesis of proteins and neurotransmitters. […] Thus, deficiency of iron is a multi-systemic disorder, rather than a purely haematological condition associated with anaemia only. […] Adverse health effects of iron deficiency in children includes; growth retardation, impaired immune function, impaired behavioural, mental and psychomotor development as well as decreased work capacity. […] Iron is required for cell growth and differentiation. […] The iron-containing enzyme ribonucleotide reductase initiates the synthesis of DNA, which is a limiting factor in the rate of the replication of the cells.

• #90 Iron deficiency anemia pathogenesis and lab diagnosis | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/iron-deficiency-anemia-pathogenesis-and-lab-diagnosis/47656420

  Iron deficiency is the most common anaemia. 83-90% of all anemia constitute IDA […] Pathogenesis of iron deficiency anemia There are three pathogenic factors Impaired Hb synthesis d/t reduced iron supply Generalized defect in cellular proliferation Survival of erythroid precursor and erythrocytes is reduced When transferrin saturation 15%, marrow supply of iron reduced and is inadequate to meet basal requirement for Hb production. erythrocyte protoporphyrin raised each RBC contain less Hb so microcytic and hypochromic […] Clinical features of iron deficiency anemia Fatigue and Other Nonspecific Symptoms irritability, palpitations, dizziness, breathlessness, headache, and fatigue Neuromuscular System impair muscular performance, abnormalities in muscle metabolism, behavioral disturbances, Neurologic development in infants and scholastic performance in older children may be impaired. Sometimes neuralgia pains, vasomotor disturbances, or numbness and tingling.

• #91 Iron Deficiency Anemia Pruritus: A Review with Proposed Mechanisms of Action | SKIN The Journal of Cutaneous Medicine

  https://skin.dermsquared.com/skin/article/view/2246

  Chronic generalized pruritus without a primary skin lesion presents a dilemma for clinicians. Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) presents one such poorly defined cause. Several studies and case reports describe the association of pruritus and IDA, and more importantly, resolution of the pruritus upon iron supplementation, strongly suggesting IDA as the primary etiology. […] Based on currently available evidence, we also present novel mechanisms of actions in which iron deficiency may precipitate pruritus that have not been proposed in the literature. Iron deficiency may precipitate pruritus at the level of the skin through decreased skin thickness, elasticity, or barrier function, thereby promoting xerosis. Iron deficiency may also cause neurologic pruritus from damage, compression, or irritation of nerves. The levels of known chemical mediators of itch, such as serotonin, opioids, and neurotrophins, are also affected by iron homeostasis. IDA pruritus likely manifests from a complex interplay of multiple proposed pathways.

• #92 Association between Ischemic Stroke and Iron-Deficiency Anemia: A Population-Based Study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0082952

  There is a significant association between prior IDA and ischemic stroke. […] The disease is caused by insufficient dietary intake and absorption of iron, and/or iron loss from bleeding which can originate from a range of sources such as the intestinal, uterine or urinary tract. […] Despite the reasonable speculation that a decrease in hemoglobin might possibly compromise the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood flow and subsequently increase the risk of cerebrovascular or cardiovascular diseases, the relationship between the IDA and the stroke was seldom studied. […] The possible reasons for the IDA as a risk factor for ischemic stroke could be explained that a decrease of the hemoglobin level in the blood stream would likely result in the compromise of tissue oxygen delivery. […] Another possible mechanism that may explain the association between IDA and stroke is through the secondary thrombocytosis as a result of iron deficiency.

• #93 Iron-Deficiency Anemia: Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/iron-deficiency-anemia

  Certain medical conditions can cause internal bleeding, which can lead to iron-deficiency anemia. […] Certain disorders or surgeries that affect the intestines can also interfere with how your body absorbs iron. […] Some conditions like celiac disease that can make it difficult to absorb enough iron are passed down through families. […] This mutation causes your body to make too much hepcidin. Hepcidin is a hormone that can block your intestines from absorbing iron. […] Most cases of iron-deficiency anemia are mild and don’t cause complications. The condition can usually be corrected easily. However, if anemia or iron deficiency is left untreated, it can lead to other health problems. […] When you’re anemic, your heart has to pump more blood to make up for the low amount of oxygen. This can lead to an irregular heartbeat. In severe cases, it can lead to heart failure or an enlarged heart.

• #94 Iron-Deficiency Anemia: Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/iron-deficiency-anemia

  In severe cases of iron deficiency, a child may be born prematurely or with a low birth weight. […] Iron tablets can help restore iron levels in your body. […] Diets that include the following foods can help treat or prevent iron deficiency: […] Iron supplements won’t help as much if excess bleeding causes the deficiency. […] When caused by inadequate iron intake, iron-deficiency anemia can be prevented by eating a diet high in iron-rich foods and vitamin C. […] Iron-deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia. It occurs when your body doesn’t have enough iron. Potential causes include not eating enough iron-rich foods, blood loss due to menstruation, and inability to absorb iron.

• #95 Dissertation or Thesis | Iron Deficiency Anemia and the Pathogenesis of Falciparum Malaria | ID: kh04dq377 | Carolina Digital Repository

  https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/dissertations/kh04dq377?locale=en

  Anemia, primarily iron deficiency anemia (IDA), affects up to 50% of pregnant women and 40% of preschool children in the developing world, significantly impacting perinatal and developmental health. […] Our lab developed an in vitro model, obtaining red blood cells (RBCs) from IDA or healthy donors at UNC, to study mechanisms of malaria-associated IDA protection and iron treatment risk. […] Given iron is essential for the parasite, it was previously thought iron deficiency inhibited malaria through starvation. However, IDA also limits erythropoiesis and induces physiologic RBC changes. […] Our UNC-based studies thus generated a novel and paradigm-shifting hypothesis namely that changes in RBC properties and the RBC population structure drive IDA resistance to and iron supplementation risk for malaria.

• #96

  https://grantome.com/grant/NIH/F30-AI110378-04

  Iron deficiency anemia and malaria are interconnected global health concerns. Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) causes significant health deficits in pregnant women and children in the developing world and requires iron supplementation. Paradoxically, evidence suggests IDA protects against Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection. Thus the need for iron supplementation creates a public health dilemma in malaria endemic areas. Physiologically, IDA alters erythropoiesis and red blood cells (RBCs) as well as innate immune function, which may considerably impact the symptomatic RBC stage of P. falciparum infection. […] Our preliminary data showing P. falciparum less frequently invades and replicates less efficiently in IDA RBC suggest changes in RBC properties and the RBC population structure drive IDA resistance to malaria. Still, the precise molecular mechanisms of IDA resistance remain unknown. The long term goal is to further understand natural alterations in human RBC physiology that confer resistance to malaria infection, in order to direct IDA management in malaria endemic areas. Our overarching hypothesis is that natural alterations in human RBC physiology caused by host iron deficiency reduce the ability of malaria parasites to both invade and grow in IDA RBCs. Specifically, we will define the physiological properties of IDA RBC membranes that reduce invasion by the merozoite stage of the parasite (AIM 1). In addition, we will assess whether the parasite uses different RBC invasion pathways to infect IDA RBCs and determine the precise step(s) in merozoite RBC invasion impacted by host iron deficiency (AIM 2). The proposal aims will determine the critical molecular properties of IDA RBCs that serve to protect against malaria infection.

• #97 Dissertation or Thesis | Iron Deficiency Anemia and the Pathogenesis of Falciparum Malaria | ID: kh04dq377 | Carolina Digital Repository

  https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/dissertations/kh04dq377?locale=en

  Our results demonstrate P.falciparum erythrocytic stage growth in vitro is low at baseline, correlating with hemoglobin levels and mean corpuscular volume. […] Additionally, we found reduced parasite invasion in RBCs from iron deficient Gambian children, which increases during iron supplementation. […] The elevated growth rates following iron supplementation paralleled increases in circulating reticulocytes and other markers of young RBCs, kinetics of which correlate with overall increased erythropoiesis. […] We conclude malaria growth in vitro corresponds with elevated erythropoiesis, an inevitable consequence of iron supplementation. Our findings imply iron supplementation in malarious regions should be accompanied by effective preventative measures against falciparum malaria.

• #98

  https://grantome.com/grant/NIH/F30-AI110378-04

  Iron deficiency anemia and malaria are interconnected global health concerns. Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) causes significant health deficits in pregnant women and children in the developing world and requires iron supplementation. Paradoxically, evidence suggests IDA protects against Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection. Thus the need for iron supplementation creates a public health dilemma in malaria endemic areas. Physiologically, IDA alters erythropoiesis and red blood cells (RBCs) as well as innate immune function, which may considerably impact the symptomatic RBC stage of P. falciparum infection. […] Our preliminary data showing P. falciparum less frequently invades and replicates less efficiently in IDA RBC suggest changes in RBC properties and the RBC population structure drive IDA resistance to malaria. Still, the precise molecular mechanisms of IDA resistance remain unknown. The long term goal is to further understand natural alterations in human RBC physiology that confer resistance to malaria infection, in order to direct IDA management in malaria endemic areas. Our overarching hypothesis is that natural alterations in human RBC physiology caused by host iron deficiency reduce the ability of malaria parasites to both invade and grow in IDA RBCs. Specifically, we will define the physiological properties of IDA RBC membranes that reduce invasion by the merozoite stage of the parasite (AIM 1). In addition, we will assess whether the parasite uses different RBC invasion pathways to infect IDA RBCs and determine the precise step(s) in merozoite RBC invasion impacted by host iron deficiency (AIM 2). The proposal aims will determine the critical molecular properties of IDA RBCs that serve to protect against malaria infection.

• #99 Iron-Refractory Iron Deficiency Anemia (IRIDA) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/irida

  Iron-refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA) is a rare form of iron deficiency anemia. Iron deficiency anemia occurs when red blood cell counts are low due to a lack of iron. […] While iron deficiency anemia is generally an acquired disease and due to insufficient iron in the child’s diet or chronic blood loss, children with IRIDA are born with a gene mutation that causes iron deficiency. […] IRIDA is caused by mutations in the gene TMPRSS6. It is inherited as an autosomal recessive disorder, which means both parents must have a copy of the gene mutation and pass it on to their child. Therefore it may be seen in several of the child’s family members. The TMPRSS6 gene encodes a particular liver protein that regulates the production of hepcidin, an iron regulatory hormone. In children with IRIDA, the TMPRSS6 mutation causes elevated levels of hepcidin, which ultimately impairs the body’s ability to both absorb and use iron.

• #100 Iron deficiency anemia: current strategies for the diagnosis and management | Kaya | Reviews in Health Care

  https://journals.seedmedicalpublishers.com/index.php/rhc/article/view/480/964

  Iron deficiency results when either dietary intake does not meet the body’s requirement or when there is chronic blood loss. These two causes together with malabsorption, account for the majority of cases. […] IDA can be induced iatrogenically through excessive phlebotomies of blood donor, as a regular blood donation of 450 ml removes approximately 200 mg of iron from the body. Finally, rare genetic defects in ferroportin and hepcidin regulation have been reported to cause iron refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA) in humans. […] The general principles of treating patients with IDA include preventing further blood loss, correcting the anemia if severe, initiating iron supplementation, and addressing the underlying disease. Iron supplementation is generally needed to restore iron homeostasis and should be based on the degree of anemia, underlying pathology, red blood cell count, serum iron panel and erythrocyte morphology.

• #101

  https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=102737

  Iron deficiency is defined as a condition with depletion of iron stores characterized by signs of a compromised supply of iron to tissues, including the erythrocytes. […] The concentration of iron in biological fluids is tightly regulated to maintain iron levels as needed and to avoid toxicity, as excess iron can lead to the generation of reactive oxygen species. […] Dysregulation of hepcidin expression results in iron disorders. […] Liposomal iron is the breakthrough in the management of IDA, non-responsive to conventional oral iron preparations. […] Liposomal iron, a new generation oral iron preparation of ferric pyrophosphate carried within a phospholipid and lecithin membrane, shows a high GI absorption and high bioavailability with lower incidence of side effects. […] Through Trojan Horse-like mechanism, the liposome is directly absorbed in the intestinal lumen by the microfold cells (M cells) of the small intestine, which is the part of lymphatic system.

• #102 COVID-19 and iron deficiency anemia: relationships of pathogenesis and therapy | Gromova | Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproduction

  https://www.gynecology.su/jour/article/view/831?locale=en_US

  During pregnancy, a woman becomes more susceptible to respiratory and viral diseases, including novel coronavirus infection (COVID-19). […] In particular, erythrocyte degradation due to acute inflammation leads to hypoxia and uncontrolled inter-tissue iron redistribution. […] As a result, conditions are created simultaneously for developing pulmonary hemosiderosis and hemosiderosis of other tissues in pregnant woman and fetus, as well as for augmenting iron loss from the body, which exacerbates iron deficiency anemia (IDA). […] It is important to emphasize that a surge of ferritin level distinctive for severe COVID-19, does not indicate iron overload. Therefore, recommendations to cancel IDA correction and even to use iron chelators in COVID-19 may increase hypoxia and harm the health of pregnant women.

Zobacz więcej