Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In the past two decades, major breakthroughs that improve our understanding of the pathophysiology and therapy of kidney stones (KS) have been lacking. […] In this context, epidemiological studies are striving to elucidate the worldwide changes in the patterns and the burden of the disease and identify modifiable risk factors that contribute to the development of kidney stones. […] Our expanding knowledge of the epidemiology of kidney stones is of paramount importance and largely upgrades the modern management of the disease. […] The epidemiology of KS presents with global variations that depend on geographic, socio-economic, and climate factors. […] Moreover, age, sex, race, and diet affect the prevalence and incidence of the disease. […] In the last three decades, the prevalence of KS has increased worldwide.

• #1 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  Prevalence rates differ between economically developed and developing countries, partly reflecting the more frequent detection of asymptomatic KS in the former. […] The increased prevalence of KS is followed by a significantly higher financial burden for healthcare systems. […] Swift changes in the global population and socio-economic and climate conditions are expected to transform the map of KS epidemiology in the years to come worldwide. […] The latest epidemiological studies clearly confirm previous results showing an increasing prevalence of KS worldwide. […] The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was used to determine the prevalence of KS in the US population. […] In a comparison of NHANES II (19761980) and NHANES III (19881994), it was estimated that kidney stone lifetime prevalence increased from 3.8 to 5.2% for the 20 years period covered by the surveys.

• #2 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  Prevalence rates differ between economically developed and developing countries, partly reflecting the more frequent detection of asymptomatic KS in the former. […] The increased prevalence of KS is followed by a significantly higher financial burden for healthcare systems. […] Swift changes in the global population and socio-economic and climate conditions are expected to transform the map of KS epidemiology in the years to come worldwide. […] The latest epidemiological studies clearly confirm previous results showing an increasing prevalence of KS worldwide. […] The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was used to determine the prevalence of KS in the US population. […] In a comparison of NHANES II (19761980) and NHANES III (19881994), it was estimated that kidney stone lifetime prevalence increased from 3.8 to 5.2% for the 20 years period covered by the surveys.

• #2 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/11/3/424

  In a comparison of NHANES II (1976–1980) and NHANES III (1988–1994), it was estimated that kidney stone lifetime prevalence increased from 3.8 to 5.2% for the 20 years period covered by the surveys. […] The analysis of NHANES data from 2007 to 2010 that followed reported the weighted overall prevalence of kidney stone disease to be 8.8%. […] An updated NHANES analysis initially demonstrated a slight decrease from 8.7% in 2007–2008 to 7.2% in 2011–2012, but in the next time periods, further increases were observed: from 9.0% in 2013–2014 to 10.1% in 2015–2016. […] The heterogeneity of epidemiological data and the methodological variations prevent us from making direct comparisons of prevalence and incidence. Nevertheless, such information is indicative of the rising global trend of the disease.

• #3 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  The analysis of NHANES data from 2007 to 2010 that followed reported the weighted overall prevalence of kidney stone disease to be 8.8%. […] The heterogeneity of epidemiological data and the methodological variations prevent us from making direct comparisons of prevalence and incidence. […] Nevertheless, such information is indicative of the rising global trend of the disease. […] The incidence of KS has been calculated in specific populations retrospectively using medical records review or diagnostic codes. […] The incidence of symptomatic KS in the residents of Olmsted County, MN, USA, has increased from 95 per 100,000 person-years to 254 per 100,000 person-years from 1984 to 2012. […] The incidence of kidney stones in the population of Iceland was assessed by medical record reviews.

• #4 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/11/3/424

  In a comparison of NHANES II (1976–1980) and NHANES III (1988–1994), it was estimated that kidney stone lifetime prevalence increased from 3.8 to 5.2% for the 20 years period covered by the surveys. […] The analysis of NHANES data from 2007 to 2010 that followed reported the weighted overall prevalence of kidney stone disease to be 8.8%. […] An updated NHANES analysis initially demonstrated a slight decrease from 8.7% in 2007–2008 to 7.2% in 2011–2012, but in the next time periods, further increases were observed: from 9.0% in 2013–2014 to 10.1% in 2015–2016. […] The heterogeneity of epidemiological data and the methodological variations prevent us from making direct comparisons of prevalence and incidence. Nevertheless, such information is indicative of the rising global trend of the disease.

• #5 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/11/3/424

  In a comparison of NHANES II (1976–1980) and NHANES III (1988–1994), it was estimated that kidney stone lifetime prevalence increased from 3.8 to 5.2% for the 20 years period covered by the surveys. […] The analysis of NHANES data from 2007 to 2010 that followed reported the weighted overall prevalence of kidney stone disease to be 8.8%. […] An updated NHANES analysis initially demonstrated a slight decrease from 8.7% in 2007–2008 to 7.2% in 2011–2012, but in the next time periods, further increases were observed: from 9.0% in 2013–2014 to 10.1% in 2015–2016. […] The heterogeneity of epidemiological data and the methodological variations prevent us from making direct comparisons of prevalence and incidence. Nevertheless, such information is indicative of the rising global trend of the disease.

• #6

  https://journals.lww.com/juop/fulltext/2024/01000/prevalence,_incidence,_and_determinants_of_kidney.6.aspx

  To determine the prevalence, incidence, and determinants of kidney stones among adults in the United States. […] The prevalence of kidney stones was 9.9% (95% confidence interval (CI): 8.7%-11.3%), and the incidence of stone passage was 1.8% (95% CI: 1.4%-2.4%). […] The self-reported prevalence and incidence of kidney stones in the US adult population between 2017 and 2020 were 9.9% and 1.8%, respectively. History of gallstones, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease were important predictors of both outcomes. Individuals with these risk factors may require more frequent monitoring or targeted preventative lifestyle interventions. […] The estimated prevalence of kidney stones was 9.9% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 8.7%-11.3%), representing approximately 23.7 million individuals in the United States.

• #7

  https://journals.lww.com/juop/fulltext/2024/01000/prevalence,_incidence,_and_determinants_of_kidney.6.aspx

  The 12-month incidence of kidney stone passage was 1.8% (95% CI: 1.4%-2.4%), corresponding to approximately 4.4 million individuals in the United States. […] A history of gallstones was the strongest determinant of kidney stone prevalence and incidence in this study. […] Hypertension was also a key determinant for both kidney stone prevalence and incidence in this study. […] Chronic kidney disease was also associated with an increased risk of kidney stones, potentially due to shared risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. […] Among US adults aged 20 years and older, 9.9% (23.7 million) of individuals reported a history of kidney stones during their lifetime, and 1.8% (4.4 million) had passed a kidney stone in the past 12 months. […] Ultimately, health care providers should be aware of the high-risk subgroups identified in this study who may benefit from more frequent monitoring, preventative lifestyle interventions, or medical interventions.

• #8 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones in the European Union | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4471-4387-1_1

  In Europe, prevalence and incidence of urolithiasis have increased markedly during the last decades. […] There seems to be an age and gender relation of both stone formation and stone composition. […] Calcium oxalate (CaOx) stones are the most common stone species throughout Europe. […] Infection stones are on retreat in Europe, although there are regional differences, which might reflect differences in health care systems. […] Uric acid (UA) stone disease is on the rise in parallel with the rising incidence of metabolic syndrome. […] In general, recurrence rates are still high, and there is a need for more effective preventive measures. […] There is still a need for randomized controlled trials both with regard to stone eliminating procedures and preventive measures.

• #9 The Demographic Diversity of Food Intake and Prevalence of Kidney Stone Diseases in the Indian Continent

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/1/37

  The presence of a high amount of salt in fast food, especially in industrialized countries, causes higher calcium in the kidneys. […] The modification of sodium by cutting down the daily intake of salt is advised for reducing kidney stone recurrence. […] Dietary factors have been widely recognized as one of the primary risk factors of kidney stone formation. […] KSD is a rising concern, a major healthcare burden, and is associated with hematuria and renal failure. […] The risk of renal stone varies from 1–5% in Asia, 5–9% in Europe, 10–15% in the USA, and 20–25% in the Middle East. […] Thus, awareness of the health concern and optimized food therapy can potentially curtail the cost of hospitalization and enhance compliance in general.

• #10 Kidney stone disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_stone_disease

  Kidney stones affect all geographical, cultural, and racial groups. The lifetime risk is about 10-15% in the developed world, but can be as high as 20-25% in the Middle East. The increased risk of dehydration in hot climates, coupled with a diet 50% lower in calcium and 250% higher in oxalates compared to Western diets, accounts for the higher net risk in the Middle East. […] In North America and Europe, the annual number of new cases per year of kidney stones is roughly 0.5%. In the United States, the frequency in the population of urolithiasis has increased from 3.2% to 5.2% from the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s. […] A 2010 review concluded that rates of disease are increasing.

• #11 Kidney Stones: Medical Mangement Guideline – American Urological Association

  https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/kidney-stones-medical-mangement-guideline

  Historically, kidney stones have occurred more commonly in men than in women. However, by any number of metrics, the gender gap in stone disease is closing. […] The change in the male-to-female ratio is thought to reflect a disproportionate increase in stone disease among women, rather than a decline among men. […] The reasons for the observed rise in stone disease among women are not certain, but the impact of obesity, a known risk factor for kidney stones, was found to be greater in women than in men. […] With the increase in the prevalence of stone disease, the cost associated with diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of individuals with stones has risen accordingly. […] Using claims data from 25 large employers as part of the Urologic Disease in America Project, Saigal and colleagues estimated that the annual incremental health care cost per individual associated with a diagnosis of nephrolithiasis in year 2000 was $3,494, thereby resulting in a total direct cost of nephrolithiasis among the employed population of $4.5 billion. […] Additionally, since stone disease primarily affects the working-age population, the total direct and indirect costs associated with nephrolithiasis, taking into account the cost of lost workdays, was estimated at $5.3 billion that year.

• #12 Kidney stones – Symptoms, causes, types, and treatment | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/kidney-stones

  Each year, more than half a million people go to emergency rooms for kidney stone problems. It is estimated that one in ten people will have a kidney stone at some time in their lives. […] The prevalence of kidney stones in the United States increased from 3.8% in the late 1970s to 8.8% in the late 2000s. The prevalence of kidney stones was 10% during 2013-2014. The risk of kidney stones is about 11% in men and 9% in women. Other diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity may increase the risk for kidney stones. […] Kidney stones increase the risk of developing chronic kidney disease. If you have had one stone, you are at increased risk of having another stone. Those who have developed one stone are at approximately 50% risk for developing another within 5 to 7 years. […] Kidney stones are found in children as young as 5 years. In fact, this problem is so common in children that some hospitals conduct 'stone’ clinics for pediatric patients. The increase in the United States has been attributed to several factors, mostly related to food choices. The two most important reasons are not drinking enough fluids and eating foods that are high in salt.

• #13 Kidney Stones: Medical Mangement Guideline – American Urological Association

  https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/kidney-stones-medical-mangement-guideline

  Historically, kidney stones have occurred more commonly in men than in women. However, by any number of metrics, the gender gap in stone disease is closing. […] The change in the male-to-female ratio is thought to reflect a disproportionate increase in stone disease among women, rather than a decline among men. […] The reasons for the observed rise in stone disease among women are not certain, but the impact of obesity, a known risk factor for kidney stones, was found to be greater in women than in men. […] With the increase in the prevalence of stone disease, the cost associated with diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of individuals with stones has risen accordingly. […] Using claims data from 25 large employers as part of the Urologic Disease in America Project, Saigal and colleagues estimated that the annual incremental health care cost per individual associated with a diagnosis of nephrolithiasis in year 2000 was $3,494, thereby resulting in a total direct cost of nephrolithiasis among the employed population of $4.5 billion. […] Additionally, since stone disease primarily affects the working-age population, the total direct and indirect costs associated with nephrolithiasis, taking into account the cost of lost workdays, was estimated at $5.3 billion that year.

• #14 Kidney Stones: Medical Mangement Guideline – American Urological Association

  https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/kidney-stones-medical-mangement-guideline

  Historically, kidney stones have occurred more commonly in men than in women. However, by any number of metrics, the gender gap in stone disease is closing. […] The change in the male-to-female ratio is thought to reflect a disproportionate increase in stone disease among women, rather than a decline among men. […] The reasons for the observed rise in stone disease among women are not certain, but the impact of obesity, a known risk factor for kidney stones, was found to be greater in women than in men. […] With the increase in the prevalence of stone disease, the cost associated with diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of individuals with stones has risen accordingly. […] Using claims data from 25 large employers as part of the Urologic Disease in America Project, Saigal and colleagues estimated that the annual incremental health care cost per individual associated with a diagnosis of nephrolithiasis in year 2000 was $3,494, thereby resulting in a total direct cost of nephrolithiasis among the employed population of $4.5 billion. […] Additionally, since stone disease primarily affects the working-age population, the total direct and indirect costs associated with nephrolithiasis, taking into account the cost of lost workdays, was estimated at $5.3 billion that year.

• #15 Kidney Stones: Emergency Department Diagnosis And Treatment

  https://www.ebmedicine.net/topics/hepatic-renal-genitourinary/kidney-stones-renal-calculi

  For men, the incidence begins to rise after age 20 and peaks between ages 40 and 60. […] Women have a bimodal incidence, with a second peak in incidence after age 60, believed to be due to the onset of menopause and the loss of the protective effect of estrogen. […] Geographic distribution of kidney stone formation has been widely reported, with areas of hot or dry climates, such as desert or tropical areas, showing an increased prevalence. […] Soucie et al showed increased prevalence in the United States from north to south and west to east, with the highest prevalence being in the Southeast.

• #16 Kidney Stones: Emergency Department Diagnosis And Treatment

  https://www.ebmedicine.net/topics/hepatic-renal-genitourinary/kidney-stones-renal-calculi

  For men, the incidence begins to rise after age 20 and peaks between ages 40 and 60. […] Women have a bimodal incidence, with a second peak in incidence after age 60, believed to be due to the onset of menopause and the loss of the protective effect of estrogen. […] Geographic distribution of kidney stone formation has been widely reported, with areas of hot or dry climates, such as desert or tropical areas, showing an increased prevalence. […] Soucie et al showed increased prevalence in the United States from north to south and west to east, with the highest prevalence being in the Southeast.

• #17 Kidney Stones: Emergency Department Diagnosis And Treatment

  https://www.ebmedicine.net/topics/hepatic-renal-genitourinary/kidney-stones-renal-calculi

  The lifetime prevalence of kidney stone formation has been estimated at anywhere from 1% to 12%, with the probability of having a stone varying according to gender, race, age, and geographic location. […] A population-based cross-sectional survey of 15,364 United States residents from 1976-1994 established a 5.2% prevalence of kidney stones, an increase from a prior prevalence of 3.8%. […] These increasing numbers are likely due to better detection of stones due to the greater use and sensitivity of imaging studies such as the nonenhanced CT. […] Kidney stones typically affect men approximately 2 to 3 times more frequently than women. […] Caucasians have the highest prevalence of kidney stones, followed by Hispanics, Asians, and Africans. […] Incidence rates, defined as the onset of an individuals first kidney stone, vary by age, sex, and race.

• #18 Nephrolithiasis (part 1): Epidemiology, causes and pathogenesis of recurrent nephrolithiasis

  http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0256-95742021001000007

  Calcium oxalate (CaOx) calculi have been found to be the cause of stones in 80% of stone patients, and are frequently recurrent. […] Renal CaOx calculi occur in 85% of cases, and in the other 15%, calcium phosphate (CaP) comprises the chemical make-up. […] These CaP calculi occasionally cause ESKD. […] CaOx calculi are rare in the South African (SA) black population and in African Americans. […] As the years progress, so does stone incidence increase – especially in children. […] There has been an increase in incidence in all age groups – mostly in those aged 10 – 19 years (23%). […] The mean incidence in African Americans is 15% (stone type not specified). […] There are no data in black South Africans. CaOx calculi are still rare (~1%).

• #19 CIN’2003. CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF UROLITHIASIS IN TROPICAL AREAS

  https://uninet.edu/cin2003/conf/lreyes/lreyes.html

  Kidney stones have afflicted humankind since antiquity. The prevalence of urinary tract stone disease is estimated to be 2% to 15%. Urolithiasis is a common clinical disorder. Its frequency has risen with the development of humanity and varies with the country, geographic area, etc. Its world prevalence is estimated between 1 to 5%, in developed countries 2-13% (with a great variation among them), and in developing countries 0.5-1%. The overall probability of forming stones differs in various parts of the world: 1-5% in Asia, 5-9% in Europe, 13% in North America, 20% in Saudi Arabia. Lifetime prevalences in the USA and Europe range between 8 and 15%, annual incidences of kidney stones are about 0.1-0.4% of the population and the likelihood that a white man will develop stone disease by age 70 years is about 1 in 8. The prevalence among elderly men over 65 is 4.7% in Italy. On the other hand, silent kidney stone, which can be a presentation of urolithiasis, could have prevalence around 3% as has been found in Pakistan.

• #20 Kidney stone epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Kidney_stone_epidemiology_and_demographics

  At initial diagnosis, the mean age was 44.8 years in men and 40.9 years in women. […] Nephrolithiasis usually affects individuals of the white/Caucasian ethnicity. […] Males are more commonly affected by nephrolithiaisis than females. The male to female ratio is approximately 2 to 1. […] The trend keeps on changing , a study in 2010 claims the incidence rate ratio of men to women with urinary tract stones has narrowed from 3.4 to 1.3. […] Females are having increasing incidence rates owing to increase lifestyle disease like obesity. […] The majority of nephrolithiasis cases are reported in southeast belt of the United States. […] The number of cases increase from north to south and from west to east. […] The states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee are considered in the stone belt. […] The ambient temperature and sunlight levels as risk factors for stones and differences in exposure to temperature and sunlight and beverages are also responsible for geographic variability.

• #21 Kidney stone epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Kidney_stone_epidemiology_and_demographics

  At initial diagnosis, the mean age was 44.8 years in men and 40.9 years in women. […] Nephrolithiasis usually affects individuals of the white/Caucasian ethnicity. […] Males are more commonly affected by nephrolithiaisis than females. The male to female ratio is approximately 2 to 1. […] The trend keeps on changing , a study in 2010 claims the incidence rate ratio of men to women with urinary tract stones has narrowed from 3.4 to 1.3. […] Females are having increasing incidence rates owing to increase lifestyle disease like obesity. […] The majority of nephrolithiasis cases are reported in southeast belt of the United States. […] The number of cases increase from north to south and from west to east. […] The states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee are considered in the stone belt. […] The ambient temperature and sunlight levels as risk factors for stones and differences in exposure to temperature and sunlight and beverages are also responsible for geographic variability.

• #22 Kidney Stones: Emergency Department Diagnosis And Treatment

  https://www.ebmedicine.net/topics/hepatic-renal-genitourinary/kidney-stones-renal-calculi

  For men, the incidence begins to rise after age 20 and peaks between ages 40 and 60. […] Women have a bimodal incidence, with a second peak in incidence after age 60, believed to be due to the onset of menopause and the loss of the protective effect of estrogen. […] Geographic distribution of kidney stone formation has been widely reported, with areas of hot or dry climates, such as desert or tropical areas, showing an increased prevalence. […] Soucie et al showed increased prevalence in the United States from north to south and west to east, with the highest prevalence being in the Southeast.

• #23 CIN’2003. CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF UROLITHIASIS IN TROPICAL AREAS

  https://uninet.edu/cin2003/conf/lreyes/lreyes.html

  The epidemiologic aspects of occurrence of urinary lithiasis in Israeli communities has been investigated and was noted that the areas of highest incidence of urolithiasis were the warmer desert regions as opposed to the cooler mountain regions. A very well conducted 5-year randomized prospective study involving first stone episode patients has shown lower rates of recurrence (12%) in those with a higher intake of water compared to those without (27%). […] Kidney stone is a frequent disease with high morbidity and social and economical impact all over the world. Its causes and risk factors are multiples. The relations of intrinsic or genetic and the extrinsic or environmental risk factors are essential on its genesis. Although the knowledge is growing up about the first, looks that the last determines more its increase frequency in the world. The studies have demonstrated that geographical, climatic and seasonal factors have a roll in the lithogenesis due to kidney stones are more frequent in subtropical than in cool regions of different countries. In tropical countries all these risk factors are more adverse and have also been reported high frequency of renal lithiasis. Thus tropical areas influence the frequency and the impact of the urinary calculi but it represents an aspect of the environmental factors superimposed on the intrinsic factors.

• #24

  https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=ajdd.2017.54.62

  Renal calculi are crystalline structures of calcium oxalate with associated risk factors like dehydration, high fat diet, animal protein, high salt intake and obesity. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions. This study compiles the epidemiology of renal calculi focusing on prevalence, occurrence and re-occurrence rate in global perspective. Literature of nephrolithiasis prevalence has been reviewed for Europe, Canada, American, East Asia, Gulf region, Japan, China and different parts of India. Nephrolithiasis is a common disorder responsible for significant human suffering as per studies and surveys done over the last half century reporting steadily increasing cases. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions throughout the globe. Annual approximate prevalence is 3-5% and approximate life time prevalence is 15-25%. Nephrolithiasis tend to be recurrent in most of the renal calculi patients. Recurrence rates of renal stone are approximately 10% year1, 50% over a period of 5-10 years and 75% over 20 years period. The comparative incidence of renal calculi in adults are higher in Western region as compared to Eastern region of the world. The risk rate of prevalence as reported throughout the globe is Saudi Arabia 20.1%, USA 13-15%, Canada 12% and Europe 5-9%. This era of globalization is witnessing increase cases of acute renal injury and emerging epidemic of renal calculi among all age groups including children of East Asia mainly Macau, Taiwan, Hong Kong and China due to the use of different type of milk and milk product. High incidence rate is reported in middle east (20-25%) due to hot climate with increased chances of dehydration. In Japan, minimum 5.4% of the population have at least one time affected with renal calculi in their life time provided by the data of 1995-1987 nationwide survey on nephrolithiasis. The countries with alarming occurrence rate of nephrolithiasis is British island, central Europe, North Australia, Scandinavian and Mediterranean countries. The stone forming belt of the world is identified as Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Myanmar and Indonesia with cases of renal calculi in all age group including child below 1 year of age and adults over 70 years with a male to female ratio of 2:1. Almost one million people in USA is affected with renal calculi and visit emergency department annually with an economic impact of approximately 2.1-5.3 billion US$. In last decades, an increase of almost 50% was observed in diagnosis and treatment cost of nephrolithiasis. North American children have 5 time increased prevalence of pediatric nephrolithiasis in last 10 years. Incidence of nephrolithiasis varies in different region of USA but is mostly found in South Eastern states as like North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee and Kentucky and has a combined name as stone belt of North America. Approximately 7.5 lakh cases of renal calculi were found in Germany between 1979-2000 suggesting a continuously increasing trend in renal stone occurrence and approximately three-fold prevalence in population aged between 50-64 years. Studies in UK identified and suggested that due to change of life style and diet, a gradually upward tendency in annual incidence and downward in the age of onset for nephrolithiasis has been observed. Swedish renal stone studies based on epidemiology, showed recurrence rate of 70% after 10 years on the patients previously having minimum two renal calculi before the follow up period. Approximate 2 million people in India is affected with nephrolithiasis every year and some parts of country has name denoted as a stone belt that is, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana and part of states on North East side. In India, approximate 50% of the population is affected with renal calculi, which may end up to renal damage or loss of kidney function. The rate of nephrolithiasis incidence, mainly staghorn calculi is very high in Manipur and some reports indicates North Western region of India have also increased prevalence. In the last few decades occurrence of pediatric renal calculi cases were observed in some epidemiological studies.

• #25 The Demographic Diversity of Food Intake and Prevalence of Kidney Stone Diseases in the Indian Continent

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/1/37

  The epidemiology differs in accordance with different geographical regions and social constructs. Within this context, food habits have been proposed as one of the major risk factors in renal stone formation, as a form of epidemiology for urine composition. […] In the context of India, KSD is prevalent, with an expectancy of 12% in a total population reported to be prone to urinary stones. […] Unlike in South India, where a few reported percentages affected by Urolithiasis, in North India, there is a steep 15% of the population within the realm of KSD. […] Thus, considering the prospects of the kidney stone belt, which are affected by KSD in India, a proper corollary needs to be established. […] The Indian food habit has been considered a widely recognized risk factor of kidney stone formation.

• #26 Kidney stones – Symptoms, causes, types, and treatment | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/kidney-stones

  Each year, more than half a million people go to emergency rooms for kidney stone problems. It is estimated that one in ten people will have a kidney stone at some time in their lives. […] The prevalence of kidney stones in the United States increased from 3.8% in the late 1970s to 8.8% in the late 2000s. The prevalence of kidney stones was 10% during 2013-2014. The risk of kidney stones is about 11% in men and 9% in women. Other diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity may increase the risk for kidney stones. […] Kidney stones increase the risk of developing chronic kidney disease. If you have had one stone, you are at increased risk of having another stone. Those who have developed one stone are at approximately 50% risk for developing another within 5 to 7 years. […] Kidney stones are found in children as young as 5 years. In fact, this problem is so common in children that some hospitals conduct 'stone’ clinics for pediatric patients. The increase in the United States has been attributed to several factors, mostly related to food choices. The two most important reasons are not drinking enough fluids and eating foods that are high in salt.

• #27

  https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=ajdd.2017.54.62

  Renal calculi are crystalline structures of calcium oxalate with associated risk factors like dehydration, high fat diet, animal protein, high salt intake and obesity. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions. This study compiles the epidemiology of renal calculi focusing on prevalence, occurrence and re-occurrence rate in global perspective. Literature of nephrolithiasis prevalence has been reviewed for Europe, Canada, American, East Asia, Gulf region, Japan, China and different parts of India. Nephrolithiasis is a common disorder responsible for significant human suffering as per studies and surveys done over the last half century reporting steadily increasing cases. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions throughout the globe. Annual approximate prevalence is 3-5% and approximate life time prevalence is 15-25%. Nephrolithiasis tend to be recurrent in most of the renal calculi patients. Recurrence rates of renal stone are approximately 10% year1, 50% over a period of 5-10 years and 75% over 20 years period. The comparative incidence of renal calculi in adults are higher in Western region as compared to Eastern region of the world. The risk rate of prevalence as reported throughout the globe is Saudi Arabia 20.1%, USA 13-15%, Canada 12% and Europe 5-9%. This era of globalization is witnessing increase cases of acute renal injury and emerging epidemic of renal calculi among all age groups including children of East Asia mainly Macau, Taiwan, Hong Kong and China due to the use of different type of milk and milk product. High incidence rate is reported in middle east (20-25%) due to hot climate with increased chances of dehydration. In Japan, minimum 5.4% of the population have at least one time affected with renal calculi in their life time provided by the data of 1995-1987 nationwide survey on nephrolithiasis. The countries with alarming occurrence rate of nephrolithiasis is British island, central Europe, North Australia, Scandinavian and Mediterranean countries. The stone forming belt of the world is identified as Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Myanmar and Indonesia with cases of renal calculi in all age group including child below 1 year of age and adults over 70 years with a male to female ratio of 2:1. Almost one million people in USA is affected with renal calculi and visit emergency department annually with an economic impact of approximately 2.1-5.3 billion US$. In last decades, an increase of almost 50% was observed in diagnosis and treatment cost of nephrolithiasis. North American children have 5 time increased prevalence of pediatric nephrolithiasis in last 10 years. Incidence of nephrolithiasis varies in different region of USA but is mostly found in South Eastern states as like North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee and Kentucky and has a combined name as stone belt of North America. Approximately 7.5 lakh cases of renal calculi were found in Germany between 1979-2000 suggesting a continuously increasing trend in renal stone occurrence and approximately three-fold prevalence in population aged between 50-64 years. Studies in UK identified and suggested that due to change of life style and diet, a gradually upward tendency in annual incidence and downward in the age of onset for nephrolithiasis has been observed. Swedish renal stone studies based on epidemiology, showed recurrence rate of 70% after 10 years on the patients previously having minimum two renal calculi before the follow up period. Approximate 2 million people in India is affected with nephrolithiasis every year and some parts of country has name denoted as a stone belt that is, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana and part of states on North East side. In India, approximate 50% of the population is affected with renal calculi, which may end up to renal damage or loss of kidney function. The rate of nephrolithiasis incidence, mainly staghorn calculi is very high in Manipur and some reports indicates North Western region of India have also increased prevalence. In the last few decades occurrence of pediatric renal calculi cases were observed in some epidemiological studies.

• #28 Kidney stone disease: an update on its management in primary care | British Journal of General Practice

  https://bjgp.org/content/70/693/205

  The incidence of kidney stone disease (urolithiasis) is rising, with a lifetime risk of 10-15%, and a recurrence rate of 50% within 10 years. […] Asymptomatic stones should be monitored with active surveillance, consisting of annual follow-up and imaging (using whichever imaging modality the stone was visible on, while being mindful of radiation exposure). […] Those at higher risk of recurrence include: early-onset urolithiasis (25 years of age); recurrent urolithiasis; nephrocalcinosis; disease-associated urolithiasis (such as inflammatory bowel disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus); and strong family history (early onset in first-degree relative). […] Specialist metabolic screening should be offered to these patients.

• #29

  https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=ajdd.2017.54.62

  Renal calculi are crystalline structures of calcium oxalate with associated risk factors like dehydration, high fat diet, animal protein, high salt intake and obesity. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions. This study compiles the epidemiology of renal calculi focusing on prevalence, occurrence and re-occurrence rate in global perspective. Literature of nephrolithiasis prevalence has been reviewed for Europe, Canada, American, East Asia, Gulf region, Japan, China and different parts of India. Nephrolithiasis is a common disorder responsible for significant human suffering as per studies and surveys done over the last half century reporting steadily increasing cases. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions throughout the globe. Annual approximate prevalence is 3-5% and approximate life time prevalence is 15-25%. Nephrolithiasis tend to be recurrent in most of the renal calculi patients. Recurrence rates of renal stone are approximately 10% year1, 50% over a period of 5-10 years and 75% over 20 years period. The comparative incidence of renal calculi in adults are higher in Western region as compared to Eastern region of the world. The risk rate of prevalence as reported throughout the globe is Saudi Arabia 20.1%, USA 13-15%, Canada 12% and Europe 5-9%. This era of globalization is witnessing increase cases of acute renal injury and emerging epidemic of renal calculi among all age groups including children of East Asia mainly Macau, Taiwan, Hong Kong and China due to the use of different type of milk and milk product. High incidence rate is reported in middle east (20-25%) due to hot climate with increased chances of dehydration. In Japan, minimum 5.4% of the population have at least one time affected with renal calculi in their life time provided by the data of 1995-1987 nationwide survey on nephrolithiasis. The countries with alarming occurrence rate of nephrolithiasis is British island, central Europe, North Australia, Scandinavian and Mediterranean countries. The stone forming belt of the world is identified as Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Myanmar and Indonesia with cases of renal calculi in all age group including child below 1 year of age and adults over 70 years with a male to female ratio of 2:1. Almost one million people in USA is affected with renal calculi and visit emergency department annually with an economic impact of approximately 2.1-5.3 billion US$. In last decades, an increase of almost 50% was observed in diagnosis and treatment cost of nephrolithiasis. North American children have 5 time increased prevalence of pediatric nephrolithiasis in last 10 years. Incidence of nephrolithiasis varies in different region of USA but is mostly found in South Eastern states as like North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee and Kentucky and has a combined name as stone belt of North America. Approximately 7.5 lakh cases of renal calculi were found in Germany between 1979-2000 suggesting a continuously increasing trend in renal stone occurrence and approximately three-fold prevalence in population aged between 50-64 years. Studies in UK identified and suggested that due to change of life style and diet, a gradually upward tendency in annual incidence and downward in the age of onset for nephrolithiasis has been observed. Swedish renal stone studies based on epidemiology, showed recurrence rate of 70% after 10 years on the patients previously having minimum two renal calculi before the follow up period. Approximate 2 million people in India is affected with nephrolithiasis every year and some parts of country has name denoted as a stone belt that is, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana and part of states on North East side. In India, approximate 50% of the population is affected with renal calculi, which may end up to renal damage or loss of kidney function. The rate of nephrolithiasis incidence, mainly staghorn calculi is very high in Manipur and some reports indicates North Western region of India have also increased prevalence. In the last few decades occurrence of pediatric renal calculi cases were observed in some epidemiological studies.

• #30 Kidney stones in children: Epidemiology and risk factors – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/kidney-stones-in-children-epidemiology-and-risk-factors

  Kidney stones are increasingly recognized in children. The epidemiology and etiology of kidney stones in children will be reviewed here. […] The diagnosis of pediatric kidney stones has increased as illustrated by the following: […] A study using data from a commercial health claims database reported the annual rate of pediatric cases for urinary stone disease in the United States rose from 2005 to a peak of 65.2 cases per 100,000 person years in 2011. […] Similarly, in a study of a database that included all emergency visits, surgical procedures, and hospital admissions in the state of South Carolina, the incidence of such encounters for nephrolithiasis among individuals aged 15 to 19 years old increased by 25 percent every 5 years between 1997 and 2012. […] An Israeli study based on reported histories during compulsory medical evaluations of 17-year-old military enlistees found the average prevalence rate increased from 69 to 120 cases per 100,000 individuals between the two time periods of 1980 to 1995 and 2010 to 2012. […] Data from the United States Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS) have shown a proportional increase in hospitalizations due to pediatric kidney stones with a diagnosis of kidney stones made in 1 case for every 685 pediatric hospitalizations.

• #31 Kidney stones in children: Epidemiology and risk factors – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/kidney-stones-in-children-epidemiology-and-risk-factors

  Kidney stones are increasingly recognized in children. The epidemiology and etiology of kidney stones in children will be reviewed here. […] The diagnosis of pediatric kidney stones has increased as illustrated by the following: […] A study using data from a commercial health claims database reported the annual rate of pediatric cases for urinary stone disease in the United States rose from 2005 to a peak of 65.2 cases per 100,000 person years in 2011. […] Similarly, in a study of a database that included all emergency visits, surgical procedures, and hospital admissions in the state of South Carolina, the incidence of such encounters for nephrolithiasis among individuals aged 15 to 19 years old increased by 25 percent every 5 years between 1997 and 2012. […] An Israeli study based on reported histories during compulsory medical evaluations of 17-year-old military enlistees found the average prevalence rate increased from 69 to 120 cases per 100,000 individuals between the two time periods of 1980 to 1995 and 2010 to 2012. […] Data from the United States Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS) have shown a proportional increase in hospitalizations due to pediatric kidney stones with a diagnosis of kidney stones made in 1 case for every 685 pediatric hospitalizations.

• #32 Kidney stones in children: Epidemiology and risk factors – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/kidney-stones-in-children-epidemiology-and-risk-factors

  Kidney stones are increasingly recognized in children. The epidemiology and etiology of kidney stones in children will be reviewed here. […] The diagnosis of pediatric kidney stones has increased as illustrated by the following: […] A study using data from a commercial health claims database reported the annual rate of pediatric cases for urinary stone disease in the United States rose from 2005 to a peak of 65.2 cases per 100,000 person years in 2011. […] Similarly, in a study of a database that included all emergency visits, surgical procedures, and hospital admissions in the state of South Carolina, the incidence of such encounters for nephrolithiasis among individuals aged 15 to 19 years old increased by 25 percent every 5 years between 1997 and 2012. […] An Israeli study based on reported histories during compulsory medical evaluations of 17-year-old military enlistees found the average prevalence rate increased from 69 to 120 cases per 100,000 individuals between the two time periods of 1980 to 1995 and 2010 to 2012. […] Data from the United States Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS) have shown a proportional increase in hospitalizations due to pediatric kidney stones with a diagnosis of kidney stones made in 1 case for every 685 pediatric hospitalizations.

• #33 Kidney stones in children: Epidemiology and risk factors – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/kidney-stones-in-children-epidemiology-and-risk-factors

  Kidney stones are increasingly recognized in children. The epidemiology and etiology of kidney stones in children will be reviewed here. […] The diagnosis of pediatric kidney stones has increased as illustrated by the following: […] A study using data from a commercial health claims database reported the annual rate of pediatric cases for urinary stone disease in the United States rose from 2005 to a peak of 65.2 cases per 100,000 person years in 2011. […] Similarly, in a study of a database that included all emergency visits, surgical procedures, and hospital admissions in the state of South Carolina, the incidence of such encounters for nephrolithiasis among individuals aged 15 to 19 years old increased by 25 percent every 5 years between 1997 and 2012. […] An Israeli study based on reported histories during compulsory medical evaluations of 17-year-old military enlistees found the average prevalence rate increased from 69 to 120 cases per 100,000 individuals between the two time periods of 1980 to 1995 and 2010 to 2012. […] Data from the United States Pediatric Health Information System (PHIS) have shown a proportional increase in hospitalizations due to pediatric kidney stones with a diagnosis of kidney stones made in 1 case for every 685 pediatric hospitalizations.

• #34 Kidney Stones: Treatment and Prevention | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0415/p490.html

  Kidney stones are becoming more prevalent in children because of increasing rates of diabetes mellitus, obesity, and hypertension in this population. […] Urinary stasis, increased glomerular filtration rate, and elevated urine pH affect kidney stone formation in pregnant women. […] Measures to prevent recurrence of kidney stones include lifestyle modifications, citrate supplementation, and medications. […] Patients at high risk of stone recurrence should receive preventive measures tailored to the results of the metabolic assessment.

• #35 Kidney stones – Symptoms, causes, types, and treatment | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/kidney-stones

  Each year, more than half a million people go to emergency rooms for kidney stone problems. It is estimated that one in ten people will have a kidney stone at some time in their lives. […] The prevalence of kidney stones in the United States increased from 3.8% in the late 1970s to 8.8% in the late 2000s. The prevalence of kidney stones was 10% during 2013-2014. The risk of kidney stones is about 11% in men and 9% in women. Other diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity may increase the risk for kidney stones. […] Kidney stones increase the risk of developing chronic kidney disease. If you have had one stone, you are at increased risk of having another stone. Those who have developed one stone are at approximately 50% risk for developing another within 5 to 7 years. […] Kidney stones are found in children as young as 5 years. In fact, this problem is so common in children that some hospitals conduct 'stone’ clinics for pediatric patients. The increase in the United States has been attributed to several factors, mostly related to food choices. The two most important reasons are not drinking enough fluids and eating foods that are high in salt.

• #36 Prevalence of kidney stones and associated risk factors in the Shunyi District of Beijing, China | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v23n5/462.htm

  Kidney stone formation is a multifactorial condition that involves interaction of environmental and genetic factors. Presence of kidney stones is strongly related to other diseases, which may result in a heavy economic and social burden. Clinical data on the prevalence and influencing factors in kidney stone disease in the north of China are scarce. In this study, we explored the prevalence of kidney stone and potentially associated risk factors in the Shunyi District of Beijing, China. […] A total of 3350 participants (1091 males and 2259 females) completed the survey and the response rate was 99.67%. Among the participants, 3.61% were diagnosed with kidney stone. […] Male gender, drinking white spirits, and a history of urolithiasis are potentially associated with kidney stone formation.

• #37 Kidney stones in adults: Epidemiology and risk factors – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/kidney-stones-in-adults-epidemiology-and-risk-factors

  Kidney stone disease (nephrolithiasis) is a common problem in primary care practice. This topic will review the epidemiology of kidney stones and risk factors for stone formation in adults. […] Major risk factors for calcium stones include urinary factors such as high urine calcium, high urine oxalate, low urine citrate, high urine uric acid, low urine volume, and urine pH. […] Age-specific kidney stone incidence rates are also a significant aspect of the epidemiology of kidney stones.

• #38

  https://journals.lww.com/juop/fulltext/2024/01000/prevalence,_incidence,_and_determinants_of_kidney.6.aspx

  The 12-month incidence of kidney stone passage was 1.8% (95% CI: 1.4%-2.4%), corresponding to approximately 4.4 million individuals in the United States. […] A history of gallstones was the strongest determinant of kidney stone prevalence and incidence in this study. […] Hypertension was also a key determinant for both kidney stone prevalence and incidence in this study. […] Chronic kidney disease was also associated with an increased risk of kidney stones, potentially due to shared risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. […] Among US adults aged 20 years and older, 9.9% (23.7 million) of individuals reported a history of kidney stones during their lifetime, and 1.8% (4.4 million) had passed a kidney stone in the past 12 months. […] Ultimately, health care providers should be aware of the high-risk subgroups identified in this study who may benefit from more frequent monitoring, preventative lifestyle interventions, or medical interventions.

• #39 Urinary stone analysis and clinical characteristics of 496 patients in Taiwan | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-64869-w

  The cumulative effect of these factors may elevate the risk of stone formation in middle-aged individuals. […] Consistent with the results in previous studies, there is a trend of decreased proportion of CaOx stones with ageing. […] Type 2 DM has been recognized as a significant risk factor for kidney stone development, particularly UA stones. […] Gout is a recognized risk factor for the formation of urinary stones, particularly CaOx and UA stones. […] Nephrolithiasis increases the risk of cardiovascular illnesses, especially coronary heart disease and stroke, by being associated with atherosclerosis and vascular calcification. […] Our research indicated that UA stones have a significant positive correlation with CKD only in univariate regression analysis. […] The most prevalent stone type was found to be CaOx, with men showing a higher prevalence to UA stones and women to CaP stones. […] These findings may offer valuable information for understanding urolithiasis pathogenesis and developing preventative strategies for high-risk populations.

• #40 Urinary stone analysis and clinical characteristics of 496 patients in Taiwan | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-64869-w

  The cumulative effect of these factors may elevate the risk of stone formation in middle-aged individuals. […] Consistent with the results in previous studies, there is a trend of decreased proportion of CaOx stones with ageing. […] Type 2 DM has been recognized as a significant risk factor for kidney stone development, particularly UA stones. […] Gout is a recognized risk factor for the formation of urinary stones, particularly CaOx and UA stones. […] Nephrolithiasis increases the risk of cardiovascular illnesses, especially coronary heart disease and stroke, by being associated with atherosclerosis and vascular calcification. […] Our research indicated that UA stones have a significant positive correlation with CKD only in univariate regression analysis. […] The most prevalent stone type was found to be CaOx, with men showing a higher prevalence to UA stones and women to CaP stones. […] These findings may offer valuable information for understanding urolithiasis pathogenesis and developing preventative strategies for high-risk populations.

• #41 Prevalence and risk factors of kidney stone disease in population aged 40–70 years old in Kharameh cohort study: a cross-sectional population-based study in southern Iran | BMC Urology | Full Text

  https://bmcurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12894-022-01161-x

  Global data show that the prevalence of kidney stone has been increasing among both sexes in the last quarter of the twentieth century, which may be due to environmental factors such as diet and lifestyle. […] The recurrence rate of kidney stone is high, so at least one recurrence of kidney stone is seen during ten years in half of the individuals and in 90% of individuals over for 30 years. […] Due to the increasing trend and high recurrence of kidney stone, also imposing a heavy financial and medical burden on individuals and society, obtaining accurate and updated information from different regions of the world can be of great help to the decisions of health policymakers, to prepare preventive and up-to-date strategies to reduce this disease. […] The results of this study showed middle age, male gender, overweight, higher SES levels, diabetes, hypertension, and fatty liver as the risk factors for kidney stone.

• #42 Prevalence and risk factors of kidney stone disease in population aged 40–70 years old in Kharameh cohort study: a cross-sectional population-based study in southern Iran | BMC Urology | Full Text

  https://bmcurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12894-022-01161-x

  The estimated prevalence in the region under our study was higher than the reported prevalence in some other areas, including the United States 5.2% and China 7.5%. […] Based on the results of the present study, men had a higher chance of having kidney stone, which was in line with the results of many other studies. […] Based on the results of the present study, individuals with overweight had a higher chance of having kidney stone, while there was no relationship between obesity and kidney stone. […] In this study, increasing levels of SES showed a statistically significant relationship with the risk of kidney stone formation. […] Diabetic individuals in our study had a higher chance of having kidney stone; the results of many other studies were similar to ours. […] In the present study, hypertension was found to be another risk factor for the formation of kidney stone.

• #43 Prevalence and risk factors of kidney stone disease in population aged 40–70 years old in Kharameh cohort study: a cross-sectional population-based study in southern Iran | BMC Urology | Full Text

  https://bmcurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12894-022-01161-x

  The estimated prevalence in the region under our study was higher than the reported prevalence in some other areas, including the United States 5.2% and China 7.5%. […] Based on the results of the present study, men had a higher chance of having kidney stone, which was in line with the results of many other studies. […] Based on the results of the present study, individuals with overweight had a higher chance of having kidney stone, while there was no relationship between obesity and kidney stone. […] In this study, increasing levels of SES showed a statistically significant relationship with the risk of kidney stone formation. […] Diabetic individuals in our study had a higher chance of having kidney stone; the results of many other studies were similar to ours. […] In the present study, hypertension was found to be another risk factor for the formation of kidney stone.

• #44 EAU Guidelines on Urolithiasis – Uroweb

  https://uroweb.org/guidelines/urolithiasis/chapter/guidelines

  However, the risk status of stone formers should be determined in a holistic way taking into consideration not only the probability of stone recurrence or regrowth, but also the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD), end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), and metabolic bone disorder (MBD). A comprehensive evaluation of stone risk in patients should also include the risk of developing CKD, ESKD, and MBD. Urolithiasis can compromise renal function because of the renal stone (obstruction, infection), renal tissue damage due to the primary condition causing stone formation (some genetic diseases, nephrocalcinosis, enteric hyperoxaluria, etc.), or urological treatments for the condition. Certain risk factors have been shown to be associated with such a risk in stone formers. […] There are important genetic factors underlying kidney stone disease (KSD). Indeed, KSD has an estimated heritability of ~45% suggesting that genetic factors strongly influence this disease. Monogenic forms of stones remain rare, and are seen in 12-21% of children/young adults and 1-11% of adults with KSD, but enable specific patient management. These figures should be taken in context, as there is substantial heterogeneity in how diagnostic variants are defined. Also, most reported studies examined selected KSD populations where a genetic diagnosis is suspected. […] Urinary stones can be classified according to size, location, X-ray characteristics, aetiology of formation, composition, and risk of recurrence.

• #45 EAU Guidelines on Urolithiasis – Uroweb

  https://uroweb.org/guidelines/urolithiasis/chapter/guidelines

  However, the risk status of stone formers should be determined in a holistic way taking into consideration not only the probability of stone recurrence or regrowth, but also the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD), end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), and metabolic bone disorder (MBD). A comprehensive evaluation of stone risk in patients should also include the risk of developing CKD, ESKD, and MBD. Urolithiasis can compromise renal function because of the renal stone (obstruction, infection), renal tissue damage due to the primary condition causing stone formation (some genetic diseases, nephrocalcinosis, enteric hyperoxaluria, etc.), or urological treatments for the condition. Certain risk factors have been shown to be associated with such a risk in stone formers. […] There are important genetic factors underlying kidney stone disease (KSD). Indeed, KSD has an estimated heritability of ~45% suggesting that genetic factors strongly influence this disease. Monogenic forms of stones remain rare, and are seen in 12-21% of children/young adults and 1-11% of adults with KSD, but enable specific patient management. These figures should be taken in context, as there is substantial heterogeneity in how diagnostic variants are defined. Also, most reported studies examined selected KSD populations where a genetic diagnosis is suspected. […] Urinary stones can be classified according to size, location, X-ray characteristics, aetiology of formation, composition, and risk of recurrence.

• #46 Nephrolithiasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/437096-overview

  The lifetime prevalence of nephrolithiasis is approximately 11% for men and 7% for women in the United States, and it is currently rising. Having a family member with a history of stones doubles these rates. Approximately 30 million people are at risk in the United States. Roughly 2 million patients present on an outpatient basis with stone disease each year in the United States, which is a 40% increase from 1994. […] Between 2005 and 2015, the overall annual incidence of nephrolithiasis in US adults increased from 0.6% to 0.9%. The increasing incidence of kidney stone disease in the United States seems to be related to the socioeconomic status of the patient population. The lower the economic status, the lower the likelihood of renal stones. […] Nephrolithiasis occurs in all parts of the world. The incidence of urinary tract stone disease in developed countries is similar to that in the United States; the annual incidence of urinary tract stones in the industrialized world is estimated to be 0.2%. Stone disease is rare in only a few areas, such as Greenland and the coastal areas of Japan. A lifetime risk of 2-5% has been noted for Asia, 8-15% for the West, and 20% for Saudi Arabia.

• #47 Kidney stone disease: an update on its management in primary care | British Journal of General Practice

  https://bjgp.org/content/70/693/205

  The incidence of kidney stone disease (urolithiasis) is rising, with a lifetime risk of 10-15%, and a recurrence rate of 50% within 10 years. […] Asymptomatic stones should be monitored with active surveillance, consisting of annual follow-up and imaging (using whichever imaging modality the stone was visible on, while being mindful of radiation exposure). […] Those at higher risk of recurrence include: early-onset urolithiasis (25 years of age); recurrent urolithiasis; nephrocalcinosis; disease-associated urolithiasis (such as inflammatory bowel disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus); and strong family history (early onset in first-degree relative). […] Specialist metabolic screening should be offered to these patients.

• #48 The Demographic Diversity of Food Intake and Prevalence of Kidney Stone Diseases in the Indian Continent

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/1/37

  The presence of a high amount of salt in fast food, especially in industrialized countries, causes higher calcium in the kidneys. […] The modification of sodium by cutting down the daily intake of salt is advised for reducing kidney stone recurrence. […] Dietary factors have been widely recognized as one of the primary risk factors of kidney stone formation. […] KSD is a rising concern, a major healthcare burden, and is associated with hematuria and renal failure. […] The risk of renal stone varies from 1–5% in Asia, 5–9% in Europe, 10–15% in the USA, and 20–25% in the Middle East. […] Thus, awareness of the health concern and optimized food therapy can potentially curtail the cost of hospitalization and enhance compliance in general.

• #49 The Demographic Diversity of Food Intake and Prevalence of Kidney Stone Diseases in the Indian Continent

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/1/37

  The presence of a high amount of salt in fast food, especially in industrialized countries, causes higher calcium in the kidneys. […] The modification of sodium by cutting down the daily intake of salt is advised for reducing kidney stone recurrence. […] Dietary factors have been widely recognized as one of the primary risk factors of kidney stone formation. […] KSD is a rising concern, a major healthcare burden, and is associated with hematuria and renal failure. […] The risk of renal stone varies from 1–5% in Asia, 5–9% in Europe, 10–15% in the USA, and 20–25% in the Middle East. […] Thus, awareness of the health concern and optimized food therapy can potentially curtail the cost of hospitalization and enhance compliance in general.

• #50 The Demographic Diversity of Food Intake and Prevalence of Kidney Stone Diseases in the Indian Continent

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/1/37

  The presence of a high amount of salt in fast food, especially in industrialized countries, causes higher calcium in the kidneys. […] The modification of sodium by cutting down the daily intake of salt is advised for reducing kidney stone recurrence. […] Dietary factors have been widely recognized as one of the primary risk factors of kidney stone formation. […] KSD is a rising concern, a major healthcare burden, and is associated with hematuria and renal failure. […] The risk of renal stone varies from 1–5% in Asia, 5–9% in Europe, 10–15% in the USA, and 20–25% in the Middle East. […] Thus, awareness of the health concern and optimized food therapy can potentially curtail the cost of hospitalization and enhance compliance in general.

• #51 Frontiers | Association between added sugars and kidney stones in U.S. adults: data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2018

  https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2023.1226082/full

  Kidney stones are a common disease worldwide, affecting about 1 in 10 people in the United States. The occurrence of kidney stones is increasing, which puts a huge strain on the healthcare system. Kidney stones have a high recurrence rate, with about 50% of people experiencing a second episode within 10 years. Despite this, no clear mechanism of kidney stone etiology has been defined yet. Therefore, further research is needed to identify potential intervention targets and explore the underlying mechanism and potential risk factors. According to recent epidemiologic research, diet and lifestyle factors may play an important role in kidney stones development or prevention. […] This cross-sectional study explored the association between added sugars and the prevalence of kidney stones by analyzing 6 continuous cycles of NHANES data sets. Results showed that a higher percentage of energy intake from added sugars was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of kidney stones after taking into account the potential confounders.

• #52 Frontiers | Association between added sugars and kidney stones in U.S. adults: data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2018

  https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2023.1226082/full

  Consuming a higher percentage of energy from added sugars is positively associated with a higher prevalence of kidney stones. This article provides cross-sectional evidence for the relationship between added sugars and health outcomes. Nevertheless, more high-quality prospective studies are needed to clarify the causal relationship between them.

• #53 Epidemiology — Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences

  https://www.nds.ox.ac.uk/research/osg/epidemiology

  This research area investigates kidney stone disease at a population level. We have published work reporting the increase in kidney stone disease in the England (abstract). In 2009-2010 there were over 83,000 recorded hospital episodes of kidney stones in England. This represents a 63% increase over the previous 10 years and a 11% calculated lifetime risk of forming a stone (see graph below). […] This study also revealed that management of kidney stone disease forms an increasing healthcare burden. […] In collaboration with an epidemiology group in Oxford (EPIC-Oxford) we have been investigating which dietary and lifestyle factors may predispose to kidney stones. […] Preliminary work from our collaboration has confirmed a strong link between obesity (BMI) and stone disease and demonstrated at an epidemiological level that diets high in animal protein (meat and fish) increase the risk of stone formation.

• #54 Epidemiology — Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences

  https://www.nds.ox.ac.uk/research/osg/epidemiology

  This research area investigates kidney stone disease at a population level. We have published work reporting the increase in kidney stone disease in the England (abstract). In 2009-2010 there were over 83,000 recorded hospital episodes of kidney stones in England. This represents a 63% increase over the previous 10 years and a 11% calculated lifetime risk of forming a stone (see graph below). […] This study also revealed that management of kidney stone disease forms an increasing healthcare burden. […] In collaboration with an epidemiology group in Oxford (EPIC-Oxford) we have been investigating which dietary and lifestyle factors may predispose to kidney stones. […] Preliminary work from our collaboration has confirmed a strong link between obesity (BMI) and stone disease and demonstrated at an epidemiological level that diets high in animal protein (meat and fish) increase the risk of stone formation.

• #55 Kidney Stone Disease: Overview » Kidney Stone Disease » Department of Urology » College of Medicine » University of Florida

  https://urology.ufl.edu/patient-care/stone-disease/

  Kidney stone disease affects approximately one in every 500 individuals in the United States each year. Over a lifetime, 1 in 8 men (peak incidence of 40-60 years) and 1 in 16 women (peak incidence 20-50 years) will develop this disease. […] Almost $2 billion was spent in the year 2000 on the management and care of patients with stone disease, and this expense appears to be rising annually. […] Nephrolithiasis (kidney stones) are twice as common in the southeastern United States, as the warmer climate likely leads to increased sweating, insensible fluid loss, and lowered urine output. […] One of the first steps in stone prevention is to know what type of stone is forming, as many types of minerals can be found within human urine. […] The best proven method of stone prevention is to increase the amount of urine that you make.

• #56 CIN’2003. CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF UROLITHIASIS IN TROPICAL AREAS

  https://uninet.edu/cin2003/conf/lreyes/lreyes.html

  The epidemiologic aspects of occurrence of urinary lithiasis in Israeli communities has been investigated and was noted that the areas of highest incidence of urolithiasis were the warmer desert regions as opposed to the cooler mountain regions. A very well conducted 5-year randomized prospective study involving first stone episode patients has shown lower rates of recurrence (12%) in those with a higher intake of water compared to those without (27%). […] Kidney stone is a frequent disease with high morbidity and social and economical impact all over the world. Its causes and risk factors are multiples. The relations of intrinsic or genetic and the extrinsic or environmental risk factors are essential on its genesis. Although the knowledge is growing up about the first, looks that the last determines more its increase frequency in the world. The studies have demonstrated that geographical, climatic and seasonal factors have a roll in the lithogenesis due to kidney stones are more frequent in subtropical than in cool regions of different countries. In tropical countries all these risk factors are more adverse and have also been reported high frequency of renal lithiasis. Thus tropical areas influence the frequency and the impact of the urinary calculi but it represents an aspect of the environmental factors superimposed on the intrinsic factors.

• #57 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  Prevalence rates differ between economically developed and developing countries, partly reflecting the more frequent detection of asymptomatic KS in the former. […] The increased prevalence of KS is followed by a significantly higher financial burden for healthcare systems. […] Swift changes in the global population and socio-economic and climate conditions are expected to transform the map of KS epidemiology in the years to come worldwide. […] The latest epidemiological studies clearly confirm previous results showing an increasing prevalence of KS worldwide. […] The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was used to determine the prevalence of KS in the US population. […] In a comparison of NHANES II (19761980) and NHANES III (19881994), it was estimated that kidney stone lifetime prevalence increased from 3.8 to 5.2% for the 20 years period covered by the surveys.

• #58 Recurrent Nephrolithiasis in Adults: A Comparative Effectiveness Review of Preventive Medical Strategies | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/kidney-stone-prevention/research-protocol

  Some studies have suggested that nephrolithiasis also may increase the risk of chronic kidney disease. […] Direct medical expenditures for nephrolithiasis in the United States have been estimated at $2.1 billion annually. […] There is significant variation in current medical practice regarding management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis. Clinical uncertainty exists regarding the effectiveness, comparative effectiveness, and adverse effects of different dietary and pharmacological preventive treatments; the value of urine and blood biochemical measures for initiating and/or modifying treatment; and the potential impact of patient and stone characteristics on important treatment outcomes. […] The proposed systematic review and meta-analysis will comprehensively address all these questions.

• #59 Kidney Stones: Medical Mangement Guideline – American Urological Association

  https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/kidney-stones-medical-mangement-guideline

  Historically, kidney stones have occurred more commonly in men than in women. However, by any number of metrics, the gender gap in stone disease is closing. […] The change in the male-to-female ratio is thought to reflect a disproportionate increase in stone disease among women, rather than a decline among men. […] The reasons for the observed rise in stone disease among women are not certain, but the impact of obesity, a known risk factor for kidney stones, was found to be greater in women than in men. […] With the increase in the prevalence of stone disease, the cost associated with diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of individuals with stones has risen accordingly. […] Using claims data from 25 large employers as part of the Urologic Disease in America Project, Saigal and colleagues estimated that the annual incremental health care cost per individual associated with a diagnosis of nephrolithiasis in year 2000 was $3,494, thereby resulting in a total direct cost of nephrolithiasis among the employed population of $4.5 billion. […] Additionally, since stone disease primarily affects the working-age population, the total direct and indirect costs associated with nephrolithiasis, taking into account the cost of lost workdays, was estimated at $5.3 billion that year.

• #60 Kidney Stones: Medical Mangement Guideline – American Urological Association

  https://www.auanet.org/guidelines-and-quality/guidelines/kidney-stones-medical-mangement-guideline

  Historically, kidney stones have occurred more commonly in men than in women. However, by any number of metrics, the gender gap in stone disease is closing. […] The change in the male-to-female ratio is thought to reflect a disproportionate increase in stone disease among women, rather than a decline among men. […] The reasons for the observed rise in stone disease among women are not certain, but the impact of obesity, a known risk factor for kidney stones, was found to be greater in women than in men. […] With the increase in the prevalence of stone disease, the cost associated with diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of individuals with stones has risen accordingly. […] Using claims data from 25 large employers as part of the Urologic Disease in America Project, Saigal and colleagues estimated that the annual incremental health care cost per individual associated with a diagnosis of nephrolithiasis in year 2000 was $3,494, thereby resulting in a total direct cost of nephrolithiasis among the employed population of $4.5 billion. […] Additionally, since stone disease primarily affects the working-age population, the total direct and indirect costs associated with nephrolithiasis, taking into account the cost of lost workdays, was estimated at $5.3 billion that year.

• #61

  https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=ajdd.2017.54.62

  Renal calculi are crystalline structures of calcium oxalate with associated risk factors like dehydration, high fat diet, animal protein, high salt intake and obesity. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions. This study compiles the epidemiology of renal calculi focusing on prevalence, occurrence and re-occurrence rate in global perspective. Literature of nephrolithiasis prevalence has been reviewed for Europe, Canada, American, East Asia, Gulf region, Japan, China and different parts of India. Nephrolithiasis is a common disorder responsible for significant human suffering as per studies and surveys done over the last half century reporting steadily increasing cases. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions throughout the globe. Annual approximate prevalence is 3-5% and approximate life time prevalence is 15-25%. Nephrolithiasis tend to be recurrent in most of the renal calculi patients. Recurrence rates of renal stone are approximately 10% year1, 50% over a period of 5-10 years and 75% over 20 years period. The comparative incidence of renal calculi in adults are higher in Western region as compared to Eastern region of the world. The risk rate of prevalence as reported throughout the globe is Saudi Arabia 20.1%, USA 13-15%, Canada 12% and Europe 5-9%. This era of globalization is witnessing increase cases of acute renal injury and emerging epidemic of renal calculi among all age groups including children of East Asia mainly Macau, Taiwan, Hong Kong and China due to the use of different type of milk and milk product. High incidence rate is reported in middle east (20-25%) due to hot climate with increased chances of dehydration. In Japan, minimum 5.4% of the population have at least one time affected with renal calculi in their life time provided by the data of 1995-1987 nationwide survey on nephrolithiasis. The countries with alarming occurrence rate of nephrolithiasis is British island, central Europe, North Australia, Scandinavian and Mediterranean countries. The stone forming belt of the world is identified as Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Myanmar and Indonesia with cases of renal calculi in all age group including child below 1 year of age and adults over 70 years with a male to female ratio of 2:1. Almost one million people in USA is affected with renal calculi and visit emergency department annually with an economic impact of approximately 2.1-5.3 billion US$. In last decades, an increase of almost 50% was observed in diagnosis and treatment cost of nephrolithiasis. North American children have 5 time increased prevalence of pediatric nephrolithiasis in last 10 years. Incidence of nephrolithiasis varies in different region of USA but is mostly found in South Eastern states as like North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee and Kentucky and has a combined name as stone belt of North America. Approximately 7.5 lakh cases of renal calculi were found in Germany between 1979-2000 suggesting a continuously increasing trend in renal stone occurrence and approximately three-fold prevalence in population aged between 50-64 years. Studies in UK identified and suggested that due to change of life style and diet, a gradually upward tendency in annual incidence and downward in the age of onset for nephrolithiasis has been observed. Swedish renal stone studies based on epidemiology, showed recurrence rate of 70% after 10 years on the patients previously having minimum two renal calculi before the follow up period. Approximate 2 million people in India is affected with nephrolithiasis every year and some parts of country has name denoted as a stone belt that is, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana and part of states on North East side. In India, approximate 50% of the population is affected with renal calculi, which may end up to renal damage or loss of kidney function. The rate of nephrolithiasis incidence, mainly staghorn calculi is very high in Manipur and some reports indicates North Western region of India have also increased prevalence. In the last few decades occurrence of pediatric renal calculi cases were observed in some epidemiological studies.

• #62

  https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=ajdd.2017.54.62

  Renal calculi are crystalline structures of calcium oxalate with associated risk factors like dehydration, high fat diet, animal protein, high salt intake and obesity. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions. This study compiles the epidemiology of renal calculi focusing on prevalence, occurrence and re-occurrence rate in global perspective. Literature of nephrolithiasis prevalence has been reviewed for Europe, Canada, American, East Asia, Gulf region, Japan, China and different parts of India. Nephrolithiasis is a common disorder responsible for significant human suffering as per studies and surveys done over the last half century reporting steadily increasing cases. Nephrolithiasis is a global problem affecting all geographical regions throughout the globe. Annual approximate prevalence is 3-5% and approximate life time prevalence is 15-25%. Nephrolithiasis tend to be recurrent in most of the renal calculi patients. Recurrence rates of renal stone are approximately 10% year1, 50% over a period of 5-10 years and 75% over 20 years period. The comparative incidence of renal calculi in adults are higher in Western region as compared to Eastern region of the world. The risk rate of prevalence as reported throughout the globe is Saudi Arabia 20.1%, USA 13-15%, Canada 12% and Europe 5-9%. This era of globalization is witnessing increase cases of acute renal injury and emerging epidemic of renal calculi among all age groups including children of East Asia mainly Macau, Taiwan, Hong Kong and China due to the use of different type of milk and milk product. High incidence rate is reported in middle east (20-25%) due to hot climate with increased chances of dehydration. In Japan, minimum 5.4% of the population have at least one time affected with renal calculi in their life time provided by the data of 1995-1987 nationwide survey on nephrolithiasis. The countries with alarming occurrence rate of nephrolithiasis is British island, central Europe, North Australia, Scandinavian and Mediterranean countries. The stone forming belt of the world is identified as Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, UAE, Philippines, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Myanmar and Indonesia with cases of renal calculi in all age group including child below 1 year of age and adults over 70 years with a male to female ratio of 2:1. Almost one million people in USA is affected with renal calculi and visit emergency department annually with an economic impact of approximately 2.1-5.3 billion US$. In last decades, an increase of almost 50% was observed in diagnosis and treatment cost of nephrolithiasis. North American children have 5 time increased prevalence of pediatric nephrolithiasis in last 10 years. Incidence of nephrolithiasis varies in different region of USA but is mostly found in South Eastern states as like North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee and Kentucky and has a combined name as stone belt of North America. Approximately 7.5 lakh cases of renal calculi were found in Germany between 1979-2000 suggesting a continuously increasing trend in renal stone occurrence and approximately three-fold prevalence in population aged between 50-64 years. Studies in UK identified and suggested that due to change of life style and diet, a gradually upward tendency in annual incidence and downward in the age of onset for nephrolithiasis has been observed. Swedish renal stone studies based on epidemiology, showed recurrence rate of 70% after 10 years on the patients previously having minimum two renal calculi before the follow up period. Approximate 2 million people in India is affected with nephrolithiasis every year and some parts of country has name denoted as a stone belt that is, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana and part of states on North East side. In India, approximate 50% of the population is affected with renal calculi, which may end up to renal damage or loss of kidney function. The rate of nephrolithiasis incidence, mainly staghorn calculi is very high in Manipur and some reports indicates North Western region of India have also increased prevalence. In the last few decades occurrence of pediatric renal calculi cases were observed in some epidemiological studies.

• #63 Kidney stones – Symptoms, causes, types, and treatment | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/kidney-stones

  Each year, more than half a million people go to emergency rooms for kidney stone problems. It is estimated that one in ten people will have a kidney stone at some time in their lives. […] The prevalence of kidney stones in the United States increased from 3.8% in the late 1970s to 8.8% in the late 2000s. The prevalence of kidney stones was 10% during 2013-2014. The risk of kidney stones is about 11% in men and 9% in women. Other diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity may increase the risk for kidney stones. […] Kidney stones increase the risk of developing chronic kidney disease. If you have had one stone, you are at increased risk of having another stone. Those who have developed one stone are at approximately 50% risk for developing another within 5 to 7 years. […] Kidney stones are found in children as young as 5 years. In fact, this problem is so common in children that some hospitals conduct 'stone’ clinics for pediatric patients. The increase in the United States has been attributed to several factors, mostly related to food choices. The two most important reasons are not drinking enough fluids and eating foods that are high in salt.

• #64 Recurrent Nephrolithiasis in Adults: A Comparative Effectiveness Review of Preventive Medical Strategies | Effective Health Care (EHC) Program

  https://effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/products/kidney-stone-prevention/research-protocol

  Some studies have suggested that nephrolithiasis also may increase the risk of chronic kidney disease. […] Direct medical expenditures for nephrolithiasis in the United States have been estimated at $2.1 billion annually. […] There is significant variation in current medical practice regarding management to prevent recurrent nephrolithiasis. Clinical uncertainty exists regarding the effectiveness, comparative effectiveness, and adverse effects of different dietary and pharmacological preventive treatments; the value of urine and blood biochemical measures for initiating and/or modifying treatment; and the potential impact of patient and stone characteristics on important treatment outcomes. […] The proposed systematic review and meta-analysis will comprehensively address all these questions.

• #65 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In Japan, the incidence from 1965 to 2005 increased from 54.2/100,000 to 114.3/100,000. […] The risk of cardiovascular disease has been associated with a history of KS, but the pathogenic mechanisms behind such a relationship are not clear. […] Nephrolithiasis is currently a noteworthy primary cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in global renal registries. […] Acknowledging certain limitations, most studies have confirmed that symptomatic stone formers are at increased risk of CKD and the progression of CKD to ESKD. […] The preservation of kidney function should be a major goal of all healthcare systems in order to reduce morbidity and mortality. […] All of the available data corroborate that the prevention and therapy of KS is a necessary step in achieving this target.

• #66 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In Japan, the incidence from 1965 to 2005 increased from 54.2/100,000 to 114.3/100,000. […] The risk of cardiovascular disease has been associated with a history of KS, but the pathogenic mechanisms behind such a relationship are not clear. […] Nephrolithiasis is currently a noteworthy primary cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in global renal registries. […] Acknowledging certain limitations, most studies have confirmed that symptomatic stone formers are at increased risk of CKD and the progression of CKD to ESKD. […] The preservation of kidney function should be a major goal of all healthcare systems in order to reduce morbidity and mortality. […] All of the available data corroborate that the prevention and therapy of KS is a necessary step in achieving this target.

• #67 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In Japan, the incidence from 1965 to 2005 increased from 54.2/100,000 to 114.3/100,000. […] The risk of cardiovascular disease has been associated with a history of KS, but the pathogenic mechanisms behind such a relationship are not clear. […] Nephrolithiasis is currently a noteworthy primary cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in global renal registries. […] Acknowledging certain limitations, most studies have confirmed that symptomatic stone formers are at increased risk of CKD and the progression of CKD to ESKD. […] The preservation of kidney function should be a major goal of all healthcare systems in order to reduce morbidity and mortality. […] All of the available data corroborate that the prevention and therapy of KS is a necessary step in achieving this target.

• #68 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In Japan, the incidence from 1965 to 2005 increased from 54.2/100,000 to 114.3/100,000. […] The risk of cardiovascular disease has been associated with a history of KS, but the pathogenic mechanisms behind such a relationship are not clear. […] Nephrolithiasis is currently a noteworthy primary cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in global renal registries. […] Acknowledging certain limitations, most studies have confirmed that symptomatic stone formers are at increased risk of CKD and the progression of CKD to ESKD. […] The preservation of kidney function should be a major goal of all healthcare systems in order to reduce morbidity and mortality. […] All of the available data corroborate that the prevention and therapy of KS is a necessary step in achieving this target.

• #69 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In Japan, the incidence from 1965 to 2005 increased from 54.2/100,000 to 114.3/100,000. […] The risk of cardiovascular disease has been associated with a history of KS, but the pathogenic mechanisms behind such a relationship are not clear. […] Nephrolithiasis is currently a noteworthy primary cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in global renal registries. […] Acknowledging certain limitations, most studies have confirmed that symptomatic stone formers are at increased risk of CKD and the progression of CKD to ESKD. […] The preservation of kidney function should be a major goal of all healthcare systems in order to reduce morbidity and mortality. […] All of the available data corroborate that the prevention and therapy of KS is a necessary step in achieving this target.

• #70 Urinary stone analysis and clinical characteristics of 496 patients in Taiwan | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-64869-w

  The cumulative effect of these factors may elevate the risk of stone formation in middle-aged individuals. […] Consistent with the results in previous studies, there is a trend of decreased proportion of CaOx stones with ageing. […] Type 2 DM has been recognized as a significant risk factor for kidney stone development, particularly UA stones. […] Gout is a recognized risk factor for the formation of urinary stones, particularly CaOx and UA stones. […] Nephrolithiasis increases the risk of cardiovascular illnesses, especially coronary heart disease and stroke, by being associated with atherosclerosis and vascular calcification. […] Our research indicated that UA stones have a significant positive correlation with CKD only in univariate regression analysis. […] The most prevalent stone type was found to be CaOx, with men showing a higher prevalence to UA stones and women to CaP stones. […] These findings may offer valuable information for understanding urolithiasis pathogenesis and developing preventative strategies for high-risk populations.

• #71 Kidney Stones: Treatment and Prevention | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0415/p490.html

  Kidney stones are a common disorder, with an annual incidence of eight cases per 1,000 adults. […] The prevalence of nephrolithiasis (kidney stones) is increasing in the United States, from one in 20 adults in 1994 to one in 11 adults in 2010. […] Increasing exposure to these risk factors may explain the rising incidence of kidney stones and their prevalence in men, non-Hispanic whites, and persons with low socioeconomic status. […] The annual incidence of kidney stones is about eight cases per 1,000 adults and peaks around midlife in developed countries. […] Patients at high risk of stone recurrence should be referred for additional metabolic assessment, which can serve as a basis for tailored preventive measures. […] Many kidney stones are asymptomatic and found on imaging; each year, 10% to 25% become symptomatic or require intervention.

• #72 Kidney Stone Disease: Overview » Kidney Stone Disease » Department of Urology » College of Medicine » University of Florida

  https://urology.ufl.edu/patient-care/stone-disease/

  Approximately 97% of kidney stone patients will have one or more identifiable urinary risk factors for stones, seen during a metabolic profile or 24 hour urine chemistry. […] Talk to your urologist about obtaining a metabolic profile to better understand the reason for your stone disease, in particular if you’ve had more than 2 or 3 stones in your lifetime.

• #73 Kidney Stone Disease: Overview » Kidney Stone Disease » Department of Urology » College of Medicine » University of Florida

  https://urology.ufl.edu/patient-care/stone-disease/

  Approximately 97% of kidney stone patients will have one or more identifiable urinary risk factors for stones, seen during a metabolic profile or 24 hour urine chemistry. […] Talk to your urologist about obtaining a metabolic profile to better understand the reason for your stone disease, in particular if you’ve had more than 2 or 3 stones in your lifetime.

• #74 Kidney Stones: Treatment and Prevention | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0415/p490.html

  Kidney stones are becoming more prevalent in children because of increasing rates of diabetes mellitus, obesity, and hypertension in this population. […] Urinary stasis, increased glomerular filtration rate, and elevated urine pH affect kidney stone formation in pregnant women. […] Measures to prevent recurrence of kidney stones include lifestyle modifications, citrate supplementation, and medications. […] Patients at high risk of stone recurrence should receive preventive measures tailored to the results of the metabolic assessment.

• #75 Kidney Stones: Treatment and Prevention | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0415/p490.html

  Kidney stones are becoming more prevalent in children because of increasing rates of diabetes mellitus, obesity, and hypertension in this population. […] Urinary stasis, increased glomerular filtration rate, and elevated urine pH affect kidney stone formation in pregnant women. […] Measures to prevent recurrence of kidney stones include lifestyle modifications, citrate supplementation, and medications. […] Patients at high risk of stone recurrence should receive preventive measures tailored to the results of the metabolic assessment.

• #76 The Demographic Diversity of Food Intake and Prevalence of Kidney Stone Diseases in the Indian Continent

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/1/37

  The presence of a high amount of salt in fast food, especially in industrialized countries, causes higher calcium in the kidneys. […] The modification of sodium by cutting down the daily intake of salt is advised for reducing kidney stone recurrence. […] Dietary factors have been widely recognized as one of the primary risk factors of kidney stone formation. […] KSD is a rising concern, a major healthcare burden, and is associated with hematuria and renal failure. […] The risk of renal stone varies from 1–5% in Asia, 5–9% in Europe, 10–15% in the USA, and 20–25% in the Middle East. […] Thus, awareness of the health concern and optimized food therapy can potentially curtail the cost of hospitalization and enhance compliance in general.

• #77 Prevalence of kidney stones in mainland China: A systematic review | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/srep41630

  The data on the prevalence of kidney stones in mainland China are still lacking. We performed the present meta-analysis to assess the stone prevalence in mainland China from 1990 through 2016. A total of 18 articles were included. The pooled overall prevalence was 7.54% (95% CI, 5.949.15). The prevalence in age groups of 20 years, 2029 years, 3039 years, 4049 years, 5059 years, and 60 years and older was 0.27%, 3.15%, 5.96%, 8.18%, 9.14%, and 9.68%, respectively, showing that it increased with age. Moreover, the prevalence was 10.34% in males and 6.62% in females, with an odds ratio (OR) of 1.63 [95% CI: 1.511.76], indicating that males are more likely to suffer from this disease than females. […] The prevalence in the year groups of 19912000, 20012010, and 2011 to date was 5.95%, 8.86%, and 10.63%, respectively, which indicated an increasing trend.

• #78 :: ICU :: Investigative and Clinical Urology

  https://icurology.org/DOIx.php?id=10.4111/icu.2017.58.5.299

  The incidence of symptomatic nephrolithiasis is best approximated from the community based cohort in Rochester Minnesota. At initial diagnosis, the mean age was 44.8 years in men and 40.9 years in women. […] Again, the best estimation of the incidence of a recurrent symptomatic renal stone event comes from the Rochester Minnesota community based cohort. […] Nephrolithiasis is not isolated to the US, and several other countries, particularly in Asia have started to quantify the burden of this disease in their populations. For example, in an analysis of the 2009 Health Insurance and Review and Assessment Service-National Patient Sample which is representative of the Korean population, the overall annual incidence of nephrolithiasis was estimated to be approximately 457 per 100,000 population.

• #79 :: ICU :: Investigative and Clinical Urology

  https://icurology.org/DOIx.php?id=10.4111/icu.2017.58.5.299

  In Taiwan, a similar population based analysis using the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database 2005 demonstrated that the prevalence in 2010 was 9.0%, 5.8% and 7.4% in males, females, and overall, respectively. […] In Japan, a cross-sectional study of the population demonstrated a rise in the annual overall incidence of nephrolithiasis from 54.2 per 100,000 population in 1965 to 114.3 per 100,000 population in 2005. […] Epidemiological studies of nephrolithiasis have demonstrated increasing prevalence and incidence of the disease over the last several decades.

• #80 Kidney stone disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_stone_disease

  Kidney stones affect all geographical, cultural, and racial groups. The lifetime risk is about 10-15% in the developed world, but can be as high as 20-25% in the Middle East. The increased risk of dehydration in hot climates, coupled with a diet 50% lower in calcium and 250% higher in oxalates compared to Western diets, accounts for the higher net risk in the Middle East. […] In North America and Europe, the annual number of new cases per year of kidney stones is roughly 0.5%. In the United States, the frequency in the population of urolithiasis has increased from 3.2% to 5.2% from the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s. […] A 2010 review concluded that rates of disease are increasing.

• #81 Kidney Stones: A Global Picture of Prevalence, Incidence, and Associated Risk Factors

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931286/

  The prevalence and incidence of nephrolithiasis is reported to be increasing across the world. Herein, we review information regarding stone incidence and prevalence from a global perspective. […] The body of evidence suggests that the incidence and prevalence of kidney stones is increasing globally. These increases are seen across sex, race, and age. Changes in dietary practices may be a key driving force. In addition, global warming may influence these trends. […] Overall stone prevalence has doubled in the United States since the 1964 through 1972 time period, although it appears to have stabilized since the early 1980s. Other countries with documented increases in prevalence include Germany, Spain, and Italy. Only Scotland had a slight decrease in prevalence from 3.83% in 1977 to 3.5% in 1987. […] The incidence and prevalence of kidney stones is increasing globally and is seen across sex, race, and age. Changes in dietary practices may be a key driving force influencing these trends as well as the effects of global warming.

• #82 Kidney Stones: A Global Picture of Prevalence, Incidence, and Associated Risk Factors

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931286/

  The prevalence and incidence of nephrolithiasis is reported to be increasing across the world. Herein, we review information regarding stone incidence and prevalence from a global perspective. […] The body of evidence suggests that the incidence and prevalence of kidney stones is increasing globally. These increases are seen across sex, race, and age. Changes in dietary practices may be a key driving force. In addition, global warming may influence these trends. […] Overall stone prevalence has doubled in the United States since the 1964 through 1972 time period, although it appears to have stabilized since the early 1980s. Other countries with documented increases in prevalence include Germany, Spain, and Italy. Only Scotland had a slight decrease in prevalence from 3.83% in 1977 to 3.5% in 1987. […] The incidence and prevalence of kidney stones is increasing globally and is seen across sex, race, and age. Changes in dietary practices may be a key driving force influencing these trends as well as the effects of global warming.

• #83 Kidney Stones: A Global Picture of Prevalence, Incidence, and Associated Risk Factors

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931286/

  The prevalence and incidence of nephrolithiasis is reported to be increasing across the world. Herein, we review information regarding stone incidence and prevalence from a global perspective. […] The body of evidence suggests that the incidence and prevalence of kidney stones is increasing globally. These increases are seen across sex, race, and age. Changes in dietary practices may be a key driving force. In addition, global warming may influence these trends. […] Overall stone prevalence has doubled in the United States since the 1964 through 1972 time period, although it appears to have stabilized since the early 1980s. Other countries with documented increases in prevalence include Germany, Spain, and Italy. Only Scotland had a slight decrease in prevalence from 3.83% in 1977 to 3.5% in 1987. […] The incidence and prevalence of kidney stones is increasing globally and is seen across sex, race, and age. Changes in dietary practices may be a key driving force influencing these trends as well as the effects of global warming.

• #84 Prevalence of kidney stones in mainland China: A systematic review | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/srep41630

  To our knowledge, this is the first meta-analysis estimating the overall prevalence of kidney stones in an adult population in mainland China. In our meta-analysis, the pooled overall prevalence was 7.54%. The prevalence increased with age, and gender was also a principal determinant of the prevalence (10.34% male, 6.62% female). Several factors were found to significantly contribute to disease development, such as location (urban/rural), urinary infection history, and education level. […] The present meta-analysis showed that the prevalence in the year groups of 19912000, 20012010, and 2011 to date was 5.95%, 8.86%, and 10.63%, respectively, which indicated an increasing trend. […] In summary, nephrolithiasis is prevalent in mainland China, and the prevalence increases with age. Males are more vulnerable to suffer from this disease than females. An increasing trend with decade was observed. Further high-quality surveys aiming to assess the risk factors for kidney stones are warranted.

• #85 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In Japan, the incidence from 1965 to 2005 increased from 54.2/100,000 to 114.3/100,000. […] The risk of cardiovascular disease has been associated with a history of KS, but the pathogenic mechanisms behind such a relationship are not clear. […] Nephrolithiasis is currently a noteworthy primary cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in global renal registries. […] Acknowledging certain limitations, most studies have confirmed that symptomatic stone formers are at increased risk of CKD and the progression of CKD to ESKD. […] The preservation of kidney function should be a major goal of all healthcare systems in order to reduce morbidity and mortality. […] All of the available data corroborate that the prevention and therapy of KS is a necessary step in achieving this target.

• #86 :: ICU :: Investigative and Clinical Urology

  https://icurology.org/DOIx.php?id=10.4111/icu.2017.58.5.299

  In Taiwan, a similar population based analysis using the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database 2005 demonstrated that the prevalence in 2010 was 9.0%, 5.8% and 7.4% in males, females, and overall, respectively. […] In Japan, a cross-sectional study of the population demonstrated a rise in the annual overall incidence of nephrolithiasis from 54.2 per 100,000 population in 1965 to 114.3 per 100,000 population in 2005. […] Epidemiological studies of nephrolithiasis have demonstrated increasing prevalence and incidence of the disease over the last several decades.

• #87 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In the past two decades, major breakthroughs that improve our understanding of the pathophysiology and therapy of kidney stones (KS) have been lacking. […] In this context, epidemiological studies are striving to elucidate the worldwide changes in the patterns and the burden of the disease and identify modifiable risk factors that contribute to the development of kidney stones. […] Our expanding knowledge of the epidemiology of kidney stones is of paramount importance and largely upgrades the modern management of the disease. […] The epidemiology of KS presents with global variations that depend on geographic, socio-economic, and climate factors. […] Moreover, age, sex, race, and diet affect the prevalence and incidence of the disease. […] In the last three decades, the prevalence of KS has increased worldwide.

• #88 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/11/3/424

  In the past two decades, major breakthroughs that improve our understanding of the pathophysiology and therapy of kidney stones (KS) have been lacking. […] The epidemiology of KS presents with global variations that depend on geographic, socio-economic, and climate factors. […] In the last three decades, the prevalence of KS has increased worldwide. […] The increased prevalence of KS is followed by a significantly higher financial burden for healthcare systems. […] Swift changes in the global population and socio-economic and climate conditions are expected to transform the map of KS epidemiology in the years to come worldwide. […] The latest epidemiological studies clearly confirm previous results showing an increasing prevalence of KS worldwide. […] The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was used to determine the prevalence of KS in the US population.

• #89 Nephrolithiasis (part 1): Epidemiology, causes and pathogenesis of recurrent nephrolithiasis

  http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0256-95742021001000007

  A recent increase in the incidence of recurrent renal calcium oxalate calculi has been demonstrated. […] Global warming and weather changes, some medications administered to young children and eating habits play a pivotal role in increasing stone incidence. […] Kidney stone disease is commonly seen in general practice in both children and adults. This review addresses the epidemiology, causes, pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of recurrent nephrolithiasis. […] Stone disease is still one of the most common conditions seen in medical practice. It is associated with considerable mortality, chronic kidney disease (CKD) and occasionally even end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). […] In 2001, nephrolithiasis was estimated to occur in about 12% of males and 5% of females. […] Multiple recurrences were seen in -50% of these individuals.

• #90 Recurrent Nephrolithiasis in Adults and Children: Comparative Effectiveness of Preventive Medical Strategies (A Systematic Review) | PCORI

  https://www.pcori.org/research-results/2024/recurrent-nephrolithiasis-adults-and-children-comparative-effectiveness-preventive-medical-strategies-systematic-review

  Kidney stone disease (nephrolithiasis) is a common condition affecting approximately one in 11 individuals in the United States. Kidney stones form in the upper urinary tract. If the stone moves into the ureter, it can obstruct the urinary tract and lead to mild to severe flank pain, infection, blood in the urine, nausea, vomiting, painful urination and/or urgency. Kidney stone disease is burdensome physically and financially. Acute pain from the passage of a kidney stone is one of the leading causes of emergency room visits, and the annual overall cost of caring for individuals with kidney stone disease in the United States is estimated at $2.1 billion. […] The overall incidence of kidney stones is increasing and the lifetime prevalence among Americans is two times greater than it was 40 years ago. Although kidney stones are more prevalent in men than in women, recent studies indicate that the incidence is increasing for both groups. Stone recurrence is also common; in about 50 percent of first-time stone formers, if the underlying causes of the stone formation are not addressed, then kidney stones have a high likelihood of recurrence within 10 years.

• #91 Kidney stones – Symptoms, causes, types, and treatment | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/kidney-stones

  Each year, more than half a million people go to emergency rooms for kidney stone problems. It is estimated that one in ten people will have a kidney stone at some time in their lives. […] The prevalence of kidney stones in the United States increased from 3.8% in the late 1970s to 8.8% in the late 2000s. The prevalence of kidney stones was 10% during 2013-2014. The risk of kidney stones is about 11% in men and 9% in women. Other diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity may increase the risk for kidney stones. […] Kidney stones increase the risk of developing chronic kidney disease. If you have had one stone, you are at increased risk of having another stone. Those who have developed one stone are at approximately 50% risk for developing another within 5 to 7 years. […] Kidney stones are found in children as young as 5 years. In fact, this problem is so common in children that some hospitals conduct 'stone’ clinics for pediatric patients. The increase in the United States has been attributed to several factors, mostly related to food choices. The two most important reasons are not drinking enough fluids and eating foods that are high in salt.

• #92 Kidney stones – Symptoms, causes, types, and treatment | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/kidney-stones

  Each year, more than half a million people go to emergency rooms for kidney stone problems. It is estimated that one in ten people will have a kidney stone at some time in their lives. […] The prevalence of kidney stones in the United States increased from 3.8% in the late 1970s to 8.8% in the late 2000s. The prevalence of kidney stones was 10% during 2013-2014. The risk of kidney stones is about 11% in men and 9% in women. Other diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity may increase the risk for kidney stones. […] Kidney stones increase the risk of developing chronic kidney disease. If you have had one stone, you are at increased risk of having another stone. Those who have developed one stone are at approximately 50% risk for developing another within 5 to 7 years. […] Kidney stones are found in children as young as 5 years. In fact, this problem is so common in children that some hospitals conduct 'stone’ clinics for pediatric patients. The increase in the United States has been attributed to several factors, mostly related to food choices. The two most important reasons are not drinking enough fluids and eating foods that are high in salt.

• #93 Why kidney stones will become more prevalent over time

  https://www.urologytimes.com/view/why-kidney-stones-will-become-more-prevalent-over-time

  The prevalence of kidney stones has increased over 80% over the last 30 years, and the epidemiology has changed such that it’s beginning at a younger age now, says Gregory Tasian, MD, MSc, MSCE. […] New research links higher drinking water contaminants to increased kidney stone risk.

• #94 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  Prevalence rates differ between economically developed and developing countries, partly reflecting the more frequent detection of asymptomatic KS in the former. […] The increased prevalence of KS is followed by a significantly higher financial burden for healthcare systems. […] Swift changes in the global population and socio-economic and climate conditions are expected to transform the map of KS epidemiology in the years to come worldwide. […] The latest epidemiological studies clearly confirm previous results showing an increasing prevalence of KS worldwide. […] The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was used to determine the prevalence of KS in the US population. […] In a comparison of NHANES II (19761980) and NHANES III (19881994), it was estimated that kidney stone lifetime prevalence increased from 3.8 to 5.2% for the 20 years period covered by the surveys.

• #95 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/11/3/424

  In the past two decades, major breakthroughs that improve our understanding of the pathophysiology and therapy of kidney stones (KS) have been lacking. […] The epidemiology of KS presents with global variations that depend on geographic, socio-economic, and climate factors. […] In the last three decades, the prevalence of KS has increased worldwide. […] The increased prevalence of KS is followed by a significantly higher financial burden for healthcare systems. […] Swift changes in the global population and socio-economic and climate conditions are expected to transform the map of KS epidemiology in the years to come worldwide. […] The latest epidemiological studies clearly confirm previous results showing an increasing prevalence of KS worldwide. […] The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was used to determine the prevalence of KS in the US population.

• #96 Prevalence of kidney stones and associated risk factors in the Shunyi District of Beijing, China | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v23n5/462.htm

  Kidney stone formation is a multifactorial condition that involves interaction of environmental and genetic factors. Presence of kidney stones is strongly related to other diseases, which may result in a heavy economic and social burden. Clinical data on the prevalence and influencing factors in kidney stone disease in the north of China are scarce. In this study, we explored the prevalence of kidney stone and potentially associated risk factors in the Shunyi District of Beijing, China. […] A total of 3350 participants (1091 males and 2259 females) completed the survey and the response rate was 99.67%. Among the participants, 3.61% were diagnosed with kidney stone. […] Male gender, drinking white spirits, and a history of urolithiasis are potentially associated with kidney stone formation.

• #97 Prevalence and risk factors of kidney stone disease in population aged 40–70 years old in Kharameh cohort study: a cross-sectional population-based study in southern Iran | BMC Urology | Full Text

  https://bmcurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12894-022-01161-x

  Global data show that the prevalence of kidney stone has been increasing among both sexes in the last quarter of the twentieth century, which may be due to environmental factors such as diet and lifestyle. […] The recurrence rate of kidney stone is high, so at least one recurrence of kidney stone is seen during ten years in half of the individuals and in 90% of individuals over for 30 years. […] Due to the increasing trend and high recurrence of kidney stone, also imposing a heavy financial and medical burden on individuals and society, obtaining accurate and updated information from different regions of the world can be of great help to the decisions of health policymakers, to prepare preventive and up-to-date strategies to reduce this disease. […] The results of this study showed middle age, male gender, overweight, higher SES levels, diabetes, hypertension, and fatty liver as the risk factors for kidney stone.

• #98

  https://journals.lww.com/juop/fulltext/2024/01000/prevalence,_incidence,_and_determinants_of_kidney.6.aspx

  The 12-month incidence of kidney stone passage was 1.8% (95% CI: 1.4%-2.4%), corresponding to approximately 4.4 million individuals in the United States. […] A history of gallstones was the strongest determinant of kidney stone prevalence and incidence in this study. […] Hypertension was also a key determinant for both kidney stone prevalence and incidence in this study. […] Chronic kidney disease was also associated with an increased risk of kidney stones, potentially due to shared risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. […] Among US adults aged 20 years and older, 9.9% (23.7 million) of individuals reported a history of kidney stones during their lifetime, and 1.8% (4.4 million) had passed a kidney stone in the past 12 months. […] Ultimately, health care providers should be aware of the high-risk subgroups identified in this study who may benefit from more frequent monitoring, preventative lifestyle interventions, or medical interventions.

• #99

  https://journals.lww.com/juop/fulltext/2024/01000/prevalence,_incidence,_and_determinants_of_kidney.6.aspx

  The 12-month incidence of kidney stone passage was 1.8% (95% CI: 1.4%-2.4%), corresponding to approximately 4.4 million individuals in the United States. […] A history of gallstones was the strongest determinant of kidney stone prevalence and incidence in this study. […] Hypertension was also a key determinant for both kidney stone prevalence and incidence in this study. […] Chronic kidney disease was also associated with an increased risk of kidney stones, potentially due to shared risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. […] Among US adults aged 20 years and older, 9.9% (23.7 million) of individuals reported a history of kidney stones during their lifetime, and 1.8% (4.4 million) had passed a kidney stone in the past 12 months. […] Ultimately, health care providers should be aware of the high-risk subgroups identified in this study who may benefit from more frequent monitoring, preventative lifestyle interventions, or medical interventions.

• #100 Prevalence of kidney stones in mainland China: A systematic review | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/srep41630

  To our knowledge, this is the first meta-analysis estimating the overall prevalence of kidney stones in an adult population in mainland China. In our meta-analysis, the pooled overall prevalence was 7.54%. The prevalence increased with age, and gender was also a principal determinant of the prevalence (10.34% male, 6.62% female). Several factors were found to significantly contribute to disease development, such as location (urban/rural), urinary infection history, and education level. […] The present meta-analysis showed that the prevalence in the year groups of 19912000, 20012010, and 2011 to date was 5.95%, 8.86%, and 10.63%, respectively, which indicated an increasing trend. […] In summary, nephrolithiasis is prevalent in mainland China, and the prevalence increases with age. Males are more vulnerable to suffer from this disease than females. An increasing trend with decade was observed. Further high-quality surveys aiming to assess the risk factors for kidney stones are warranted.

• #101 Recurrent Nephrolithiasis in Adults and Children: Comparative Effectiveness of Preventive Medical Strategies (A Systematic Review) | PCORI

  https://www.pcori.org/research-results/2024/recurrent-nephrolithiasis-adults-and-children-comparative-effectiveness-preventive-medical-strategies-systematic-review

  Randomized control trials and observational studies have accumulated in the last 10 years but have not been incorporated in a recent, relevant review on treatment. Therefore, a new, high-quality systematic review on this topic that fully addresses all the key questions, updates the evidence and grades the strength of evidence may be useful to the field and improve the quality and consistency of care of individuals with kidney stone disease in the United States.

• #102 Epidemiology of Kidney Stones

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914194/

  In Japan, the incidence from 1965 to 2005 increased from 54.2/100,000 to 114.3/100,000. […] The risk of cardiovascular disease has been associated with a history of KS, but the pathogenic mechanisms behind such a relationship are not clear. […] Nephrolithiasis is currently a noteworthy primary cause of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in global renal registries. […] Acknowledging certain limitations, most studies have confirmed that symptomatic stone formers are at increased risk of CKD and the progression of CKD to ESKD. […] The preservation of kidney function should be a major goal of all healthcare systems in order to reduce morbidity and mortality. […] All of the available data corroborate that the prevention and therapy of KS is a necessary step in achieving this target.

• #103 The Demographic Diversity of Food Intake and Prevalence of Kidney Stone Diseases in the Indian Continent

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/8/1/37

  The presence of a high amount of salt in fast food, especially in industrialized countries, causes higher calcium in the kidneys. […] The modification of sodium by cutting down the daily intake of salt is advised for reducing kidney stone recurrence. […] Dietary factors have been widely recognized as one of the primary risk factors of kidney stone formation. […] KSD is a rising concern, a major healthcare burden, and is associated with hematuria and renal failure. […] The risk of renal stone varies from 1–5% in Asia, 5–9% in Europe, 10–15% in the USA, and 20–25% in the Middle East. […] Thus, awareness of the health concern and optimized food therapy can potentially curtail the cost of hospitalization and enhance compliance in general.

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