Materiały źródłowe

• #1 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) from cardiac arrest is a major international public health problem accounting for an estimated 15-20% of all deaths. […] SCD most often develops in older adults with acquired structural heart disease, but it also rarely occurs in the young, where it is more commonly due to inherited disorders. […] Coronary heart disease (CHD) is known to be the most common pathology underlying SCD, followed by cardiomyopathies, inherited arrhythmia syndromes, and valvular heart disease. […] Over the past three decades, declines in SCD rates have not been as steep as for other causes of CHD deaths, and there is a growing fraction of SCDs not due to CHD and/or ventricular arrhythmias, particularly among certain subsets of the population. […] The growing heterogeneity of the pathologies and mechanisms underlying SCD present major challenges for SCD prevention, which are magnified further by a frequent lack of recognition of the underlying cardiac condition prior to death.

• #2 2 Understanding the Public Health Burden of Cardiac Arrest: The Need for National Surveillance | Strategies to Improve Cardiac Arrest Survival: A Time to Act | The National Academies Press

  https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/21723/chapter/4

  Cardiac arrest is a complex and lethal condition that poses a substantial public health burden, with high nationwide mortality rates and the potential for profound and irreversible neurologic injury and functional disability. […] Current limitations make accurate measurement of cardiac arrest incidence and outcomes challenging. […] This chapter provides an overview of the current understanding of the public health burden of OHCA and IHCA in the United States. […] Recent estimates suggest that approximately 395,000 cases of OHCA occur in the United States every year among patients of all ages, in which only 5.5 percent of all patients survive to hospital discharge. […] An estimated 200,000 IHCAs of presumed cardiac origin also occur annually, with national survival rates of approximately 24 percent.

• #3 Sudden Cardiac Death: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Management

  https://uknowledge.uky.edu/surgery_facpub/45/

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is an unexpected sudden death due to a heart condition, that occurs within one hour of symptoms onset. SCD is a leading cause of death in western countries, and is responsible for the majority of deaths from cardiovascular disease. Moreover, SCD accounts for mortality in approximately half of all coronary heart disease patients. […] In this article, we sought to review established and new modes of screening patients at risk for SCD, treatment and prevention of SCD, and the role of new technologies in the field. Further, we delineate the current epidemiologic trends and pathogenesis.

• #4 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) from cardiac arrest is a major international public health problem accounting for an estimated 15-20% of all deaths. […] SCD most often develops in older adults with acquired structural heart disease, but it also rarely occurs in the young, where it is more commonly due to inherited disorders. […] Coronary heart disease (CHD) is known to be the most common pathology underlying SCD, followed by cardiomyopathies, inherited arrhythmia syndromes, and valvular heart disease. […] Over the past three decades, declines in SCD rates have not been as steep as for other causes of CHD deaths, and there is a growing fraction of SCDs not due to CHD and/or ventricular arrhythmias, particularly among certain subsets of the population. […] The growing heterogeneity of the pathologies and mechanisms underlying SCD present major challenges for SCD prevention, which are magnified further by a frequent lack of recognition of the underlying cardiac condition prior to death.

• #5 Epidemiology of Sudden Cardiac Death: Clinical and Research Implications

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621010/

  The current annual incidence of sudden cardiac death in the US is likely to be in the range of 180250,000 per year. […] There is evidence pointing toward a significant decrease in rates of sudden cardiac death in the US during the second half of the twentieth century. […] The current advancements in resuscitation science notwithstanding, survival from sudden cardiac arrest remains low even in the developed nations. […] The purpose of this review is to summarize current knowledge of sudden cardiac death epidemiology. […] The first stage in the process of confronting any community-wide disease condition is the definition of the problem. […] The most accepted definition is sudden and unexpected death within an hour of symptom-onset. […] Therefore the US estimates published by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (400450,000 per year) are likely to be a significant overestimate.

• #6 Epidemiology of Sudden Cardiac Death: Clinical and Research Implications

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621010/

  The current annual incidence of sudden cardiac death in the US is likely to be in the range of 180250,000 per year. […] An estimate for global annual incidence of sudden cardiac death would be in the range of 45 million cases per year. […] We are likely to witness a resurgence of coronary artery disease and heart failure, as a result of which sudden cardiac death will have to be confronted as a shared and indiscriminate, worldwide public health problem.

• #7 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  There may be a growing fraction of SCDs not due to CHD and/or ventricular arrhythmias, particularly among certain subsets of the population. […] In order to further reduce the incidence of SCD, preventive strategies need to be tailored to diverse populations at varying levels of risk. […] Estimates regarding the annual incidence of SCA and SCD vary widely depending on data sources for case ascertainment, definitions employed, and methods utilized for extrapolation of rates. […] These difficulties in extrapolating SCA and SCD rates are likely magnified further when comparing SCD rates across countries where EMS protocols, autopsy rates, and national recording systems vary. […] The majority of global comparisons are based upon rates of emergency medical service (EMS) attended out of hospital cardiac arrests (OHCA), which appear to be much lower in Asia as compared to Europe, North America, and Australia.

• #8 Latest Statistics | Sudden Cardiac Arrest Foundation

  https://www.sca-aware.org/about-sudden-cardiac-arrest/latest-statistics

  Public health crisisThe American Heart Association has released Heart and Stroke Statistics – 2022 Update. According to the report, cardiac arrest remains a public health crisis. There are more than 356,000 out-of-hospital cardiac arrests (OHCA) annually in the U.S., nearly 90% of them fatal. The incidence of EMS-assessed non-traumatic OHCA in people of any age is estimated to be 356,461, or nearly 1,000 people each day. Survival to hospital discharge after EMS-treated cardiac arrest languishes at about 10%. […] Despite being a leading cause of death there are currently no nationwide standards for surveillance to monitor the incidence and outcomes of cardiac arrest. Thus, registries and clinical trials are used to provide best estimates. These sources include the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium (ROC), 2005-2015, and the ongoing Cardiac Arrest Registry to Enhance Survival (CARES). […] Survival to hospital discharge after EMS-treated OHCA was 9% and survival to hospital discharge with good functional status was 7%, based on 124,088 cases (CARES 2020). […] Survival to hospital discharge after EMS-treated nontraumatic OHCA in 2015 was 13.2% for children in the ROC epistry.

• #9 2 Understanding the Public Health Burden of Cardiac Arrest: The Need for National Surveillance | Strategies to Improve Cardiac Arrest Survival: A Time to Act | The National Academies Press

  https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/21723/chapter/4

  Cardiac arrest is a complex and lethal condition that poses a substantial public health burden, with high nationwide mortality rates and the potential for profound and irreversible neurologic injury and functional disability. […] Current limitations make accurate measurement of cardiac arrest incidence and outcomes challenging. […] This chapter provides an overview of the current understanding of the public health burden of OHCA and IHCA in the United States. […] Recent estimates suggest that approximately 395,000 cases of OHCA occur in the United States every year among patients of all ages, in which only 5.5 percent of all patients survive to hospital discharge. […] An estimated 200,000 IHCAs of presumed cardiac origin also occur annually, with national survival rates of approximately 24 percent.

• #10 Epidemiology of Sudden Cardiac Death: Clinical and Research Implications

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621010/

  A prospective study in the Maastricht area of the Netherlands reported an annual incidence of sudden out-of-hospital cardiac arrests of 90100/100,000 residents age 2075 years. […] The Oregon Sudden Unexpected Death Study (Ore-SUDS) is an ongoing prospective community-wide evaluation of sudden cardiac death. […] In the first year of this study, the annual incidence of sudden cardiac death was 53 per 100,000 residents and accounted for 5.6 percent of overall deaths. […] Taken together, an estimated annual incidence of sudden cardiac death in the US (total population approx. 300,000,000), would range between 180,000 250,000 cases per year. […] For the world (total population approx. 6,540,000,000), the estimated annual burden of sudden cardiac death would be in the range of 45 million cases per year.

• #11 Epidemiology of Sudden Cardiac Death: Clinical and Research Implications

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621010/

  The current annual incidence of sudden cardiac death in the US is likely to be in the range of 180250,000 per year. […] An estimate for global annual incidence of sudden cardiac death would be in the range of 45 million cases per year. […] We are likely to witness a resurgence of coronary artery disease and heart failure, as a result of which sudden cardiac death will have to be confronted as a shared and indiscriminate, worldwide public health problem.

• #12 Sudden Cardiac Death: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151907-overview

  The frequency of SCD in Western industrialized nations is similar to that in the United States. The incidence of SCD in other countries varies as a reflection of the prevalence of coronary artery disease or other high-frequency cardiomyopathies in those populations. The trend toward increasing SCD events in developing nations of the world is thought to reflect a change in dietary and lifestyle habits in these nations. It has been estimated that SCD claims more than 7,000,000 lives per year worldwide. […] Most studies demonstrate inconclusive data with regard to racial differences as they relate to the incidence of sudden death. Some studies suggest that a greater proportion of coronary deaths were „sudden” in blacks compared to whites. […] Men have a higher incidence of SCD than women, with a ratio of 3:1. This ratio generally reflects the higher incidence of obstructive coronary artery disease in men.

• #13 Sudden Cardiac Death and Arrhythmias | AER Journal

  https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/sudden-cardiac-death-and-arrhythmias?language_content_entity=en

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) and arrhythmia represent a major worldwide public health problem, accounting for 15-20% of all deaths. Early resuscitation and defibrillation remains the key to survival, yet its implementation and the access to public defibrillators remains poor, resulting in overall poor survival to patients discharged from hospital. […] An estimated 180,000-300,000 sudden cardiac deaths (SCD) occur in the US annually. Worldwide, sudden and unexpected cardiac death is the most common cause of death, accounting for 17 million deaths every year with SCD accounting for 25% of these. The accepted definition of SCD is death that occurs within one hour of onset of symptoms in witnessed cases, and within 24 hours of last being seen alive when it is unwitnessed. […] Despite the decline in cardiovascular deaths over the past several decades, due to improved preventative strategies, the incidence of SCD as a proportion of overall cardiovascular deaths has increased. This has occurred because in-hospital mortality has declined more rapidly, highlighting the need for better risk stratification methods and preventative strategies.

• #14 Sudden Cardiac Death: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis and Management

  https://uknowledge.uky.edu/surgery_facpub/45/

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is an unexpected sudden death due to a heart condition, that occurs within one hour of symptoms onset. SCD is a leading cause of death in western countries, and is responsible for the majority of deaths from cardiovascular disease. Moreover, SCD accounts for mortality in approximately half of all coronary heart disease patients. […] In this article, we sought to review established and new modes of screening patients at risk for SCD, treatment and prevention of SCD, and the role of new technologies in the field. Further, we delineate the current epidemiologic trends and pathogenesis.

• #15 Sudden Cardiac Death: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151907-overview

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) accounts for approximately 325,000 deaths per year in the United States; more deaths are attributable to SCD than to lung cancer, breast cancer, or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). This represents an incidence of 0.1-0.2% per year in the adult population. SCD is often the first expression of coronary artery disease (CAD) and is responsible for approximately 50% of deaths from CAD. […] In several population-based studies, the incidence of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest has been noted as declining in the past 2 decades, but the proportion of sudden CAD deaths in the United States has not changed. A high incidence of SCD occurs among certain subgroups of high-risk patients (congestive heart failure with ejection fraction 30%, convalescent phase after myocardial infarction, patients who survived cardiac arrest). However, these populations are much smaller than patients with minimal or even inapparent coronary artery disease. Consequently, in the overall population, most SCD occurs in lower risk patients. The time dependence of risk for SCD has been noted in several studies, with an increased number of events in the first 6-24 months after surviving a major cardiovascular event.

• #16 Cardiac arrest – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_arrest

  The risk of cardiac arrest varies with geographical region, age, and gender. The lifetime risk is three times greater in men (12.3%) than women (4.2%) based on analysis of the Framingham Heart Study. […] Based on death certificates, sudden cardiac death accounts for about 20% of all deaths in the United States. […] In the United States, approximately 326,000 cases of out-of-hospital and 209,000 cases of IHCA occur among adults annually, which works out to be an incidence of approximately 110.8 per 100,000 adults per year. […] In the United States, during-pregnancy cardiac arrest occurs in about one in twelve-thousand deliveries or 1.8 per 10,000 live births. […] Non-Western regions of the world have differing incidences. The incidence of sudden cardiac death in China is 41.8 per 100,000 and in South India is 39.7 per 100,000.

• #17 Cardiac arrest – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_arrest

  The risk of cardiac arrest varies with geographical region, age, and gender. The lifetime risk is three times greater in men (12.3%) than women (4.2%) based on analysis of the Framingham Heart Study. […] Based on death certificates, sudden cardiac death accounts for about 20% of all deaths in the United States. […] In the United States, approximately 326,000 cases of out-of-hospital and 209,000 cases of IHCA occur among adults annually, which works out to be an incidence of approximately 110.8 per 100,000 adults per year. […] In the United States, during-pregnancy cardiac arrest occurs in about one in twelve-thousand deliveries or 1.8 per 10,000 live births. […] Non-Western regions of the world have differing incidences. The incidence of sudden cardiac death in China is 41.8 per 100,000 and in South India is 39.7 per 100,000.

• #18 Sudden Cardiac Death: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151907-overview

  The frequency of SCD in Western industrialized nations is similar to that in the United States. The incidence of SCD in other countries varies as a reflection of the prevalence of coronary artery disease or other high-frequency cardiomyopathies in those populations. The trend toward increasing SCD events in developing nations of the world is thought to reflect a change in dietary and lifestyle habits in these nations. It has been estimated that SCD claims more than 7,000,000 lives per year worldwide. […] Most studies demonstrate inconclusive data with regard to racial differences as they relate to the incidence of sudden death. Some studies suggest that a greater proportion of coronary deaths were „sudden” in blacks compared to whites. […] Men have a higher incidence of SCD than women, with a ratio of 3:1. This ratio generally reflects the higher incidence of obstructive coronary artery disease in men.

• #19 Epidemiology and aetiology of sudden cardiac death in athletes

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2025/05/epidemiology-and-aetiology-of-sudden-cardiac-death-in-athletes/

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is a devastating and tragic occurrence that may affect individuals of all ages. It is defined as an unexpected death occurring within one hour of the onset of symptoms, if witnessed, or within 24 hours of last being seen alive and well, if unwitnessed. […] This review focuses on the epidemiology and aetiology of SCD in athletes from a pathological perspective. […] The incidence of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in athletes varies widely between studies, ranging between 0.24 and 6.8 per 100,000 person-years. This is partially explained by the differences in the populations studied, differences in the definition of an athlete, and the inclusion of sudden cardiac arrest into studies. […] Age has been shown to be an important determinant of risk, with a nationwide Danish study showing that those aged 12 to 35 years were at a lower risk (0.43 to 2.95 per 100,000 person-years) compared with those aged 36 to 49 years (0.47 to 6.64 per 100,000 person-years). […] Interestingly, this study also showed that the risk of SCD is higher in the general population at 10.7 per 100,000 person-years, highlighting that most SCD in the young occurs in non-athletes.

• #20 Cardiac arrest – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_arrest

  The risk of cardiac arrest varies with geographical region, age, and gender. The lifetime risk is three times greater in men (12.3%) than women (4.2%) based on analysis of the Framingham Heart Study. […] Based on death certificates, sudden cardiac death accounts for about 20% of all deaths in the United States. […] In the United States, approximately 326,000 cases of out-of-hospital and 209,000 cases of IHCA occur among adults annually, which works out to be an incidence of approximately 110.8 per 100,000 adults per year. […] In the United States, during-pregnancy cardiac arrest occurs in about one in twelve-thousand deliveries or 1.8 per 10,000 live births. […] Non-Western regions of the world have differing incidences. The incidence of sudden cardiac death in China is 41.8 per 100,000 and in South India is 39.7 per 100,000.

• #21 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  There are no national surveillance mechanisms to record such characteristics of deaths; and therefore, approximations are based on extrapolations from population-based studies. […] In prospective studies utilizing standardized definitions and multiple sources of surveillance for case ascertainment in the United States, Netherlands, Ireland, and China, SCD rates range from 40-100 per 100,000 in the general population, with rates being lowest in China. […] Autopsy rates are generally low and vary widely across countries with rates as low as 10% of all deaths within the United States compared to 23.8% in Finland, and the protocols for the performance of autopsies in the cases of suspected SCD vary widely as well, even within regions of countries. […] These differences in autopsy rates and protocols likely contribute to some of the geographical differences in the incidence and causes of sudden cardiac death.

• #22 Epidemiology of Sudden Cardiac Death: Clinical and Research Implications

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621010/

  The current annual incidence of sudden cardiac death in the US is likely to be in the range of 180250,000 per year. […] There is evidence pointing toward a significant decrease in rates of sudden cardiac death in the US during the second half of the twentieth century. […] The current advancements in resuscitation science notwithstanding, survival from sudden cardiac arrest remains low even in the developed nations. […] The purpose of this review is to summarize current knowledge of sudden cardiac death epidemiology. […] The first stage in the process of confronting any community-wide disease condition is the definition of the problem. […] The most accepted definition is sudden and unexpected death within an hour of symptom-onset. […] Therefore the US estimates published by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (400450,000 per year) are likely to be a significant overestimate.

• #23 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) from cardiac arrest is a major international public health problem accounting for an estimated 15-20% of all deaths. […] SCD most often develops in older adults with acquired structural heart disease, but it also rarely occurs in the young, where it is more commonly due to inherited disorders. […] Coronary heart disease (CHD) is known to be the most common pathology underlying SCD, followed by cardiomyopathies, inherited arrhythmia syndromes, and valvular heart disease. […] Over the past three decades, declines in SCD rates have not been as steep as for other causes of CHD deaths, and there is a growing fraction of SCDs not due to CHD and/or ventricular arrhythmias, particularly among certain subsets of the population. […] The growing heterogeneity of the pathologies and mechanisms underlying SCD present major challenges for SCD prevention, which are magnified further by a frequent lack of recognition of the underlying cardiac condition prior to death.

• #24 The ReCaPTa study – a prospective out of hospital cardiac arrest registry including multiple sources of surveillance for the study of sudden cardiac death in the Mediterranean area | Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine | F

  https://sjtrem.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13049-016-0309-1

  The epidemiological study of SD requires the inclusion of all the OHCA assessed and non-assessed by the EMS. […] SCD generally occurs in public places or at home which makes it difficult to evaluate initial information about symptoms and onset. […] Improved primary prevention strategies and the treatment of acute myocardial infraction (AMI) have probably decreased sudden death mortality secondary to coronary disease. […] However, SCD rates do not seem to have decrease in the last few years. […] There have been no prospective studies in the Mediterranean area that include multiple sources of information for the study of SCD.

• #25 Years of Potential Life Lost and Mean Age of Adults Experiencing Nontraumatic, Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrests — Chicago, 2014–2021 | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/73/wr/mm7309a2.htm

  Approximately 1,000 out-of-hospital cardiac arrests are assessed by emergency medical services in the United States every day, and approximately 90% of patients do not survive. […] The overall years of potential life lost increased from 52,044 years during 2014-2015 to 88,788 years during 2020-2021, and the mean age of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in Chicago decreased progressively from 64.7 years during 2014-2015, to 62.7 years during 2020-2021. […] Increased public awareness of the risk for cardiac arrest and knowledge of how to intervene as a bystander could help decrease associated mortality. Improved understanding of the reasons for the observed decrease in mean age at cardiac arrest could help guide prevention efforts. […] YPLL increased from 52,044 during 2014-2015 to 88,788 during 2020-2021 (p = 0.002) and mean age decreased from 64.7 years during 2014-2015, to 62.7 years during 2020-2021.

• #26 Years of Potential Life Lost and Mean Age of Adults Experiencing Nontraumatic, Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrests — Chicago, 2014–2021 | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/73/wr/mm7309a2.htm

  The mean age of OHCA in Chicago decreased from 2014-2015 to 2020-2021 overall, for men and women, Black and White adults, as well as for cases in persons with or without presumed cardiac etiology and for nonshockable rhythm type. […] Survival for OHCA is low, and earlier age of death results in a larger number of YPLL. […] This analysis shows a concerning trend at the population level that cannot be entirely attributed to the COVID-19 pandemic because it began before the pandemic. […] Efforts to increase public awareness of the risk of cardiac arrest and knowledge of how to intervene as a bystander could help decrease mortality associated with OHCA.

• #27 Sudden Cardiac Death: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151907-overview

  The frequency of SCD in Western industrialized nations is similar to that in the United States. The incidence of SCD in other countries varies as a reflection of the prevalence of coronary artery disease or other high-frequency cardiomyopathies in those populations. The trend toward increasing SCD events in developing nations of the world is thought to reflect a change in dietary and lifestyle habits in these nations. It has been estimated that SCD claims more than 7,000,000 lives per year worldwide. […] Most studies demonstrate inconclusive data with regard to racial differences as they relate to the incidence of sudden death. Some studies suggest that a greater proportion of coronary deaths were „sudden” in blacks compared to whites. […] Men have a higher incidence of SCD than women, with a ratio of 3:1. This ratio generally reflects the higher incidence of obstructive coronary artery disease in men.

• #28 Epidemiology and aetiology of sudden cardiac death in athletes

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2025/05/epidemiology-and-aetiology-of-sudden-cardiac-death-in-athletes/

  It is well recognised that SCD occurs at a higher frequency in males, with a ratio of around 2:1 when compared with females. In athletes this is further exaggerated, with a similar study reporting a ratio of over 12:1. […] In the US, black athletes have a higher risk of SCD than white athletes, with a reported incidence of 5.65 per 100,000 person-years compared with 3.02 per 100,000 person-years, respectively. […] Type of sport has also been shown to have an effect, with ice hockey (4.25 per 100,000 person-years), basketball (2.51 per 100,000 person-years) and American football (1.21 per 100,000 person-years) having the greatest risks of SCD. […] The incidence of SCD in athletes varies widely between studies, ranging between 0.24 and 6.8 per 100,000 person-years. It has diverse causes and is potentially heritable in over 75% of cases. Autopsy and thorough histopathological cardiac evaluation are essential to determine the causes of SCD.

• #29 Years of Potential Life Lost and Mean Age of Adults Experiencing Nontraumatic, Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrests — Chicago, 2014–2021 | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/73/wr/mm7309a2.htm

  The mean age of OHCA in Chicago decreased from 2014-2015 to 2020-2021 overall, for men and women, Black and White adults, as well as for cases in persons with or without presumed cardiac etiology and for nonshockable rhythm type. […] Survival for OHCA is low, and earlier age of death results in a larger number of YPLL. […] This analysis shows a concerning trend at the population level that cannot be entirely attributed to the COVID-19 pandemic because it began before the pandemic. […] Efforts to increase public awareness of the risk of cardiac arrest and knowledge of how to intervene as a bystander could help decrease mortality associated with OHCA.

• #30 You might be interested in…Lifestyle

  https://www.imt.ie/clinical/you-might-be-interested-inlifestyle-update-07-05-2025/

  Among 29,311,597 race finishers, 176 cardiac arrests (127 men, 19 women, 30 sex unknown) occurred during US long-distance running races. […] Compared with 2000-2009, cardiac arrest incidence remained unchanged (incidence rate, 0.54 per 100,000 participants vs 0.60 per 100 000, respectively). However, there were significant declines in cardiac death incidence (0.20 per 100,000 vs 0.39 per 100,000) and case fatality rate (34 per cent vs 71 per cent). […] Cardiac arrests remained more common among men (1.12 per 100,000) than women (0.19 per 100,000) and during the marathon (1.04 per 100,000), compared with the half-marathon (0.47 per 100,000). Among runners for which a definitive cause of cardiac arrest could be determined (n = 67/128 [52 per cent]), coronary artery disease rather than hypertrophic cardiomyopathy was the most common aetiology. […] Thus the conclusion was that despite increased participation in US long-distance running races, cardiac arrest incidence remains stable. There has been a marked decline in cardiac arrest mortality.

• #31 Sudden Cardiac Death: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151907-overview

  The incidence of SCD parallels the incidence of coronary artery disease, with the peak of SCD occurring in people aged 45-75 years. The incidence of SCD increases with age in men, women, whites, and nonwhites as the prevalence of coronary artery disease increases with age. However, the proportion of deaths that are sudden from coronary artery disease decreases with age.

• #32 Sudden Cardiac Death: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151907-overview

  The incidence of SCD parallels the incidence of coronary artery disease, with the peak of SCD occurring in people aged 45-75 years. The incidence of SCD increases with age in men, women, whites, and nonwhites as the prevalence of coronary artery disease increases with age. However, the proportion of deaths that are sudden from coronary artery disease decreases with age.

• #33 Epidemiology of Football-Related Sudden Cardiac Death in Turkey

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/57/10/1105

  Epidemiology of Football-Related Sudden Cardiac Death in Turkey […] Background and Objectives: Sudden cardiac death (SCD), particular among elite footballers, has attracted much attention in recent times. However, limited information exists on football-related SCD in Turkey. Autopsy-based studies of sports-related sudden deaths in Turkey are rare and often have small sample sizes. To address this, this study aimed to determine the population-based incidence and profile of football-related SCD nationally in Turkey. […] Results: In total, 118 football-related SCD were identified, a crude mortality rate of 0.41 per 100,000 population. All fatalities were males and the mean age was 35.5 years ± 10.4. Those aged 40–49 years recorded the highest mortality rate (0.67/100,000), three times the risk of those aged 50–59 years (RR = 3.1; 95%CI:1.5–6.4). Those aged 30–39 recorded the highest age-specific proportional mortality rate (0.86/1000 deaths). The highest risk occurred while playing football (n = 97; 82.2%), with another 15% of deaths (n = 18) occurring within 1 h of play. Almost all fatalities (n = 113; 95.8%) occurred during participation in recreational football.

• #34 Sudden Cardiac Death: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151907-overview

  The frequency of SCD in Western industrialized nations is similar to that in the United States. The incidence of SCD in other countries varies as a reflection of the prevalence of coronary artery disease or other high-frequency cardiomyopathies in those populations. The trend toward increasing SCD events in developing nations of the world is thought to reflect a change in dietary and lifestyle habits in these nations. It has been estimated that SCD claims more than 7,000,000 lives per year worldwide. […] Most studies demonstrate inconclusive data with regard to racial differences as they relate to the incidence of sudden death. Some studies suggest that a greater proportion of coronary deaths were „sudden” in blacks compared to whites. […] Men have a higher incidence of SCD than women, with a ratio of 3:1. This ratio generally reflects the higher incidence of obstructive coronary artery disease in men.

• #35 Epidemiology and aetiology of sudden cardiac death in athletes

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2025/05/epidemiology-and-aetiology-of-sudden-cardiac-death-in-athletes/

  It is well recognised that SCD occurs at a higher frequency in males, with a ratio of around 2:1 when compared with females. In athletes this is further exaggerated, with a similar study reporting a ratio of over 12:1. […] In the US, black athletes have a higher risk of SCD than white athletes, with a reported incidence of 5.65 per 100,000 person-years compared with 3.02 per 100,000 person-years, respectively. […] Type of sport has also been shown to have an effect, with ice hockey (4.25 per 100,000 person-years), basketball (2.51 per 100,000 person-years) and American football (1.21 per 100,000 person-years) having the greatest risks of SCD. […] The incidence of SCD in athletes varies widely between studies, ranging between 0.24 and 6.8 per 100,000 person-years. It has diverse causes and is potentially heritable in over 75% of cases. Autopsy and thorough histopathological cardiac evaluation are essential to determine the causes of SCD.

• #36 Epidemiology of cardiac arrest Guidelines | Resuscitation Council UK

  https://www.resus.org.uk/library/2021-resuscitation-guidelines/epidemiology-cardiac-arrest-guidelines

  Epidemiology is a new section for the RCUK Guidelines. […] The European Resuscitation Council Guidelines cover the epidemiology and outcomes of cardiac arrest across Europe. This section presents equivalent data drawn from UK studies of the epidemiology of cardiac arrest in the in-hospital and out of hospital settings. […] The annual incidence of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is approximately 55 per 100,000 inhabitants. […] There is evidence of health inequalities in the incidence of cardiac arrest, bystander CPR and distribution of public access defibrillators. Deprived areas and areas with a greater proportion of residents from minority ethnic backgrounds have a higher incidence of cardiac arrest, lower incidence of bystander CPR and less access to public access defibrillators.

• #37 Sudden death: Causes, epidemiology, and associations in cardiology | 2023, Volume 8 – Issue 1&2 | Demiroglu Science University Florence Nightingale Journal of Transplantation

  https://journaltxdbu.com/full-text/70

  Sudden cardiac death is related to genetic factors at multiple points along the pathophysiological pathway. […] The most prevalent cause of death in the case of SD is related to cardiovascular diseases. In the US, the annual incidence of SCD is 60 per 100,000 people. […] Sudden cardiac death risk factors are similar to those of ischemic heart disease and include smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes. […] The risk of SCD increases (about 17-fold) in nonsedentary people after vigorous physical activity, particularly in those who are generally sedentary (approximately 74-fold). […] Cardiovascular diseases are the primary cause of SD globally, accounting for over 90% of such cases. […] Previous CAD is another major consideration. Sudden death is four times as common in patients who had known CAD.

• #38 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) from cardiac arrest is a major international public health problem accounting for an estimated 15-20% of all deaths. […] SCD most often develops in older adults with acquired structural heart disease, but it also rarely occurs in the young, where it is more commonly due to inherited disorders. […] Coronary heart disease (CHD) is known to be the most common pathology underlying SCD, followed by cardiomyopathies, inherited arrhythmia syndromes, and valvular heart disease. […] Over the past three decades, declines in SCD rates have not been as steep as for other causes of CHD deaths, and there is a growing fraction of SCDs not due to CHD and/or ventricular arrhythmias, particularly among certain subsets of the population. […] The growing heterogeneity of the pathologies and mechanisms underlying SCD present major challenges for SCD prevention, which are magnified further by a frequent lack of recognition of the underlying cardiac condition prior to death.

• #39 Sudden death: Causes, epidemiology, and associations in cardiology | 2023, Volume 8 – Issue 1&2 | Demiroglu Science University Florence Nightingale Journal of Transplantation

  https://journaltxdbu.com/full-text/70

  Sudden cardiac death is related to genetic factors at multiple points along the pathophysiological pathway. […] The most prevalent cause of death in the case of SD is related to cardiovascular diseases. In the US, the annual incidence of SCD is 60 per 100,000 people. […] Sudden cardiac death risk factors are similar to those of ischemic heart disease and include smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes. […] The risk of SCD increases (about 17-fold) in nonsedentary people after vigorous physical activity, particularly in those who are generally sedentary (approximately 74-fold). […] Cardiovascular diseases are the primary cause of SD globally, accounting for over 90% of such cases. […] Previous CAD is another major consideration. Sudden death is four times as common in patients who had known CAD.

• #40 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  As described above, CHD underlies a significant proportion of SCD; thus, risk factors for CHD are associated with SCD risk in the population. […] Hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and smoking have all been associated with elevated risks of SCD among men and women in prospective cohort studies. […] Diabetes is a particularly strong risk factor for SCD, even in higher risk populations. […] Smoking cessation is associated with a prompt reduction in the elevated risk for SCDs, particularly among individuals who have not yet developed overt CHD. […] Recent data suggest that a Mediterranean-style diet pattern, consisting of higher intake of vegetables, fruits, nuts, whole grains, fish, and low intake of red/processed meat, may also lower SCD risk among women. […] The relationship between alcohol intake and SCD is complex.

• #41 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  As described above, CHD underlies a significant proportion of SCD; thus, risk factors for CHD are associated with SCD risk in the population. […] Hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and smoking have all been associated with elevated risks of SCD among men and women in prospective cohort studies. […] Diabetes is a particularly strong risk factor for SCD, even in higher risk populations. […] Smoking cessation is associated with a prompt reduction in the elevated risk for SCDs, particularly among individuals who have not yet developed overt CHD. […] Recent data suggest that a Mediterranean-style diet pattern, consisting of higher intake of vegetables, fruits, nuts, whole grains, fish, and low intake of red/processed meat, may also lower SCD risk among women. […] The relationship between alcohol intake and SCD is complex.

• #42 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  As described above, CHD underlies a significant proportion of SCD; thus, risk factors for CHD are associated with SCD risk in the population. […] Hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and smoking have all been associated with elevated risks of SCD among men and women in prospective cohort studies. […] Diabetes is a particularly strong risk factor for SCD, even in higher risk populations. […] Smoking cessation is associated with a prompt reduction in the elevated risk for SCDs, particularly among individuals who have not yet developed overt CHD. […] Recent data suggest that a Mediterranean-style diet pattern, consisting of higher intake of vegetables, fruits, nuts, whole grains, fish, and low intake of red/processed meat, may also lower SCD risk among women. […] The relationship between alcohol intake and SCD is complex.

• #43 Sudden death: Causes, epidemiology, and associations in cardiology | 2023, Volume 8 – Issue 1&2 | Demiroglu Science University Florence Nightingale Journal of Transplantation

  https://journaltxdbu.com/full-text/70

  Sudden cardiac death and obesity are connected. […] Smokers have a threefold higher prevalence of SD than nonsmokers. […] Sudden cardiac death incidence has been observed to be rising in both community and hospital settings. […] According to data from the Houston Fire Department, the number of cardiac arrest calls that resulted in patient death increased by 45% during the COVID-19 epidemic. […] The heart is the primary cause of sudden unexpected death, accounting for more than 400,000 unexpected SCDs per year.

• #44 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  As described above, CHD underlies a significant proportion of SCD; thus, risk factors for CHD are associated with SCD risk in the population. […] Hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and smoking have all been associated with elevated risks of SCD among men and women in prospective cohort studies. […] Diabetes is a particularly strong risk factor for SCD, even in higher risk populations. […] Smoking cessation is associated with a prompt reduction in the elevated risk for SCDs, particularly among individuals who have not yet developed overt CHD. […] Recent data suggest that a Mediterranean-style diet pattern, consisting of higher intake of vegetables, fruits, nuts, whole grains, fish, and low intake of red/processed meat, may also lower SCD risk among women. […] The relationship between alcohol intake and SCD is complex.

• #45 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  As described above, CHD underlies a significant proportion of SCD; thus, risk factors for CHD are associated with SCD risk in the population. […] Hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and smoking have all been associated with elevated risks of SCD among men and women in prospective cohort studies. […] Diabetes is a particularly strong risk factor for SCD, even in higher risk populations. […] Smoking cessation is associated with a prompt reduction in the elevated risk for SCDs, particularly among individuals who have not yet developed overt CHD. […] Recent data suggest that a Mediterranean-style diet pattern, consisting of higher intake of vegetables, fruits, nuts, whole grains, fish, and low intake of red/processed meat, may also lower SCD risk among women. […] The relationship between alcohol intake and SCD is complex.

• #46 Cheers to lowering cardiac arrest risk! | The Star

  https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/health/2025/05/07/cheers-to-lowering-cardiac-arrest-risk

  Drinking white wine (as well as eating more fruit, maintaining a positive mood and staying a healthy weight) appears to help protect against a cardiac arrest, research suggests. […] Experts have suggested that thousands of cardiac arrests where the heart suddenly stops beating could be prevented by tackling health and lifestyle issues. […] The latest study identified 56 risk factors associated with sudden cardiac arrest and found that up to 63% of cases might be avoidable. […] The study authors concluded that between 40% and 63% of sudden cardiac arrest cases may be avoidable when looking at all 56 risk factors. […] Lead investigator and first author Dr Luo Huihuan from Fudan University in Shanghai, China, said: The study found significant associations between various modifiable factors and sudden cardiac arrest, with lifestyle changes being the most impactful in preventing cases. […] Research on the underlying mechanisms remains unclear, but these findings reinforce the idea that the benefits of moderate alcohol consumption may be more complex than previously assumed.

• #47 Physical activity and the risk of sudden cardiac death: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies | BMC Cardiovascular Disorders | Full Text

  https://bmccardiovascdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12872-020-01531-z

  Physical activity has been associated with a significant reduction in risk of sudden cardiac death in epidemiological studies, however, the strength of the association needs clarification. […] Approximately 350,000 sudden cardiac deaths occur annually in the US. […] Although preventive efforts have focused on using cardioverter-defibrillators in the highest risk groups, the majority of sudden cardiac deaths occur in the general population and in persons without diagnosed cardiac disease. […] Some suspected or established risk factors for sudden cardiac deaths include overweight and obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, high resting heart rate, smoking, prevalent coronary heart disease, and male sex. […] The association between physical activity and sudden cardiac death has been studied less frequently, and has to our knowledge not been summarized in a meta-analysis previously.

• #48 Physical activity and the risk of sudden cardiac death: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies | BMC Cardiovascular Disorders | Full Text

  https://bmccardiovascdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12872-020-01531-z

  The summary RR for the highest vs. lowest level of cardiorespiratory fitness was 0.58. […] This meta-analysis, which to our knowledge is the first meta-analysis of population-based prospective studies of physical activity and risk of sudden cardiac death, we found that participants reporting the highest level of physical activity had approximately half the risk of sudden cardiac death compared to those with the lowest level of activity. […] The current meta-analysis of population-based prospective studies suggests that physical activity may reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death by almost 50% in the general population.

• #49 Sudden death: Causes, epidemiology, and associations in cardiology | 2023, Volume 8 – Issue 1&2 | Demiroglu Science University Florence Nightingale Journal of Transplantation

  https://journaltxdbu.com/full-text/70

  Sudden cardiac death is related to genetic factors at multiple points along the pathophysiological pathway. […] The most prevalent cause of death in the case of SD is related to cardiovascular diseases. In the US, the annual incidence of SCD is 60 per 100,000 people. […] Sudden cardiac death risk factors are similar to those of ischemic heart disease and include smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes. […] The risk of SCD increases (about 17-fold) in nonsedentary people after vigorous physical activity, particularly in those who are generally sedentary (approximately 74-fold). […] Cardiovascular diseases are the primary cause of SD globally, accounting for over 90% of such cases. […] Previous CAD is another major consideration. Sudden death is four times as common in patients who had known CAD.

• #50 Risk-factor changes could prevent the majority of sudden cardiac arrests | EurekAlert!

  https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1081297

  A new study appearing in the Canadian Journal of Cardiology identifying 56 risk factors associated with sudden cardiac arrest (SCA), spanning lifestyle, physical measures, psychosocial factors, socioeconomic status, and the local environment, found that improving non-clinical modifiable risk factors could prevent up to 63% of SCA cases. […] SCA is a global public health challenge with profound physical and psychosocial consequences for the individuals affected, along with far-reaching impacts on families, friends, and entire communities. Its high fatality rate and unpredictability make it a leading cause of death worldwide. In Canada, an estimated 60,000 SCAs occur annually. A reliable and practical approach to mitigate the burden of SCA entails investigating the long-term, modifiable risk factors and subsequently formulating preventive measures. However, significant knowledge gaps regarding SCA prevention persist.

• #51 Cheers to lowering cardiac arrest risk! | The Star

  https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/health/2025/05/07/cheers-to-lowering-cardiac-arrest-risk

  Drinking white wine (as well as eating more fruit, maintaining a positive mood and staying a healthy weight) appears to help protect against a cardiac arrest, research suggests. […] Experts have suggested that thousands of cardiac arrests where the heart suddenly stops beating could be prevented by tackling health and lifestyle issues. […] The latest study identified 56 risk factors associated with sudden cardiac arrest and found that up to 63% of cases might be avoidable. […] The study authors concluded that between 40% and 63% of sudden cardiac arrest cases may be avoidable when looking at all 56 risk factors. […] Lead investigator and first author Dr Luo Huihuan from Fudan University in Shanghai, China, said: The study found significant associations between various modifiable factors and sudden cardiac arrest, with lifestyle changes being the most impactful in preventing cases. […] Research on the underlying mechanisms remains unclear, but these findings reinforce the idea that the benefits of moderate alcohol consumption may be more complex than previously assumed.

• #52 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  The epidemiology of SCD is directly related to the pathophysiology that underlies the event. […] Despite these limitations, it is generally accepted that CHD is the most common cardiac pathology underlying SCD in adults over age 35, particularly among white men where it is responsible for approximately 70-75% of SCDs. […] Beyond CHD, the causes of SCD are heterogeneous and include cardiomyopathies, valvular heart disease, myocarditis, hypertrophy, and primary electrical heart disease accounting for the remainder. […] On average, approximately 5% of SCDs or cardiac arrests, a significant cardiac abnormality is not found after clinical evaluation in SCA survivors or at autopsy in SCD victims. […] The presumed mechanism underlying an abrupt, unheralded death in these conditions is electrical instability leading to a lethal arrhythmia triggered by ischemia or other arrhythmogenic stimuli resulting in acute hemodynamic collapse.

• #53 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  The epidemiology of SCD is directly related to the pathophysiology that underlies the event. […] Despite these limitations, it is generally accepted that CHD is the most common cardiac pathology underlying SCD in adults over age 35, particularly among white men where it is responsible for approximately 70-75% of SCDs. […] Beyond CHD, the causes of SCD are heterogeneous and include cardiomyopathies, valvular heart disease, myocarditis, hypertrophy, and primary electrical heart disease accounting for the remainder. […] On average, approximately 5% of SCDs or cardiac arrests, a significant cardiac abnormality is not found after clinical evaluation in SCA survivors or at autopsy in SCD victims. […] The presumed mechanism underlying an abrupt, unheralded death in these conditions is electrical instability leading to a lethal arrhythmia triggered by ischemia or other arrhythmogenic stimuli resulting in acute hemodynamic collapse.

• #54 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  The two most common mechanisms are thought to be polymorphic VT/VF precipitated by acute ischemia and/or infarction and monomorphic VT degenerating to VF arising from a reentrant circuit within or surrounding a myocardial scar. […] In addition to these primary arrhythmic causes, a significant proportion of SCDs in the post-MI population appear to be due non-arrhythmic causes such as myocardial rupture and or extensive re-infarction, and this percentage appears to be highest within the first month after MI. […] In patients with end-stage ischemic cardiomyopathy, other modes of death such as acute pump failure and/or respiratory arrest resulting in PEA, or primary bradyarrhythmias comprise a significant proportion of SCD as well. […] Left ventricular systolic dysfunction and severity of HF symptoms are currently the strongest predictors of SCD risk among patients with prior MI and/or ischemic cardiomyopathy.

• #55 Epidemiology of sudden cardiac death | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-57511-2_2

  Sudden cardiac death continues to be responsible for about half of all cardiac deaths in industrialized countries. In the USA, about 225 000 sudden cardiac deaths occur per year. In Germany 1995/97, the rate of sudden cardiac deaths within 24 hours after onset of acute symptoms according to the data of the WHO MONICA/KORA Augsburg Coronary Event Register is 209 per 100 000 for men and 80 per 100 000 for women in the age group of 25-74 years. There exist several definitions of sudden cardiac death, ranging from a few minutes to 24 hours between the onset of symptoms and death. Acute ventricular arrhythmia appears to be the direct cause of death in the majority of cases, frequently due to an underlying coronary heart disease. Similar to myocardial infarction, a circadian, weekly, and seasonal variation in the incidence of sudden cardiac death was observed. Triggers of sudden cardiac death include physical activity, emotional stress, and threats from outside such as earthquakes or wars. Successful preventive measures combine adequate pharmacological interventions, electronic devices, and behavior modification in order to protect patients at risk during vulnerable periods as well as to prevent and treat the underlying disease.

• #56 Overview of sudden cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-sudden-cardiac-arrest-and-sudden-cardiac-death%20

  Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) and sudden cardiac death (SCD) refer to the sudden cessation of cardiac activity. These events mostly occur in patients with structural heart disease (that may not have been previously diagnosed), particularly coronary heart disease. […] The specific causes of SCA vary with the population studied and patient age. SCA most commonly results from hemodynamic collapse due to primary ventricular fibrillation (VF) or polymorphic or monomorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) degenerating into VF. This usually occurs in the setting of structural heart disease. […] The outcome following SCA depends upon numerous factors including the underlying cause and the rapidity of resuscitation. […] A patient is more likely to be resuscitated if they have ventricular tachycardia or VF rather than asystole or pulseless electrical activity. However, if the patient has a poorly tolerated cardiac rhythm, this may be the inevitable consequence of a dying heart. Thus, even early resuscitation may not be successful.

• #57 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Recent data has highlighted the potential link between atrial fibrillation (AF) and SCD. […] Patients with severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) are also at higher risk for SCD, with annualized SCD rates approaching 5.5% in patients undergoing dialysis. […] Recent data also suggest that obstructive sleep apnea and seizure disorders may be contributors to SCD risk in the population. […] SCD tends to occur more frequently at certain times of the day, week, and year. […] SCD incidence peaks from 6 AM to noon, and is highest on Monday and lowest over the weekend. […] These morning and Monday peaks in SCD rates appear to be blunted by beta-blockers, suggesting that adrenergic triggers may underlie part of these circadian variations. […] In patients with ARVC and Brugada syndrome, ventricular arrhythmias tend to peak in the summer months.

• #58 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Recent data has highlighted the potential link between atrial fibrillation (AF) and SCD. […] Patients with severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) are also at higher risk for SCD, with annualized SCD rates approaching 5.5% in patients undergoing dialysis. […] Recent data also suggest that obstructive sleep apnea and seizure disorders may be contributors to SCD risk in the population. […] SCD tends to occur more frequently at certain times of the day, week, and year. […] SCD incidence peaks from 6 AM to noon, and is highest on Monday and lowest over the weekend. […] These morning and Monday peaks in SCD rates appear to be blunted by beta-blockers, suggesting that adrenergic triggers may underlie part of these circadian variations. […] In patients with ARVC and Brugada syndrome, ventricular arrhythmias tend to peak in the summer months.

• #59 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Recent data has highlighted the potential link between atrial fibrillation (AF) and SCD. […] Patients with severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) are also at higher risk for SCD, with annualized SCD rates approaching 5.5% in patients undergoing dialysis. […] Recent data also suggest that obstructive sleep apnea and seizure disorders may be contributors to SCD risk in the population. […] SCD tends to occur more frequently at certain times of the day, week, and year. […] SCD incidence peaks from 6 AM to noon, and is highest on Monday and lowest over the weekend. […] These morning and Monday peaks in SCD rates appear to be blunted by beta-blockers, suggesting that adrenergic triggers may underlie part of these circadian variations. […] In patients with ARVC and Brugada syndrome, ventricular arrhythmias tend to peak in the summer months.

• #60 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Recent data has highlighted the potential link between atrial fibrillation (AF) and SCD. […] Patients with severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) are also at higher risk for SCD, with annualized SCD rates approaching 5.5% in patients undergoing dialysis. […] Recent data also suggest that obstructive sleep apnea and seizure disorders may be contributors to SCD risk in the population. […] SCD tends to occur more frequently at certain times of the day, week, and year. […] SCD incidence peaks from 6 AM to noon, and is highest on Monday and lowest over the weekend. […] These morning and Monday peaks in SCD rates appear to be blunted by beta-blockers, suggesting that adrenergic triggers may underlie part of these circadian variations. […] In patients with ARVC and Brugada syndrome, ventricular arrhythmias tend to peak in the summer months.

• #61 Epidemiology of sudden cardiac death | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-57511-2_2

  Sudden cardiac death continues to be responsible for about half of all cardiac deaths in industrialized countries. In the USA, about 225 000 sudden cardiac deaths occur per year. In Germany 1995/97, the rate of sudden cardiac deaths within 24 hours after onset of acute symptoms according to the data of the WHO MONICA/KORA Augsburg Coronary Event Register is 209 per 100 000 for men and 80 per 100 000 for women in the age group of 25-74 years. There exist several definitions of sudden cardiac death, ranging from a few minutes to 24 hours between the onset of symptoms and death. Acute ventricular arrhythmia appears to be the direct cause of death in the majority of cases, frequently due to an underlying coronary heart disease. Similar to myocardial infarction, a circadian, weekly, and seasonal variation in the incidence of sudden cardiac death was observed. Triggers of sudden cardiac death include physical activity, emotional stress, and threats from outside such as earthquakes or wars. Successful preventive measures combine adequate pharmacological interventions, electronic devices, and behavior modification in order to protect patients at risk during vulnerable periods as well as to prevent and treat the underlying disease.

• #62 Epidemiology of sudden cardiac death | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-57511-2_2

  Sudden cardiac death continues to be responsible for about half of all cardiac deaths in industrialized countries. In the USA, about 225 000 sudden cardiac deaths occur per year. In Germany 1995/97, the rate of sudden cardiac deaths within 24 hours after onset of acute symptoms according to the data of the WHO MONICA/KORA Augsburg Coronary Event Register is 209 per 100 000 for men and 80 per 100 000 for women in the age group of 25-74 years. There exist several definitions of sudden cardiac death, ranging from a few minutes to 24 hours between the onset of symptoms and death. Acute ventricular arrhythmia appears to be the direct cause of death in the majority of cases, frequently due to an underlying coronary heart disease. Similar to myocardial infarction, a circadian, weekly, and seasonal variation in the incidence of sudden cardiac death was observed. Triggers of sudden cardiac death include physical activity, emotional stress, and threats from outside such as earthquakes or wars. Successful preventive measures combine adequate pharmacological interventions, electronic devices, and behavior modification in order to protect patients at risk during vulnerable periods as well as to prevent and treat the underlying disease.

• #63 2 Understanding the Public Health Burden of Cardiac Arrest: The Need for National Surveillance | Strategies to Improve Cardiac Arrest Survival: A Time to Act | The National Academies Press

  https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/21723/chapter/4

  Cardiac arrest is a complex and lethal condition that poses a substantial public health burden, with high nationwide mortality rates and the potential for profound and irreversible neurologic injury and functional disability. […] Current limitations make accurate measurement of cardiac arrest incidence and outcomes challenging. […] This chapter provides an overview of the current understanding of the public health burden of OHCA and IHCA in the United States. […] Recent estimates suggest that approximately 395,000 cases of OHCA occur in the United States every year among patients of all ages, in which only 5.5 percent of all patients survive to hospital discharge. […] An estimated 200,000 IHCAs of presumed cardiac origin also occur annually, with national survival rates of approximately 24 percent.

• #64 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  There are no national surveillance mechanisms to record such characteristics of deaths; and therefore, approximations are based on extrapolations from population-based studies. […] In prospective studies utilizing standardized definitions and multiple sources of surveillance for case ascertainment in the United States, Netherlands, Ireland, and China, SCD rates range from 40-100 per 100,000 in the general population, with rates being lowest in China. […] Autopsy rates are generally low and vary widely across countries with rates as low as 10% of all deaths within the United States compared to 23.8% in Finland, and the protocols for the performance of autopsies in the cases of suspected SCD vary widely as well, even within regions of countries. […] These differences in autopsy rates and protocols likely contribute to some of the geographical differences in the incidence and causes of sudden cardiac death.

• #65 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  There are no national surveillance mechanisms to record such characteristics of deaths; and therefore, approximations are based on extrapolations from population-based studies. […] In prospective studies utilizing standardized definitions and multiple sources of surveillance for case ascertainment in the United States, Netherlands, Ireland, and China, SCD rates range from 40-100 per 100,000 in the general population, with rates being lowest in China. […] Autopsy rates are generally low and vary widely across countries with rates as low as 10% of all deaths within the United States compared to 23.8% in Finland, and the protocols for the performance of autopsies in the cases of suspected SCD vary widely as well, even within regions of countries. […] These differences in autopsy rates and protocols likely contribute to some of the geographical differences in the incidence and causes of sudden cardiac death.

• #66 About CARES « MyCares

  https://mycares.net/sitepages/aboutcares.jsp

  Each year, approximately 350,000 persons in the United States experience an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) or sudden death; approximately 90% of persons who experience an OHCA die. Despite decades of research, median reported rates of survival to hospital discharge are poor (10.4%) and have remained virtually unchanged for the past 30 years. Without a uniform and reliable method of data collection, communities cannot measure the effectiveness of their response systems, nor can they assess the impact of interventions designed to improve OHCA survival. […] CARES was developed to help communities determine standard outcome measures for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) locally allowing for quality improvement efforts and benchmarking capability to improve care and increase survival.

• #67 About CARES « MyCares

  https://mycares.net/sitepages/aboutcares.jsp

  In 2004, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) collaborated with Emory University School of Medicine’s Department of Emergency Medicine to develop CARES (Cardiac Arrest Registry to Enhance Survival), an OHCA surveillance registry to help communities increase survival rates. […] CARES data are used to help communities benchmark and improve their performance for OHCA care. CARES allows participating communities to view their own statistics online confidentially and compare their performance to anonymous aggregated data at the local, regional, or national level.

• #68 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) from cardiac arrest is a major international public health problem accounting for an estimated 15-20% of all deaths. […] SCD most often develops in older adults with acquired structural heart disease, but it also rarely occurs in the young, where it is more commonly due to inherited disorders. […] Coronary heart disease (CHD) is known to be the most common pathology underlying SCD, followed by cardiomyopathies, inherited arrhythmia syndromes, and valvular heart disease. […] Over the past three decades, declines in SCD rates have not been as steep as for other causes of CHD deaths, and there is a growing fraction of SCDs not due to CHD and/or ventricular arrhythmias, particularly among certain subsets of the population. […] The growing heterogeneity of the pathologies and mechanisms underlying SCD present major challenges for SCD prevention, which are magnified further by a frequent lack of recognition of the underlying cardiac condition prior to death.

• #69 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  There may be a growing fraction of SCDs not due to CHD and/or ventricular arrhythmias, particularly among certain subsets of the population. […] In order to further reduce the incidence of SCD, preventive strategies need to be tailored to diverse populations at varying levels of risk. […] Estimates regarding the annual incidence of SCA and SCD vary widely depending on data sources for case ascertainment, definitions employed, and methods utilized for extrapolation of rates. […] These difficulties in extrapolating SCA and SCD rates are likely magnified further when comparing SCD rates across countries where EMS protocols, autopsy rates, and national recording systems vary. […] The majority of global comparisons are based upon rates of emergency medical service (EMS) attended out of hospital cardiac arrests (OHCA), which appear to be much lower in Asia as compared to Europe, North America, and Australia.

• #70 Sudden cardiac death: epidemiology and risk factors | Nature Reviews Cardiology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrcardio.2010.3

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is an important public-health problem with multiple etiologies, risk factors, and changing temporal trends. […] Substantial progress has been made over the past few decades in identifying markers that confer increased SCD risk at the population level. […] However, the quest for predicting the high-risk individual who could be a candidate for an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, or other therapy, continues. […] In this article, we review the incidence, temporal trends, and triggers of SCD, and its demographic, clinical, and genetic risk factors. […] We also discuss the available evidence supporting the use of public-access defibrillators. […] Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is a common public health problem that causes more than 60% of all deaths from cardiovascular disease.

• #71 Sudden cardiac death: epidemiology and risk factors | Nature Reviews Cardiology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrcardio.2010.3

  Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is an important public-health problem with multiple etiologies, risk factors, and changing temporal trends. […] Substantial progress has been made over the past few decades in identifying markers that confer increased SCD risk at the population level. […] However, the quest for predicting the high-risk individual who could be a candidate for an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, or other therapy, continues. […] In this article, we review the incidence, temporal trends, and triggers of SCD, and its demographic, clinical, and genetic risk factors. […] We also discuss the available evidence supporting the use of public-access defibrillators. […] Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is a common public health problem that causes more than 60% of all deaths from cardiovascular disease.

• #72 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Multifaceted preventative approaches, which address risk factors in seemingly low risk and known high-risk populations will be required to decrease the burden of SCD. […] In this Compendium, we review the wide-ranging spectrum of epidemiology underlying SCD within both the general population and in high-risk subsets with established cardiac disease placing an emphasis on recent global trends, remaining uncertainties, and potential targeted preventive strategies. […] Despite major advances in treatment and prevention of CHD and implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) for SCD prevention in high-risk patients, SCD remains a major public health problem estimated to account for 15-20% of all deaths. […] Reported declines in SCD rates have not been as steep as for other causes of CHD death, and the reasons for this disparity are not well understood.

• #73 2 Understanding the Public Health Burden of Cardiac Arrest: The Need for National Surveillance | Strategies to Improve Cardiac Arrest Survival: A Time to Act | The National Academies Press

  https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/21723/chapter/4

  Determining the magnitude of the public health burden of cardiac arrest is vital for improving patient outcomes in all communities. […] In spite of these advantages, the United States does not currently maintain a single comprehensive surveillance system or registry that captures all cases of cardiac arrest in the nation. […] The cardiac arrest field would be substantially enhanced through the establishment of a national surveillance system for cardiac arrest, with mandatory data reporting for both OHCA and IHCA to allow for accurate evaluation of incidence and outcomes, as well as effectiveness of treatments and care.

• #74 Epidemiology of Sudden Cardiac Death: Clinical and Research Implications

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621010/

  The current annual incidence of sudden cardiac death in the US is likely to be in the range of 180250,000 per year. […] There is evidence pointing toward a significant decrease in rates of sudden cardiac death in the US during the second half of the twentieth century. […] The current advancements in resuscitation science notwithstanding, survival from sudden cardiac arrest remains low even in the developed nations. […] The purpose of this review is to summarize current knowledge of sudden cardiac death epidemiology. […] The first stage in the process of confronting any community-wide disease condition is the definition of the problem. […] The most accepted definition is sudden and unexpected death within an hour of symptom-onset. […] Therefore the US estimates published by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (400450,000 per year) are likely to be a significant overestimate.

• #75 Epidemiology of Sudden Cardiac Death: Clinical and Research Implications

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621010/

  The current annual incidence of sudden cardiac death in the US is likely to be in the range of 180250,000 per year. […] An estimate for global annual incidence of sudden cardiac death would be in the range of 45 million cases per year. […] We are likely to witness a resurgence of coronary artery disease and heart failure, as a result of which sudden cardiac death will have to be confronted as a shared and indiscriminate, worldwide public health problem.

• #76 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  The presence of overt structural and/or primary electrical heart disease is associated with major elevations in SCD risk, and separate risk stratification schema exist for the majority of these disorders which will discussed in later sections. […] However, the majority of SCDs occur among individuals without clinically recognized heart disease. […] Approximately 44-52% of men and 59-69% of women who suffer SCD will not have had CVD diagnosed prior to the event; and therefore, SCD is the first manifestation of heart disease. […] Although the absolute incidence among individuals without apparent heart disease is low, the majority of SCD events take place in this segment of the population. […] For this segment of the population, current efforts directed at preventing SCD are primarily comprised of risk factor and lifestyle modification.

• #77 The Spectrum of Epidemiology Underlying Sudden Cardiac Death

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4929621/

  Performing molecular autopsies in cases with autopsy-negative SCD and/or cascade screening of families is important to establish the cause of death and to identify relatives potentially at high SCD risk. […] SCD is a major public health problem all over the world, and although resuscitation rates are improving, the majority of individuals who suffer SCA will not survive, and often the underlying cardiac condition is not recognized prior to death. […] As such, a multifaceted approach, which addresses risk factors both in high and low risk populations, will be required to decrease the burden of SCD. […] Population wide approaches as well as improved identification of high risk individuals who will benefit from ICDs will be crucial to prevent SCD events and improve patient outcomes. […] Although substantial progress has been made in this field, further studies addressing SCD prevention across the whole spectrum of disorders, from CHD in the general population to the rarer inherited disorders, are warranted to address many remaining uncertainties regarding the multitude of factors which underlie susceptibility to SCD.

• #78 Years of Potential Life Lost and Mean Age of Adults Experiencing Nontraumatic, Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrests — Chicago, 2014–2021 | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/73/wr/mm7309a2.htm

  Approximately 1,000 out-of-hospital cardiac arrests are assessed by emergency medical services in the United States every day, and approximately 90% of patients do not survive. […] The overall years of potential life lost increased from 52,044 years during 2014-2015 to 88,788 years during 2020-2021, and the mean age of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in Chicago decreased progressively from 64.7 years during 2014-2015, to 62.7 years during 2020-2021. […] Increased public awareness of the risk for cardiac arrest and knowledge of how to intervene as a bystander could help decrease associated mortality. Improved understanding of the reasons for the observed decrease in mean age at cardiac arrest could help guide prevention efforts. […] YPLL increased from 52,044 during 2014-2015 to 88,788 during 2020-2021 (p = 0.002) and mean age decreased from 64.7 years during 2014-2015, to 62.7 years during 2020-2021.

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