Glejak wielopostaciowy
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Glioblastoma (GBM) to wysoce złośliwy nowotwór ośrodkowego układu nerwowego, charakteryzujący się agresywnym przebiegiem, wysoką heterogennością molekularną oraz złym rokowaniem pomimo stosowania wielomodalnego leczenia. Kluczowe mutacje genetyczne obejmują mutacje promotora TERT, delecję PTEN, amplifikację EGFR (obecną w 40% pierwotnych GBM), mutacje ATRX, TP53 oraz IDH1 (częste w wtórnych GBM). W patogenezie GBM istotną rolę odgrywają zaburzenia w szlakach sygnałowych RTK, TP53 i RB, a także nadaktywacja szlaków PI3K/Akt/mTOR i Ras/Raf/MAPK, które wpływają na proliferację, migrację, angiogenezę i unikanie apoptozy. Dodatkowo, mikrośrodowisko guza (TME) i metabolizm aminokwasów, zwłaszcza w warunkach hipoksji, modulują progresję nowotworu i odpowiedź immunologiczną. Immunosupresja związana z GBM, m.in. poprzez cząsteczki punktów kontrolnych CTLA4, PD1 i IDO, stanowi wyzwanie terapeutyczne, a metabolity tryptofanu hamują funkcję limfocytów T, sprzyjając wzrostowi guza.

Patogeneza glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) to najczęstszy i najbardziej złośliwy nowotwór ośrodkowego układu nerwowego, wywodzący się z komórek glejowych – astrocytów. Nowotwór ten charakteryzuje się szczególnie agresywnym przebiegiem, wysokim stopniem heterogenności wewnątrz- i międzyguzkowej oraz złym rokowaniem, pomimo stosowania wielomodalnego leczenia12. Złożoność molekularnej patofizjologii GBM oraz różnorodność mechanizmów biorących udział w jego rozwoju i progresji stanowią główne wyzwania w opracowywaniu skutecznych strategii terapeutycznych3.

Gliomageneza – proces formowania guza

Gliomageneza, czyli proces powstawania i rozwoju glejaków, jest wieloetapowym procesem, w którym prawidłowe komórki przechodzą szereg zmian genetycznych prowadzących do powstania złośliwych pochodnych. Komórki stopniowo nabywają zmiany genetyczne i epigenetyczne, które skutkują zahamowaniem działania genów supresorowych nowotworów (TSG) i aktywacją proto-onkogenów45. Te zmiany umożliwiają komórkom uniknięcie mechanizmów regulacyjnych organizmu i prowadzą do powstania szybko proliferujących, niezróżnicowanych skupisk komórkowych – guzów. Guzy te stają się złośliwe, gdy naciekają i migrują do innych tkanek6.

Na poziomie komórkowym pewne procesy nowotworowe zostały powiązane z rozwojem i progresją GBM. Te wewnątrzkomórkowe zdarzenia obejmują, ale nie ograniczają się do: utraty kontroli cyklu komórkowego, nadekspresji czynników wzrostu, angiogenezy, inwazji i migracji, niestabilności genetycznej oraz zaburzeń apoptozy78.

Molekularne podtypy glioblastoma

Klasyfikacja molekularna glioblastoma, opracowana przez The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), wyróżnia cztery odrębne podtypy molekularne GBM: neuralny, proneuralny, klasyczny i mezenchymalny910. Każdy z tych podtypów posiada unikalne aberracje molekularne i genetyczne, które napędzają tumorogenezę i odpowiadają za zróżnicowane wzorce progresji choroby oraz rokowanie11.

Różne podtypy GBM zajmują odmienne regiony mózgu i wykazują zróżnicowaną bliskość w stosunku do strefy podkomorowej (SVZ). Glejaki typu klasycznego i mezenchymalnego są bardziej rozproszone i zlokalizowane dalej od SVZ, podczas gdy glejaki typu proneuralnego i neuralnego są częściej zlokalizowane w bliższej odległości od SVZ12.

Zmiany genetyczne i mechanizmy molekularne

Badania genomiczne GBM ujawniły kilka kluczowych szlaków sygnałowych i mutacji genetycznych, które napędzają progresję guza13. Obecność wielu zaburzonych szlaków sygnałowych w GBM podkreśla ideę, że guzy opierają się na zakłóceniu różnych celów molekularnych, które zbiorowo wpływają na biologię guza14.

Główne zmiany genetyczne w glioblastoma

Kluczowe zmiany genetyczne charakterystyczne dla GBM obejmują mutacje promotora TERT, delecję genu supresorowego PTEN, amplifikację proto-onkogenu EGFR, mutacje ATRX oraz mutacje TP5315. Amplifikacja EGFR jest częściej obecna w pierwotnych glioblastoma (40%), a rzadko obecna w glioblastoma wtórnych16.

W przypadku pierwotnego GBM charakterystyczne są nadekspresja receptora naskórkowego czynnika wzrostu (EGFR), mutacje fosforanu i homologu tensyny (PTEN) oraz utrata chromosomu 10q17. Natomiast wtórne GBM często wykazują mutacje dehydrogenazy izocytrynianowej 1 (IDH1), mutacje p53 i utratę chromosomu 19q18.

Mutacje IDH występują w prawie wszystkich przypadkach wtórnego glioblastoma, jak donosi Parsons i współpracownicy19. Mutacja IDH wiąże się zarówno z utratą, jak i nabyciem regularnej funkcji enzymatycznej. Nieprawidłowe gromadzenie 2-HG, onkometabolitu, jest odpowiedzialne za kancerogenezę20.

Szlaki sygnałowe w patogenezie glioblastoma

Wyróżnia się trzy kluczowe szlaki sygnałowe, które są konsekwentnie i powszechnie zmienione w GBM: (1) szlak RTK, (2) szlak TP53 oraz (3) szlak RB21. W GBM zmiany i/lub zwiększona aktywność kluczowych szlaków sygnałowych, takich jak Wnt, TGF-β, VEGF, EGFR, CDKN2A, NF-κB oraz szlak PI3K/AKT/mTOR, odgrywają rolę w patogenezie choroby i przyczyniają się do agresywnego zachowania guza22.

Dwa szlaki sygnałowe proliferacji, które wykazują nadmierną aktywność w glioblastoma to PI3K/Akt/mTOR i Ras/Raf/MAPK23:

  • Szlak PI3K/Akt/mTOR jest zaangażowany w różne procesy komórkowe, w tym proliferację, wzrost, przebudowę cytoszkieletu i apoptozę24. Sygnalizacja RTK/PI3K/Akt jest zmieniona w 80% ludzkich GBM25. Nadmierna aktywacja szlaku PI3K/AKT/mTOR zmniejsza przeżywalność pacjentów z glioblastoma i zwiększa agresywność guza, ponieważ nadmiernie stymuluje procesy odpowiedzialne za proliferację komórek, przeżycie i migrację w glioblastoma2627.
  • Szlak Wnt to starożytny i fundamentalny program genetyczny, który dostarcza kluczowych instrukcji regulacyjnych dla wzrostu komórek, różnicowania i modelowania tkanek28. W glioblastoma nieprawidłowa aktywacja sygnalizacji SHH, zwykle poprzez mutację w Patched1 i/lub aktywujące mutacje w SMO, prowadzi do przekształcenia dorosłych komórek macierzystych w komórki macierzyste glioblastoma29.
  • Szlak sygnałowy NF-κB – trwała i nieprawidłowa aktywacja tego szlaku jest charakterystyczna dla GBM30.
  • Szlak TGF-β jest kluczowy w progresji glioblastoma, wpływając na wzrost guza i unikanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej31.
  • Szlak MAPK odgrywa kluczową rolę w różnych nowotworach, w tym GBM, poprzez jego hiperaktywację, która napędza procesy takie jak migracja, proliferacja i przeżycie32.

Zaburzenia regulacji cyklu komórkowego

Utrata kontroli cyklu komórkowego jest zaangażowana w gliomogenezę3334. Punkt kontrolny G1 był ważnym tematem badań w GBM i obejmuje głównie cykliny i kinazy zależne od cyklin (CDK)3536. Co nie jest zaskakujące, 87% pacjentów z GBM ma związaną z nim mutację p533738.

W nienowotworowych komórkach naprawa DNA ma na celu zapobieganie niestabilności genetycznej, która mogłaby prowadzić do tumorogenezy39. Mutacje p53 prowadzące do zaburzonej odpowiedzi apoptotycznej zostały powiązane z upośledzoną odpowiedzią na uszkodzenia DNA (DDR) i gliomogenezą40. Komórki nowotworowe adaptują mechanizmy naprawy DNA, co odgrywa kluczową rolę w rozwoju oporności na terapię i nawrotów guza4142.

Mikroobszary guza i interakcje z otoczeniem

Komórki glioblastoma wykazują rozlaną infiltrację do otaczającej sieci neuronalnej w miarę postępu choroby43. Mechanizmy leżące u podstaw migracji i inwazji komórek GBM są wysoce złożone i obejmują wzajemnie powiązane procesy biologiczne44.

Rola mikroobszaru guza w patogenezie

Rola mikroobszaru guza (TME) w modulowaniu dostępności aminokwasów i metabolizmu wyłoniła się jako znaczący obszar zainteresowania. TME tworzy złożoną sieć konkurencji o składniki odżywcze i metabolicznego wzajemnego oddziaływania, co wpływa na progresję guza i unikanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej45. Metabolizm aminokwasów odgrywa kluczową rolę w patogenezie GBM, wpływając na wzrost guza, przeżycie, unikanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej i oporność na terapie46.

Hipoksja została również zaproponowana jako środek aktywujący autofagię, szlak degradacji lizosomalnej, który prawdopodobnie promuje przeżycie komórek nowotworowych47. Komórki CD71+ neutrofilów w obrębie guzów glioblastoma były unikalne dla hipoksycznych regionów guza i rozwinęły zdolność do hamowania funkcji immunologicznych. W warunkach hipoksycznych neutrofile te wykazywały zwiększony metabolizm glukozy i produkcję mleczanu, co przyczyniało się do ich przeprogramowania48.

Angiogeneza i inwazja

Inwazyjność i angiogeneza są kluczowymi procesami w patologii GBM. VEGF odgrywa kluczową rolę w promowaniu angiogenezy w komórkach macierzystych glejaków i optymalizowaniu funkcji i przeżycia jego mikrośrodowiska4950. Ekspresja BMAL1 wykazała pozytywną korelację z czynnikami proangiogennymi HIF1, VEGF i ANG2 w kohorcie 79 pacjentów z glejakami wysokiego i niskiego stopnia51.

Zespół CD73 promuje inwazyjność GBM poprzez regulację MMP9 w górę i hamowanie jego inhibitora, TIMP1. CD73 gospodarza reguluje w górę angiogenezę, promując podział naczyń macierzystych na mniejsze naczynia, zwiększając tym samym gęstość naczyń w GBM52.

Rola komórek odpornościowych i unikanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej

Glioblastoma jest szczególnie związany z ciężką immunosupresją, co sprawia, że ten typ guza może być uważany za idealnego kandydata do terapii inhibitorami punktów kontrolnych53. Wiadomo, że GBM jest związany z ogólnoustrojową immunosupresją, a duża część tej immunosupresji jest powodowana przez same komórki GBM54.

Główne cząsteczki punktów kontrolnych to białko 4 związane z cytotoksycznymi limfocytami T (CTLA4), receptor programowanej śmierci komórki-1 (PD1) i IDO, a te cząsteczki punktów kontrolnych są szczególnie ważne w powodowaniu głębokiej immunosupresji związanej z GBM55.

Zwiększone wydzielanie cytokin prozapalnych odgrywa szczególnie ważną rolę w rozwoju GBM i oporności na terapię56. Metabolity tryptofanu, takie jak kwas chinolinowy i kwas 3-hydroksyantranilowy, hamują funkcję limfocytów T, umożliwiając wzrost guza i przerzuty57.

CLOCK/BMAL1 indukuje stan zapalny promujący guz, podczas gdy RORγ go znosi58. Badania przeprowadzone do tej pory ujawniły znaczenie genów zegarowych w regulacji immunologicznego mikrośrodowiska guza59.

Mechanizmy oporności na leczenie

Pomimo znacznych postępów w zrozumieniu molekularnej patogenezy GBM i powiązanych szlaków sygnałowych komórkowych, które otworzyły możliwości dla nowych terapii w przypadku nawracającej i nowo zdiagnozowanej choroby60, GBM pozostaje jednym z największych wyzwań terapeutycznych w onkologii i medycynie61.

Mechanizmy oporności na temozolomid

Temozolomid (TMZ) jest lekiem pierwszego wyboru w chemioterapii GBM, jednak rozwój oporności na TMZ często staje się czynnikiem ograniczającym skuteczne leczenie62. Niepowodzenie tradycyjnych podejść, które miałyby znaczący wpływ na przeżycie pacjentów z GBM, sugeruje konieczność opracowania nowych strategii w leczeniu tego nowotworu63.

Niepokojące zjawisko oporności na TMZ jest napędzane głównie przez unikalną populację niezróżnicowanych i wysoce nowotworowych komórek macierzystych raka, znanych jako komórki macierzyste glejaków (GSC). Badania tej populacji komórek opornych na terapię zostały zainicjowane przez obserwację podgrupy komórek w guzach glejowych zdolnych do tworzenia heterogennych populacji klonalnych64.

MGMT jest często uważany za najważniejszy czynnik przyczyniający się do oporności na TMZ ze względu na jego bezpośrednią rolę w przeciwdziałaniu uszkodzeniom DNA przez alkilację. MGMT jest endogennym enzymem naprawy DNA, który pomaga utrzymać stabilność genomową poprzez naprawę niedopasowań. W warunkach leczenia TMZ, MGMT może usunąć grupę metylową w O6-metyloguaninie, tym samym neutralizując indukowane przez lek uszkodzenie DNA i zmniejszając ogólną skuteczność TMZ65.

Komórki macierzyste glejaków (GSC) w oporności na leczenie

Glioblastoma zawiera multipotencjalne komórki macierzyste guza (GSC), które mogą być odpowiedzialne za zaludnianie i ponowne zaludnianie guzów66. GSC są oporne na standardową chemioterapię i mają wewnętrzne właściwości odporności na chemioterapię67.

Komórki macierzyste glejaków wykazują nadekspresję genów rodziny Notch68. Badania wskazują, że hamowanie szlaku Notch jest potencjalną strategią terapeutyczną w leczeniu glioblastoma6970.

Rola mikroobiegu zegara dobowego w progresji i oporności glioblastoma

Rosnące dowody w dziedzinie medycyny około dobowej wskazują na ścisłe wzajemne oddziaływanie między zaburzeniami systemu dobowego a progresją glioblastoma. Zegar dobowy, wewnętrzny mechanizm biologiczny regulujący liczne procesy fizjologiczne w cyklu 24-godzinnym, odgrywa również kluczową rolę w regulacji kluczowych funkcji komórkowych, w tym naprawy DNA, progresji cyklu komórkowego i apoptozy71.

Zegar reguluje cechy charakterystyczne raka w GBM, w szczególności proliferację komórek i cykl komórkowy, apoptozę i przeżycie, stemness, odpowiedź na stres, kontrolę uszkodzeń DNA i niestabilność genomową, reprogramowanie metaboliczne, angiogenezę, stan zapalny promujący guz oraz migrację, inwazję i przerzuty, które są kluczowe dla progresji raka72.

W GBM białka core-clock wpływają na progresję cyklu komórkowego i proliferację w sposób zróżnicowany73. CLOCK/BMAL1 blokują aktywację pro-kaspazy 3 i mają pozytywny wpływ na przeżycie komórek GBM w większości badań, podczas gdy CRY2, PER1 i RORγ negatywnie wpływają na przeżycie74.

Nowe kierunki w zrozumieniu patogenezy glioblastoma

Rola neuronów i synaps w progresji glioblastoma

Progresja glejaka jest silnie regulowana przez interakcje z neuronami, w tym inicjację guza, wzrost i inwazję. Interakcje neuron-glejak obejmują zarówno sygnalizację parakrynnych czynników, jak i sygnalizację elektrochemiczną poprzez synapsy neuron-glejak zapośredniczone przez receptory AMPA75.

Integracja synaptyczna glejaków wysokiego stopnia w obwody neuronalne jest fundamentalna dla progresji raka w przedklinicznych systemach modelowych i u pacjentów76. Złośliwe synapsy wykazują podobną plastyczność regulowaną przez BDNF. Sygnalizacja poprzez receptor tropomiozynowej kinazy B (TrkB) do CAMKII, BDNF promuje transport receptorów AMPA do błony komórkowej glejaka, co skutkuje zwiększoną amplitudą prądów wywołanych glutaminianem w komórkach złośliwych77.

Współhodowla z neuronami wywołuje silny wzrost tempa proliferacji komórek glejaka z około 20% do około 60%, podkreślając silny wpływ neuronów na proliferację glejaka, który obejmuje sygnalizację neuroliginy-3 i mechanizmy synaptyczne neuron-glejak78.

Rola sygnalizacji GABA w patogenezie glioblastoma

Integracja wielopoziomowych danych z pacjentów z glioblastoma (GB) zidentyfikowała sieci związane z sygnalizacją GABA jako istotne dla patogenezy GB. W badaniach współhodowli interneurony GABAergiczne zwiększają proliferację komórek GB79.

Sieci regulacyjne genów (GRN) są niezbędne do precyzyjnej kontroli ekspresji genów, organizowania funkcji komórkowych poprzez koordynowanie interakcji między czynnikami transkrypcyjnymi (TF), wzmacniaczami i promotorami genów. Integracja wielopoziomowych zbiorów danych z wykorzystaniem potoku MOBILE (Multi-Omics Binary Integration via Lasso Ensembles) opartego na uczeniu maszynowym ujawniła nowe GRN i szlaki zaangażowane w patogenezę glioblastoma (GB)80.

Sygnalizacja GABA wyłoniła się jako wcześniej nierozpoznany potencjalny czynnik napędzający patogenezę guzów GB, wraz z odkryciem sieci związanych z GABA i odpowiednich czynników transkrypcyjnych (TF), takich jak ARX, GSX2 i członkowie rodziny DLX, które odgrywają kluczowe role w rozwoju interneuronów GABAergicznych81.

Rola przepływów jonów chlorkowych w namnażaniu komórek glioblastoma

Przepływy jonów chlorkowych, które wnikają do komórek, odgrywają istotną rolę w duplikacji komórek glioblastoma, wysoce agresywnego guza mózgu8283. Badania wykazały, że tak zwane zależne od wapnia kanały jonowe chlorkowe, które działają jak bramy regulujące przepływy jonów chlorkowych do i z komórki, odgrywają rolę w regulacji podziału linii komórek nowotworowych, a tym samym ich proliferacji8485.

Wykorzystując substancje blokujące te przepływy, grupa badawcza wykazała, że można zatrzymać replikację w hodowanych w laboratorium komórkach nowotworowych8687. Kanały jonowe chlorkowe mają bezpośredni wpływ na replikację tych komórek. W szczególności, umożliwiając napływ jonów chlorkowych do komórki, wydają się pomagać zwiększyć objętość komórki, fundamentalny proces, który promuje podział na dwie komórki potomne88.

Dowody te wskazują, że kanały te odgrywają znaczącą rolę w rozwoju komórki nowotworowej, dzięki czemu może się ona dzielić i namnażać, promując tym samym progresję guza. Te same kanały mogą być zatem uznane za potencjalne cele nowych leków specjalnie zaprojektowanych do zatrzymania progresji guza8990.

Implikacje terapeutyczne wynikające z patogenezy

Zrozumienie złożonych mechanizmów patogenezy glioblastoma otwiera nowe możliwości terapeutyczne. Indukcja apoptozy jest kolejnym potencjalnym podejściem do leczenia GBM. Ostatnio badania koncentrowały się na przywróceniu funkcji p5391.

Nowe strategie terapeutyczne oparte na mechanizmach patogenezy

Zrozumienie roli szlaków GBM pozwala na lepsze projektowanie celowanych terapii. PDGF stał się celem terapii glioblastoma ze względu na jego zdolność do promowania proliferacji i przeżycia glioblastoma92. Badania wskazują, że PDGF jest dobrze zbadanym szlakiem, który mógłby prowadzić do możliwych terapii glioblastoma9394.

Blokowanie szlaku VEGF, a tym samym hamowanie angiogenezy, byłoby skuteczną strategią leczenia choroby95. W warunkach klinicznych kilka inhibitorów kinazy tyrozynowej receptorowej (TKI), takich jak tiwozanib, cedyranib, lenwatynib, sorafenib, sunitynib i pazopanib, jest obecnie badanych pod kątem hamowania VEGFR96.

Odkrycie, że delecja, która daje białko EGFRvIII, koduje kodon, który nie występuje w DNA typu dzikiego i jest unikalny dla GBM, może być postrzegane jako specyficzny cel molekularny w terapii nowej generacji97.

Kombinacje leków i immunoterapia

Zegar wpływa na kilka ważnych cech i szlaków w GBM. Sugeruje to, że łączenie obecnych, pojawiających się terapii celowanych, takich jak terapie ukierunkowane na metabolizm energetyczny, angiogenezę, szlak PI3K/AKT/mTORC lub terapie immunologiczne z chronoterapią, mogłoby poprawić ich skuteczność98.

Ekscytujące nowe strategie immunoterapii, w tym szczepionki z komórek dendrytycznych, szczepionki z komórek B i wektory wirusowe, zostały opracowane do leczenia GBM99. Optymalne wykorzystanie inhibitorów IDO może być w połączeniu z innymi inhibitorami punktów kontrolnych, aby dać bardziej kompletną stymulację układu odpornościowego100.

Połączenie inhibitorów FAK i MEK wykazuje obiecujące wyniki w przezwyciężaniu heterogeniczności guza w glioblastoma. Mechanizmy molekularne leżące u podstaw tych efektów obejmują tłumienie wielu szlaków sygnałowych kinaz i wzmocnioną apoptozę101.

LDHA pośredniczy w symbiotycznej interakcji między komórkami glioblastoma a makrofagami. Gdy blokuje się tę interakcję poprzez hamowanie LDHA, interakcja ta zostaje zablokowana, a progresja guza jest znacznie zahamowana102.

To odkrycie oznacza, że CaMKK2 stanowi potencjalny cel terapeutyczny. Jeśli można byłoby zahamować CaMMK2, można byłoby uwolnić moc całej klasy leków immunoterapeutycznych, które były korzystne w innych nowotworach, ale nie w glioblastoma103104.

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  1. 09.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and malignant tumour of the central nervous system. Recent appreciation of the heterogeneity amongst these tumours not only changed the WHO classification approach, but also created the need for developing novel and personalised therapies. […] The molecular pathophysiology of GBM is complex. Our systematic review suggests targeting therapy at the stemness, p53 mediated pathways and immune modulation. […] Gliomagenesis, the formation and development of gliomas, is a multistep process in which normal cells undergo genetic alterations that lead to malignant derivatives. […] At a cellular level, certain tumorigenic processes have been associated with the development and progression of GBMs. These intracellular events include but are not limited to loss of cell cycle control, growth factor over-expression, angiogenesis, invasion migration, genetic instability and disorder of apoptosis.
  • #2 Glioblastoma: An Update in Pathology, Molecular Mechanisms and Biomarkers
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/5/3040
    Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and malignant type of primary brain tumor in adults. […] Despite important advances in understanding the molecular pathogenesis and biology of this tumor in the past decade, the prognosis for GBM patients remains poor. […] GBM is characterized by aggressive biological behavior and high degrees of inter-tumor and intra-tumor heterogeneity. […] Increased understanding of the molecular and cellular heterogeneity of GBM may not only help more accurately define specific subgroups for precise diagnosis but also lay the groundwork for the successful implementation of targeted therapy. […] Herein, we systematically review the key achievements in the understanding of GBM molecular pathogenesis, mechanisms, and biomarkers in the past decade. […] We discuss the advances in the molecular pathology of GBM, including genetics, epigenetics, transcriptomics, and signaling pathways.
  • #3 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    Glioblastoma is one of the most common and detrimental forms of solid brain tumor, with over 10,000 new cases reported every year in the United States. […] This review describes the molecular targets and pathogenesis as well as the current progress in chemotherapeutic development and other novel therapies in the clinical setting for the treatment of glioblastoma. […] Understanding the pathogenesis plays a key role not only in identifying disease biomarkers but also in designing and developing potential chemotherapeutic agents. […] Herein, we discuss the nine most promising signaling pathways that are involved in pathogenesis, and the possibility of targeting specific components of these pathways for the development of chemotherapeutic agents for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in IDH were found to be in almost all cases of secondary glioblastoma, as reported by Parsons et al.
  • #4 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and malignant tumour of the central nervous system. Recent appreciation of the heterogeneity amongst these tumours not only changed the WHO classification approach, but also created the need for developing novel and personalised therapies. […] The molecular pathophysiology of GBM is complex. Our systematic review suggests targeting therapy at the stemness, p53 mediated pathways and immune modulation. […] Gliomagenesis, the formation and development of gliomas, is a multistep process in which normal cells undergo genetic alterations that lead to malignant derivatives. Cells progressively acquire genetic and epigenetic changes resulting in inhibiting tumour suppressor genes (TSG) and activation of proto-oncogenes. Together, these changes help cells escape the body’s regulatory mechanisms and lead to rapidly proliferating, undifferentiated cell clusters, known as tumours. These tumours become malignant when they invade and migrate into other tissues.
  • #5 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and malignant tumour of the central nervous system. Recent appreciation of the heterogeneity amongst these tumours not only changed the WHO classification approach, but also created the need for developing novel and personalised therapies. […] The molecular pathophysiology of GBM is complex. Our systematic review suggests targeting therapy at the stemness, p53 mediated pathways and immune modulation. […] Gliomagenesis, the formation and development of gliomas, is a multistep process in which normal cells undergo genetic alterations that lead to malignant derivatives. […] At a cellular level, certain tumorigenic processes have been associated with the development and progression of GBMs. These intracellular events include but are not limited to loss of cell cycle control, growth factor over-expression, angiogenesis, invasion migration, genetic instability and disorder of apoptosis.
  • #6 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and malignant tumour of the central nervous system. Recent appreciation of the heterogeneity amongst these tumours not only changed the WHO classification approach, but also created the need for developing novel and personalised therapies. […] The molecular pathophysiology of GBM is complex. Our systematic review suggests targeting therapy at the stemness, p53 mediated pathways and immune modulation. […] Gliomagenesis, the formation and development of gliomas, is a multistep process in which normal cells undergo genetic alterations that lead to malignant derivatives. Cells progressively acquire genetic and epigenetic changes resulting in inhibiting tumour suppressor genes (TSG) and activation of proto-oncogenes. Together, these changes help cells escape the body’s regulatory mechanisms and lead to rapidly proliferating, undifferentiated cell clusters, known as tumours. These tumours become malignant when they invade and migrate into other tissues.
  • #7 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and malignant tumour of the central nervous system. Recent appreciation of the heterogeneity amongst these tumours not only changed the WHO classification approach, but also created the need for developing novel and personalised therapies. […] The molecular pathophysiology of GBM is complex. Our systematic review suggests targeting therapy at the stemness, p53 mediated pathways and immune modulation. […] Gliomagenesis, the formation and development of gliomas, is a multistep process in which normal cells undergo genetic alterations that lead to malignant derivatives. […] At a cellular level, certain tumorigenic processes have been associated with the development and progression of GBMs. These intracellular events include but are not limited to loss of cell cycle control, growth factor over-expression, angiogenesis, invasion migration, genetic instability and disorder of apoptosis.
  • #8 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Certain tumorigenic processes have been associated with the development and progression of GBMs. These intracellular events include but are not limited to loss of cell cycle control, growth factor over-expression, angiogenesis, invasion & migration, genetic instability and disorder of apoptosis. […] The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. Each of these subtypes harbours unique molecular and genetic aberrations that drive tumorigenesis. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation.
  • #9 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation. […] In non-neoplastic cells, DNA repair aims to prevent genetic instability that could lead to tumorigenesis. […] Most notably, p53 mutations leading to impaired apoptotic response have been linked to impaired DNA damage response (DDR) and gliomagenesis. […] Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse.
  • #10 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Certain tumorigenic processes have been associated with the development and progression of GBMs. These intracellular events include but are not limited to loss of cell cycle control, growth factor over-expression, angiogenesis, invasion & migration, genetic instability and disorder of apoptosis. […] The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. Each of these subtypes harbours unique molecular and genetic aberrations that drive tumorigenesis. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation.
  • #11 Glioblastoma: Overview of Disease and Treatment | Oncology Nursing Society
    https://cjon.ons.org/glioblastoma-overview-disease-and-treatment
    In secondary GBM, isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) mutations, p53 mutations, and chromosome 19q loss are frequently seen. […] Four GBM subtypes have been identified (i.e., classical, proneural, neural, and mesenchymal), each with distinctly different patterns of disease progression and survival outcomes. […] Methods to determine a patients tumor subtype require an invasive biopsy or surgical resection to perform genomic analysis. […] Molecular subtyping shows promise in identifying subsets that may be uniquely responsive to specific adjuvant therapies, and future therapies will likely be tailored to target these underlying molecular abnormalities.
  • #12 Differential localization of glioblastoma subtype: implications on glioblastoma pathogenesis | Oncotarget
    https://www.oncotarget.com/article/8551/
    The subventricular zone (SVZ) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of glioblastoma. […] Here, we tested whether these subtypes of glioblastoma occupy distinct regions of the cerebrum and examined glioblastoma localization in relation to the SVZ. […] Classical and mesenchymal glioblastomas were more diffusely distributed and located farther from the SVZ. In contrast, proneural and neural glioblastomas were more likely to be located in closer proximity to the SVZ. […] Moreover, in a GFAP-CreER; PtenloxP/loxP; Trp53loxP/loxP; Rb1loxP/loxP; Rbl1-/- GEMM model of glioblastoma where tumor can spontaneously arise in different regions of the cerebrum, tumors that arose near the SVZ were more likely to be of proneural subtype (p 0.0001). […] Glioblastoma subtypes occupy different regions of the brain and vary in proximity to the SVZ. These findings harbor implications pertaining to the pathogenesis of glioblastoma subtypes.
  • #13 Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies | Molecular Cancer | Full Text
    https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-025-02267-0
    Epigenetic modifications play a pivotal role in the development of GBM, with approximately 50% of newly diagnosed cases showing methylation of the MGMT promoter. […] Genomic studies of GBM have unveiled several critical signaling pathways and genetic mutations that drive the tumor’s progression. […] The presence of multiple dysregulated signaling pathways in GBM underscores the idea that tumors rely on the disruption of various molecular targets, which collectively influence tumor biology. […] The PI3K/AKT/mTOR intracellular signaling pathway plays a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including growth, proliferation, and metabolism. […] Dysregulation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling is commonly observed in many cancers, contributing to tumorigenesis by promoting uncontrolled cell growth, survival, and resistance to apoptosis.
  • #14 Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies | Molecular Cancer | Full Text
    https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-025-02267-0
    Epigenetic modifications play a pivotal role in the development of GBM, with approximately 50% of newly diagnosed cases showing methylation of the MGMT promoter. […] Genomic studies of GBM have unveiled several critical signaling pathways and genetic mutations that drive the tumor’s progression. […] The presence of multiple dysregulated signaling pathways in GBM underscores the idea that tumors rely on the disruption of various molecular targets, which collectively influence tumor biology. […] The PI3K/AKT/mTOR intracellular signaling pathway plays a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including growth, proliferation, and metabolism. […] Dysregulation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling is commonly observed in many cancers, contributing to tumorigenesis by promoting uncontrolled cell growth, survival, and resistance to apoptosis.
  • #15 Glioblastoma: An Update in Pathology, Molecular Mechanisms and Biomarkers
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/5/3040
    These studies have not only revealed the molecular heterogeneity of GBM at multiple genome-wide levels but also provided useful insights into the fundamental mechanisms for the pathogenesis of GBM. […] The key genetic alterations characterized in GBM include TERT promoter mutation, PTEN tumor suppressor gene deletion, high-level gene amplification of proto-oncogene EGFR, ATRX mutation, and TP53 mutation. […] Epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and chromatin remodeling, have been regarded as a hallmark of GBM tumorigenesis and development. […] The transcriptomic features of GBM have been extensively studied with the advance of high-throughput transcriptome profiling methods and computational analysis tools. […] The molecular abnormalities characterized at each dimension (genetics, epigenetics, and transcriptomics) are not isolated but correlate with each other.
  • #16 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    Unfortunately, VEGF also plays a key role in promoting angiogenesis in glioma stem cells and optimizing the function and survival of its microenvironment. […] Hence, blocking the VEGF pathway and thereby inhibiting angiogenesis would be an effective strategy to treat the disease. […] PDGF became a target for therapy for glioblastoma due to its ability to promote glioblastoma proliferation and survival. […] These studies indicate that PDGF is a well-studied pathway that could lead to possible treatments for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in EGFR have been widely recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioblastomas. […] The amplification of EGFR was found to be more commonly present in primary glioblastomas (40%), and rarely present in secondary glioblastomas. […] Overactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway reduces in the survival of glioblastoma patients and increases in the aggression of the tumor as it overstimulates processes responsible for cell proliferation, survival and migration in glioblastoma.
  • #17 Glioblastoma: Overview of Disease and Treatment | Oncology Nursing Society
    https://cjon.ons.org/glioblastoma-overview-disease-and-treatment
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive malignant brain tumor in adults. […] Significant advances in the understanding of the molecular pathology of GBM and associated cell signaling pathways have opened opportunities for new therapies for recurrent and newly diagnosed disease. […] Originally, GBMs were thought to be derived solely from glial cells; however, evidence suggests that they may arise from multiple cell types with neural stem celllike properties. […] The majority of primary and secondary GBMs have alterations in these pathways, giving rise to uncontrolled cell proliferation and enhanced cell survival, while also allowing the tumor cell to escape from cell-cycle checkpoints, senescence, and apoptosis pathways. […] Genetic alterations typical for primary GBM are epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) overexpression, phosphate and tensin homologue (PTEN) mutations, and loss of chromosome 10q.
  • #18 Glioblastoma: Overview of Disease and Treatment | Oncology Nursing Society
    https://cjon.ons.org/glioblastoma-overview-disease-and-treatment
    In secondary GBM, isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) mutations, p53 mutations, and chromosome 19q loss are frequently seen. […] Four GBM subtypes have been identified (i.e., classical, proneural, neural, and mesenchymal), each with distinctly different patterns of disease progression and survival outcomes. […] Methods to determine a patients tumor subtype require an invasive biopsy or surgical resection to perform genomic analysis. […] Molecular subtyping shows promise in identifying subsets that may be uniquely responsive to specific adjuvant therapies, and future therapies will likely be tailored to target these underlying molecular abnormalities.
  • #19 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    Glioblastoma is one of the most common and detrimental forms of solid brain tumor, with over 10,000 new cases reported every year in the United States. […] This review describes the molecular targets and pathogenesis as well as the current progress in chemotherapeutic development and other novel therapies in the clinical setting for the treatment of glioblastoma. […] Understanding the pathogenesis plays a key role not only in identifying disease biomarkers but also in designing and developing potential chemotherapeutic agents. […] Herein, we discuss the nine most promising signaling pathways that are involved in pathogenesis, and the possibility of targeting specific components of these pathways for the development of chemotherapeutic agents for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in IDH were found to be in almost all cases of secondary glioblastoma, as reported by Parsons et al.
  • #20 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    The IDH mutation involves both a loss and gain of regular enzymatic function. […] The abnormal accumulation of 2-HG, an oncometabolite, is responsible for cancerogenesis. […] This discovery resulted in mutant IDH (mIDH) inhibitors being identified as a new group of targeted cancer therapies which help to separate proliferating cancer cells. […] Studies have shown the Notch pathway to be a potential and effective target in stem-like glioma cells, which were found to express Notch family genes. […] These studies indicate that inhibition of the Notch pathway is a potential therapeutic strategy to treat glioblastoma. […] Previous studies have shown that glioblastomas express ASAH1 in high numbers. […] This led to the identification of overexpression of ASAH1 as a potential biomarker associated with glioblastomas and the development of anticancer therapy.
  • #21 Glioblastoma: An Update in Pathology, Molecular Mechanisms and Biomarkers
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/5/3040
    While the above studies have provided useful insights into the molecular pathogenesis of GBM, they have also revealed the key signaling pathways involved in tumorigenesis and progression of GBM. […] There are three key signaling pathways that are consistently and commonly altered in GBM: (1) RTK pathway, (2) TP53 pathway, and (3) RB pathway.
  • #22 Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies | Molecular Cancer | Full Text
    https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-025-02267-0
    Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most prevalent and aggressive primary brain tumor in adults, characterized by a poor prognosis and significant resistance to existing treatments. […] A hallmark of GBM is its intricate molecular profile, driven by disruptions in multiple signaling pathways, including PI3K/AKT/mTOR, Wnt, NF-B, and TGF-, critical to tumor growth, invasion, and treatment resistance. […] In GBM, changes and/or increased activity in crucial signaling pathways such as Wnt, TGF-, VEGF, EGFR, CDKN2A, NF-B, and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway are believed to play a role in the disease’s pathogenesis and contribute to the tumor’s aggressive behavior. […] It is crucial to recognize that human malignant gliomas, including glioblastomas, typically do not rely on a single oncogene or tumor suppressor gene for their initiation and progression.
  • #23 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    Glioblastoma cells show over-expression of certain growth factors and their receptors. […] Two proliferating signalling cascades have been found to be over-active in glioblastomas: PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MAPK Pathways. […] The PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalling Pathway is involved in various cellular processes including proliferation, growth, cytoskeletal rearrangement and apoptosis. […] RTK/PI3K/Akt signalling is altered in 80% of human GBMs. […] This pathway, which is often aberrantly activated in GBM, promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and tumour invasion through increased -catenin phosphorylation and/or nuclear localization. […] GBM cells show diffuse infiltration into the surrounding neural network as the disease progresses. […] Understanding the role of GBM extracellular vesicles in GBM/astrocyte interaction can help develop novel treatment strategies, including the use of vaccine immunotherapy. […] Exciting novel immune therapy strategies including dendritic cell vaccines, B-cell vaccines and viral vectors have been developed for the treatment of GBM.
  • #24 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    Glioblastoma cells show over-expression of certain growth factors and their receptors. […] Two proliferating signalling cascades have been found to be over-active in glioblastomas: PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MAPK Pathways. […] The PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalling Pathway is involved in various cellular processes including proliferation, growth, cytoskeletal rearrangement and apoptosis. […] RTK/PI3K/Akt signalling is altered in 80% of human GBMs. […] This pathway, which is often aberrantly activated in GBM, promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and tumour invasion through increased -catenin phosphorylation and/or nuclear localization. […] GBM cells show diffuse infiltration into the surrounding neural network as the disease progresses. […] Understanding the role of GBM extracellular vesicles in GBM/astrocyte interaction can help develop novel treatment strategies, including the use of vaccine immunotherapy. […] Exciting novel immune therapy strategies including dendritic cell vaccines, B-cell vaccines and viral vectors have been developed for the treatment of GBM.
  • #25 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    Glioblastoma cells show over-expression of certain growth factors and their receptors. […] Two proliferating signalling cascades have been found to be over-active in glioblastomas: PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MAPK Pathways. […] The PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalling Pathway is involved in various cellular processes including proliferation, growth, cytoskeletal rearrangement and apoptosis. […] RTK/PI3K/Akt signalling is altered in 80% of human GBMs. […] This pathway, which is often aberrantly activated in GBM, promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and tumour invasion through increased -catenin phosphorylation and/or nuclear localization. […] GBM cells show diffuse infiltration into the surrounding neural network as the disease progresses. […] Understanding the role of GBM extracellular vesicles in GBM/astrocyte interaction can help develop novel treatment strategies, including the use of vaccine immunotherapy. […] Exciting novel immune therapy strategies including dendritic cell vaccines, B-cell vaccines and viral vectors have been developed for the treatment of GBM.
  • #26 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    Unfortunately, VEGF also plays a key role in promoting angiogenesis in glioma stem cells and optimizing the function and survival of its microenvironment. […] Hence, blocking the VEGF pathway and thereby inhibiting angiogenesis would be an effective strategy to treat the disease. […] PDGF became a target for therapy for glioblastoma due to its ability to promote glioblastoma proliferation and survival. […] These studies indicate that PDGF is a well-studied pathway that could lead to possible treatments for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in EGFR have been widely recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioblastomas. […] The amplification of EGFR was found to be more commonly present in primary glioblastomas (40%), and rarely present in secondary glioblastomas. […] Overactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway reduces in the survival of glioblastoma patients and increases in the aggression of the tumor as it overstimulates processes responsible for cell proliferation, survival and migration in glioblastoma.
  • #27 Glioblastoma Pathogenesis | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/5842
    However, it is found that overactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway reduces in the survival of glioblastoma patients and increases in the aggression of the tumor as it overstimulates processes responsible for cell proliferation, survival and migration in glioblastoma. […] In glioblastomas, the abnormal activation of SHH signaling typically by mutation in Patched1 and/or activating mutations in SMO leads to the transformation of adult stem cells into glioblastoma stem cells. […] Therefore, SHH signaling has become one of the focal points for glioblastoma treatment since mutations in the pathway play a key role in cell proliferation and tumorigenesis.
  • #28 Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies | Molecular Cancer | Full Text
    https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-025-02267-0
    The persistent and aberrant activation of the NF-B signaling pathway is a hallmark of GBM. […] The Wnt signaling pathway is an ancient and fundamental genetic program that provides crucial regulatory instructions for cell growth, differentiation, and tissue patterning. […] The TGF- signaling pathway is critical in glioblastoma progression, influencing tumor growth and immune evasion. […] The MAPK signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in various cancers, including GBM, through its hyperactivation, which drives processes such as migration, proliferation, and survival. […] The mechanisms underlying GBM cell migration and invasion are highly complex, involving interrelated biological processes. […] These findings highlight the diverse and complex roles of signaling pathways in GBM.
  • #29 Glioblastoma Pathogenesis | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/5842
    However, it is found that overactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway reduces in the survival of glioblastoma patients and increases in the aggression of the tumor as it overstimulates processes responsible for cell proliferation, survival and migration in glioblastoma. […] In glioblastomas, the abnormal activation of SHH signaling typically by mutation in Patched1 and/or activating mutations in SMO leads to the transformation of adult stem cells into glioblastoma stem cells. […] Therefore, SHH signaling has become one of the focal points for glioblastoma treatment since mutations in the pathway play a key role in cell proliferation and tumorigenesis.
  • #30 Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies | Molecular Cancer | Full Text
    https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-025-02267-0
    The persistent and aberrant activation of the NF-B signaling pathway is a hallmark of GBM. […] The Wnt signaling pathway is an ancient and fundamental genetic program that provides crucial regulatory instructions for cell growth, differentiation, and tissue patterning. […] The TGF- signaling pathway is critical in glioblastoma progression, influencing tumor growth and immune evasion. […] The MAPK signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in various cancers, including GBM, through its hyperactivation, which drives processes such as migration, proliferation, and survival. […] The mechanisms underlying GBM cell migration and invasion are highly complex, involving interrelated biological processes. […] These findings highlight the diverse and complex roles of signaling pathways in GBM.
  • #31 Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies | Molecular Cancer | Full Text
    https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-025-02267-0
    The persistent and aberrant activation of the NF-B signaling pathway is a hallmark of GBM. […] The Wnt signaling pathway is an ancient and fundamental genetic program that provides crucial regulatory instructions for cell growth, differentiation, and tissue patterning. […] The TGF- signaling pathway is critical in glioblastoma progression, influencing tumor growth and immune evasion. […] The MAPK signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in various cancers, including GBM, through its hyperactivation, which drives processes such as migration, proliferation, and survival. […] The mechanisms underlying GBM cell migration and invasion are highly complex, involving interrelated biological processes. […] These findings highlight the diverse and complex roles of signaling pathways in GBM.
  • #32 Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies | Molecular Cancer | Full Text
    https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-025-02267-0
    The persistent and aberrant activation of the NF-B signaling pathway is a hallmark of GBM. […] The Wnt signaling pathway is an ancient and fundamental genetic program that provides crucial regulatory instructions for cell growth, differentiation, and tissue patterning. […] The TGF- signaling pathway is critical in glioblastoma progression, influencing tumor growth and immune evasion. […] The MAPK signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in various cancers, including GBM, through its hyperactivation, which drives processes such as migration, proliferation, and survival. […] The mechanisms underlying GBM cell migration and invasion are highly complex, involving interrelated biological processes. […] These findings highlight the diverse and complex roles of signaling pathways in GBM.
  • #33 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation. […] In non-neoplastic cells, DNA repair aims to prevent genetic instability that could lead to tumorigenesis. […] Most notably, p53 mutations leading to impaired apoptotic response have been linked to impaired DNA damage response (DDR) and gliomagenesis. […] Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse.
  • #34 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Certain tumorigenic processes have been associated with the development and progression of GBMs. These intracellular events include but are not limited to loss of cell cycle control, growth factor over-expression, angiogenesis, invasion & migration, genetic instability and disorder of apoptosis. […] The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. Each of these subtypes harbours unique molecular and genetic aberrations that drive tumorigenesis. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation.
  • #35 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation. […] In non-neoplastic cells, DNA repair aims to prevent genetic instability that could lead to tumorigenesis. […] Most notably, p53 mutations leading to impaired apoptotic response have been linked to impaired DNA damage response (DDR) and gliomagenesis. […] Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse.
  • #36 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Certain tumorigenic processes have been associated with the development and progression of GBMs. These intracellular events include but are not limited to loss of cell cycle control, growth factor over-expression, angiogenesis, invasion & migration, genetic instability and disorder of apoptosis. […] The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. Each of these subtypes harbours unique molecular and genetic aberrations that drive tumorigenesis. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation.
  • #37 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation. […] In non-neoplastic cells, DNA repair aims to prevent genetic instability that could lead to tumorigenesis. […] Most notably, p53 mutations leading to impaired apoptotic response have been linked to impaired DNA damage response (DDR) and gliomagenesis. […] Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse.
  • #38 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Certain tumorigenic processes have been associated with the development and progression of GBMs. These intracellular events include but are not limited to loss of cell cycle control, growth factor over-expression, angiogenesis, invasion & migration, genetic instability and disorder of apoptosis. […] The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. Each of these subtypes harbours unique molecular and genetic aberrations that drive tumorigenesis. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation.
  • #39 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation. […] In non-neoplastic cells, DNA repair aims to prevent genetic instability that could lead to tumorigenesis. […] Most notably, p53 mutations leading to impaired apoptotic response have been linked to impaired DNA damage response (DDR) and gliomagenesis. […] Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse.
  • #40 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation. […] In non-neoplastic cells, DNA repair aims to prevent genetic instability that could lead to tumorigenesis. […] Most notably, p53 mutations leading to impaired apoptotic response have been linked to impaired DNA damage response (DDR) and gliomagenesis. […] Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse.
  • #41 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) network outlines four distinct molecular subtypes of GBM: Neural, Proneural, Classical and Mesenchymal. […] Loss of cell cycle control is involved in gliomagenesis. […] The G1 checkpoint has been an important topic of research in GBMs, and it mainly involves cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK). […] Not surprisingly, 87% of GBM patients have an associated p53 mutation. […] In non-neoplastic cells, DNA repair aims to prevent genetic instability that could lead to tumorigenesis. […] Most notably, p53 mutations leading to impaired apoptotic response have been linked to impaired DNA damage response (DDR) and gliomagenesis. […] Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse.
  • #42 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse. […] Glioblastoma cells show over-expression of certain growth factors and their receptors. This creates an autocrine growth-promoting loop which provides growth advantage to rapidly proliferating tumour cells. […] The complexity of GBMs arises at the cellular and genomic level, where they display significant inter- and intra-tumour heterogeneity. […] Inducing apoptosis is another potential approach for GBM treatment. Recently, studies have focused on the restoration of p53 function. […] It is obvious that neuroscience is progressing and shows true potential in finding new drugs against glioblastomas in the future.
  • #43 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    Glioblastoma cells show over-expression of certain growth factors and their receptors. […] Two proliferating signalling cascades have been found to be over-active in glioblastomas: PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MAPK Pathways. […] The PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalling Pathway is involved in various cellular processes including proliferation, growth, cytoskeletal rearrangement and apoptosis. […] RTK/PI3K/Akt signalling is altered in 80% of human GBMs. […] This pathway, which is often aberrantly activated in GBM, promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and tumour invasion through increased -catenin phosphorylation and/or nuclear localization. […] GBM cells show diffuse infiltration into the surrounding neural network as the disease progresses. […] Understanding the role of GBM extracellular vesicles in GBM/astrocyte interaction can help develop novel treatment strategies, including the use of vaccine immunotherapy. […] Exciting novel immune therapy strategies including dendritic cell vaccines, B-cell vaccines and viral vectors have been developed for the treatment of GBM.
  • #44 Glioblastoma multiforme: insights into pathogenesis, key signaling pathways, and therapeutic strategies | Molecular Cancer | Full Text
    https://molecular-cancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12943-025-02267-0
    The persistent and aberrant activation of the NF-B signaling pathway is a hallmark of GBM. […] The Wnt signaling pathway is an ancient and fundamental genetic program that provides crucial regulatory instructions for cell growth, differentiation, and tissue patterning. […] The TGF- signaling pathway is critical in glioblastoma progression, influencing tumor growth and immune evasion. […] The MAPK signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in various cancers, including GBM, through its hyperactivation, which drives processes such as migration, proliferation, and survival. […] The mechanisms underlying GBM cell migration and invasion are highly complex, involving interrelated biological processes. […] These findings highlight the diverse and complex roles of signaling pathways in GBM.
  • #45 Amino acid metabolism in glioblastoma pathogenesis, immune evasion, and treatment resistance | Cancer Cell International | Full Text
    https://cancerci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12935-025-03721-1
    The role of the TME in modulating AA availability and metabolism has emerged as a significant area of interest. The TME creates a complex network of nutrient competition and metabolic cross-talk, which influences tumor progression and immune evasion. […] AA metabolism plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of GBM, influencing tumor growth, survival, immune evasion, and resistance to therapies. […] Current research highlights the need to explore the metabolic pathways in greater detail to uncover novel therapeutic strategies. AA deprivation, as an emerging treatment strategy, holds promise; however, its clinical translation requires a deeper understanding of the tumors metabolic flexibility and its impact on surrounding healthy tissues.
  • #46 Amino acid metabolism in glioblastoma pathogenesis, immune evasion, and treatment resistance | Cancer Cell International | Full Text
    https://cancerci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12935-025-03721-1
    The role of the TME in modulating AA availability and metabolism has emerged as a significant area of interest. The TME creates a complex network of nutrient competition and metabolic cross-talk, which influences tumor progression and immune evasion. […] AA metabolism plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of GBM, influencing tumor growth, survival, immune evasion, and resistance to therapies. […] Current research highlights the need to explore the metabolic pathways in greater detail to uncover novel therapeutic strategies. AA deprivation, as an emerging treatment strategy, holds promise; however, its clinical translation requires a deeper understanding of the tumors metabolic flexibility and its impact on surrounding healthy tissues.
  • #47 Molecular pathogenesis of glioblastoma multiforme: Nuances, obstacles, and implications for treatment
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6212/full/v5/i3/88.htm
    IDH-wild-type gliomas include grade I pilocytic astrocytomas and primary GBMs. […] Tumorigenesis in this case is, therefore, independent of the IDH status and is mediated by other oncogenes. […] The mutations in p53 and its regulatory pathways primarily play a role in development of secondary gliomas as opposed to the primary glioblastomas. […] The aggregate of data from clinical trials on bevacuzimab for newly-diagnosed and recurrent GBM reveals that the proposed mechanism of action of bevacuzimab in antagonizing the VEGF pathway is not enough on its own to explain the observed results. […] Hypoxia has been also been proposed as a means of activating autophagy, the lysosomal degradation pathway that, as discussed earlier, likely promotes tumor cell survival. […] Glioblastoma contains multipotent tumor stem cells (GSCs) that could be responsible for populating and repopulating tumors. […] GSCs resist current standard chemotherapy and have intrinsic properties of chemo-resistance. […] This is despite a profusion of significant recent discoveries regarding its unique biology and intricate molecular pathogenesis.
  • #48 Resistance Mechanism Discovered by the Wistar Institute Could Improve Glioblastoma Treatment | Inside Precision Medicine
    https://www.insideprecisionmedicine.com/topics/oncology/resistance-mechanism-discovered-by-the-wistar-institute-could-improve-glioblastoma-treatment/
    In their study, the investigators found that a subset of neutrophils within glioblastoma tumors expressed a protein called CD71. These CD71+ neutrophils were unique to the tumor’s hypoxic regions and had developed a capacity to suppress immune function. In the hypoxic conditions, these neutrophils exhibited increased glucose metabolism and lactate production, which contributed to their reprogramming. […] Veglia’s team focused on this process of histone lactylation, where lactate molecules attach to histones (proteins that regulate gene expression). The modified histones in turn activated the expression of ARG1, which impairs the immune response by suppressing the activity of other immune cells like T cells. This immunosuppressive mechanism has long been a barrier to effective treatments for glioblastoma.
  • #49 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    Unfortunately, VEGF also plays a key role in promoting angiogenesis in glioma stem cells and optimizing the function and survival of its microenvironment. […] Hence, blocking the VEGF pathway and thereby inhibiting angiogenesis would be an effective strategy to treat the disease. […] PDGF became a target for therapy for glioblastoma due to its ability to promote glioblastoma proliferation and survival. […] These studies indicate that PDGF is a well-studied pathway that could lead to possible treatments for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in EGFR have been widely recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioblastomas. […] The amplification of EGFR was found to be more commonly present in primary glioblastomas (40%), and rarely present in secondary glioblastomas. […] Overactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway reduces in the survival of glioblastoma patients and increases in the aggression of the tumor as it overstimulates processes responsible for cell proliferation, survival and migration in glioblastoma.
  • #50 Glioblastoma Pathogenesis | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/5842
    The IDH mutation involves both a loss and gain of regular enzymatic function. […] The abnormal accumulation of 2-HG, an oncometabolite, is responsible for cancerogenesis. […] Studies have shown the Notch pathway to be a potential and effective target in stem-like glioma cells, which were found to express Notch family genes. […] These studies indicate that inhibition of the Notch pathway is a potential therapeutic strategy to treat glioblastoma. […] Previous studies have shown that glioblastomas express ASAH1 in high numbers. […] This led to the identification of overexpression of ASAH1 as a potential biomarker associated with glioblastomas and the development of anticancer therapy. […] Unfortunately, VEGF also plays a key role in promoting angiogenesis in glioma stem cells and optimizing the function and survival of its microenvironment.
  • #51 Molecular mechanisms of tumour development in glioblastoma: an emerging role for the circadian clock | npj Precision Oncology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00530-z
    CLOCK/BMAL1 block the activation of pro-caspase 3. […] The circadian clock influences GBM cell survival both under stressed and normal conditions. […] CLOCK/BMAL1 had a positive effect on GBM cell survival in most studies whereas CRY2, PER1, and ROR negatively affected survival. […] The circadian clock is implicated in responses to DNA damage inducers (radiotherapy, TMZ), as well as responses to oxidative and nutrient stress and hypoxia. […] The clock network was shown to be implicated in several metabolic processes that are particularly critical for tumour cells. […] The expression of BMAL1 was shown to be positively correlated with the pro-angiogenic factors HIF1, VEGF, and ANG2 in a cohort of 79 patients of high- and low-grade glioma. […] CLOCK/BMAL1 induces tumour promoting inflammation whereas ROR abrogates it.
  • #52 CD73 Promotes Glioblastoma Pathogenesis and Enhances Its Chemoresistance via A2B Adenosine Receptor Signaling | Journal of Neuroscience
    https://www.jneurosci.org/content/39/22/4387/tab-figures-data
    GB expresses CD73 in vitro and upregulates GB-CD73 in CD73/ mice in vivo. […] Host CD73 promotes GB growth and invasion. […] Absence of host CD73 inhibits GB angiogenesis and promotes glomeruloid vessel formation. […] Host CD73 promotes GB angiogenesis via regulating VEGF and -dystroglycan. […] CD73 regulates MMP2, MMP9, and TIMP1 to promote GB invasiveness and angiogenesis. […] GB upregulates A2B AR, and signaling through A2B AR promotes MMP2 expression on GB. […] A2B AR signaling promotes GB MDR transporter expression and enhances its chemoresistance. […] Working model describing how CD73 promotes GB pathogenesis. Host CD73 promotes GB invasiveness by upregulating MMP9 and inhibiting its inhibitor, TIMP1. Host CD73 upregulates angiogenesis by promoting mother vessels to divide into smaller vessels, thereby increasing the vessel density in GB. In the absence of host CD73, GB upregulates GB-CD73 and increases MMP2 expression through A2B AR signaling. GB-CD73 promotes VEGF and -dystroglycan expression, which leads to intravascular endothelial cell proliferation and glomeruloid vessel formation in GB. CD73-generated adenosine acts via the A2B AR to promote P-gp and MRP1 upregulation, which results in increased drug efflux, thereby increasing GB chemoresistance.
  • #53 The Kynurenine Pathway: A Primary Resistance Mechanism in Patients with Glioblastoma | Anticancer Research
    https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/37/5/2159
    The failure of chemotherapy and radiation therapy to achieve long-term remission or cure in patients with glioblastoma (GBM) is, in a large part, due to the suppression of the immune system induced by the tumors themselves. […] GBM is particularly associated with severe immunosuppression, and this tumor type might be thought to be the ideal candidate for checkpoint inhibitor therapy. […] It is well known that GBM is associated with systemic immunosuppression, and that much of this immunosuppression is caused by the GBM cells themselves. […] Additionally, the strategy of using chemotherapy in an attempt to cure GBM may be self-defeating, as chemotherapeutic agents may increase the immunosuppressive activity of GBM cells, causing recurrence. […] The major cause of abnormal tryptophan metabolism in patients with GBM is an increased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
  • #54 The Kynurenine Pathway: A Primary Resistance Mechanism in Patients with Glioblastoma | Anticancer Research
    https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/37/5/2159
    The failure of chemotherapy and radiation therapy to achieve long-term remission or cure in patients with glioblastoma (GBM) is, in a large part, due to the suppression of the immune system induced by the tumors themselves. […] GBM is particularly associated with severe immunosuppression, and this tumor type might be thought to be the ideal candidate for checkpoint inhibitor therapy. […] It is well known that GBM is associated with systemic immunosuppression, and that much of this immunosuppression is caused by the GBM cells themselves. […] Additionally, the strategy of using chemotherapy in an attempt to cure GBM may be self-defeating, as chemotherapeutic agents may increase the immunosuppressive activity of GBM cells, causing recurrence. […] The major cause of abnormal tryptophan metabolism in patients with GBM is an increased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
  • #55 The Kynurenine Pathway: A Primary Resistance Mechanism in Patients with Glioblastoma | Anticancer Research
    https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/37/5/2159
    The most important checkpoint molecules are cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA4), programmed cell death-1 receptor (PD1) and IDO, and these checkpoint molecules are especially important in causing the profound immunosuppression associated with GBM. […] The increased antitumor effects correlated with increased T-effector to T-regulatory (Treg) ratios in the tumors. […] As noted, GBM tumors secrete high levels of IDO. […] The optimal use of IDO inhibitors may be in combination with other checkpoint inhibitors to give a more complete stimulation of the immune system.
  • #56 The Kynurenine Pathway: A Primary Resistance Mechanism in Patients with Glioblastoma | Anticancer Research
    https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/37/5/2159
    Increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines plays a particularly important role in GBM development and resistance to therapy. […] Perhaps most importantly, metabolites of tryptophan such as quinolinic acid and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid inhibit T-cell function, allowing tumor growth and metastasis. […] IDO is ubiquitous in tissues, and after stimulation by interferon-, catalyzes the first step in this pathway, the conversion of tryptophan to N-formyl-L-kynurenine. […] However, although this enzyme may play an important role in tumor apoptosis, IDO can also cause T-cell suppression after neoplastic transformation by acting as a checkpoint molecule, thus preventing the immune system from mounting an effective attack against the cancer. […] The failure of traditional approaches to have a significant impact on survival in patients with GBM suggests new strategies are necessary in the treatment of this cancer.
  • #57 The Kynurenine Pathway: A Primary Resistance Mechanism in Patients with Glioblastoma | Anticancer Research
    https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/37/5/2159
    Increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines plays a particularly important role in GBM development and resistance to therapy. […] Perhaps most importantly, metabolites of tryptophan such as quinolinic acid and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid inhibit T-cell function, allowing tumor growth and metastasis. […] IDO is ubiquitous in tissues, and after stimulation by interferon-, catalyzes the first step in this pathway, the conversion of tryptophan to N-formyl-L-kynurenine. […] However, although this enzyme may play an important role in tumor apoptosis, IDO can also cause T-cell suppression after neoplastic transformation by acting as a checkpoint molecule, thus preventing the immune system from mounting an effective attack against the cancer. […] The failure of traditional approaches to have a significant impact on survival in patients with GBM suggests new strategies are necessary in the treatment of this cancer.
  • #58 Molecular mechanisms of tumour development in glioblastoma: an emerging role for the circadian clock | npj Precision Oncology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00530-z
    CLOCK/BMAL1 block the activation of pro-caspase 3. […] The circadian clock influences GBM cell survival both under stressed and normal conditions. […] CLOCK/BMAL1 had a positive effect on GBM cell survival in most studies whereas CRY2, PER1, and ROR negatively affected survival. […] The circadian clock is implicated in responses to DNA damage inducers (radiotherapy, TMZ), as well as responses to oxidative and nutrient stress and hypoxia. […] The clock network was shown to be implicated in several metabolic processes that are particularly critical for tumour cells. […] The expression of BMAL1 was shown to be positively correlated with the pro-angiogenic factors HIF1, VEGF, and ANG2 in a cohort of 79 patients of high- and low-grade glioma. […] CLOCK/BMAL1 induces tumour promoting inflammation whereas ROR abrogates it.
  • #59 Molecular mechanisms of tumour development in glioblastoma: an emerging role for the circadian clock | npj Precision Oncology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00530-z
    The studies conducted so far revealed the importance of clock genes in the regulation of the immune tumour microenvironment. […] The clock influences several important hallmarks and pathways in GBM. This implies that combining current emerging targeted therapies such as therapies targeting energy metabolism, angiogenesis, the PI3K/AKT/mTORC pathway or immune therapies with chronotherapy could improve their performance.
  • #60 Glioblastoma: Overview of Disease and Treatment | Oncology Nursing Society
    https://cjon.ons.org/glioblastoma-overview-disease-and-treatment
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive malignant brain tumor in adults. […] Significant advances in the understanding of the molecular pathology of GBM and associated cell signaling pathways have opened opportunities for new therapies for recurrent and newly diagnosed disease. […] Originally, GBMs were thought to be derived solely from glial cells; however, evidence suggests that they may arise from multiple cell types with neural stem celllike properties. […] The majority of primary and secondary GBMs have alterations in these pathways, giving rise to uncontrolled cell proliferation and enhanced cell survival, while also allowing the tumor cell to escape from cell-cycle checkpoints, senescence, and apoptosis pathways. […] Genetic alterations typical for primary GBM are epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) overexpression, phosphate and tensin homologue (PTEN) mutations, and loss of chromosome 10q.
  • #61 Molecular pathogenesis of glioblastoma multiforme: Nuances, obstacles, and implications for treatment
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6212/full/v5/i3/88.htm
    Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the literal apogee on the hierarchy of malignant brain tumors, remains one of the greatest therapeutic challenges in oncology and medicine. […] The last 10-15 years have yielded a number of studies that have elucidated much of the molecular and genetic complexities of GBM that underlie its pathogenesis. […] Some of these discovered genetic mutations and molecular profiles in GBM have demonstrated value in prognostication and utility in predicting response to treatment. […] Primary GBMs have trademark molecular abnormalities that distinguish them from secondary GBMs, and it is these unique genetic aberrations that give each class the distinct characteristics discussed above. […] These are: mutations in the gene encoding the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) protein that result in its amplification, loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of Chromosome 10q, phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) deletion on Chromosome 10, and p16 deletion.
  • #62 Mechanisms of temozolomide resistance in glioblastoma – a comprehensive review
    https://www.oaepublish.com/articles/cdr.2020.79
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor in adults and has an exceedingly low median overall survival of only 15 months. Current standard-of-care for GBM consists of gross total surgical resection followed by radiation with concurrent and adjuvant chemotherapy. Temozolomide (TMZ) is the first-choice chemotherapeutic agent in GBM; however, the development of resistance to TMZ often becomes the limiting factor in effective treatment. While O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase repair activity and uniquely resistant populations of glioma stem cells are the most well-known contributors to TMZ resistance, many other molecular mechanisms have come to light in recent years. Key emerging mechanisms include the involvement of other DNA repair systems, aberrant signaling pathways, autophagy, epigenetic modifications, microRNAs, and extracellular vesicle production. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the clinically relevant molecular mechanisms and their extensive interconnections to better inform efforts to combat TMZ resistance.
  • #63 The Kynurenine Pathway: A Primary Resistance Mechanism in Patients with Glioblastoma | Anticancer Research
    https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/37/5/2159
    Increased secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines plays a particularly important role in GBM development and resistance to therapy. […] Perhaps most importantly, metabolites of tryptophan such as quinolinic acid and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid inhibit T-cell function, allowing tumor growth and metastasis. […] IDO is ubiquitous in tissues, and after stimulation by interferon-, catalyzes the first step in this pathway, the conversion of tryptophan to N-formyl-L-kynurenine. […] However, although this enzyme may play an important role in tumor apoptosis, IDO can also cause T-cell suppression after neoplastic transformation by acting as a checkpoint molecule, thus preventing the immune system from mounting an effective attack against the cancer. […] The failure of traditional approaches to have a significant impact on survival in patients with GBM suggests new strategies are necessary in the treatment of this cancer.
  • #64 Mechanisms of temozolomide resistance in glioblastoma – a comprehensive review
    https://www.oaepublish.com/articles/cdr.2020.79
    TMZ has become a cornerstone of GBM treatment, but it is unfortunately also a key factor in tumor resistance and recurrence. Due to the widespread exposure to TMZ and highly heterogeneous and mutation prone nature of GBM, it is quite common for these lethal tumors to develop resistance to TMZ. Unfortunately, over 50% of GBM patients treated with TMZ do not respond to the therapy, yet there are limited predictive markers for TMZ response beyond MGMT status. Understanding and combating TMZ resistance is further complicated by the fact that resistance can be either inherently characteristic of certain tumors or acquired after initial treatment. […] The troubling phenomenon of TMZ resistance is thought to be driven primarily by a unique population of undifferentiated and highly tumorigenic cancer stem cells known as glioma stem cells (GSCs). Investigation into this population of therapy-resistant cells was first prompted by the observation of a subset of cells in glial tumors capable of forming heterogeneous clonal populations. It was also demonstrated that radiation and chemotherapy regimens produced enriched populations of stem-like CD133+ cells, thought to be mediated by an upregulation in DNA repair mechanisms.
  • #65 Mechanisms of temozolomide resistance in glioblastoma – a comprehensive review
    https://www.oaepublish.com/articles/cdr.2020.79
    MGMT is often considered the most important contributor to TMZ resistance due to its direct role in counteracting DNA alkylation damage. MGMT is an endogenous DNA repair enzyme that helps maintain genomic stability through mismatch repair. Under conditions of TMZ treatment, MGMT can remove the methyl group in O6-methylguanine thereby neutralizing the drug-induced DNA damage and reducing the overall efficacy of TMZ. Therefore, MGMT expression, which is determined by CpG methylation status of the MGMT gene promoter region, is an important factor in TMZ treatment response. […] Mismatch repair (MMR) is a DNA repair mechanism that works by correcting any mismatched nucleotide base pairings; this process takes place during DNA synthesis. As mentioned earlier, TMZ functions to produce O6-MeG which is incorrectly paired with thymine during DNA synthesis. Under normal conditions, MMR is activated and generates breaks in the newly synthesized DNA strand. Repeated cycles of DNA breaks generated by the MMR system in response to TMZ-induced DNA damage results in irreparable DNA strands and eventually apoptosis.
  • #66 Molecular pathogenesis of glioblastoma multiforme: Nuances, obstacles, and implications for treatment
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6212/full/v5/i3/88.htm
    IDH-wild-type gliomas include grade I pilocytic astrocytomas and primary GBMs. […] Tumorigenesis in this case is, therefore, independent of the IDH status and is mediated by other oncogenes. […] The mutations in p53 and its regulatory pathways primarily play a role in development of secondary gliomas as opposed to the primary glioblastomas. […] The aggregate of data from clinical trials on bevacuzimab for newly-diagnosed and recurrent GBM reveals that the proposed mechanism of action of bevacuzimab in antagonizing the VEGF pathway is not enough on its own to explain the observed results. […] Hypoxia has been also been proposed as a means of activating autophagy, the lysosomal degradation pathway that, as discussed earlier, likely promotes tumor cell survival. […] Glioblastoma contains multipotent tumor stem cells (GSCs) that could be responsible for populating and repopulating tumors. […] GSCs resist current standard chemotherapy and have intrinsic properties of chemo-resistance. […] This is despite a profusion of significant recent discoveries regarding its unique biology and intricate molecular pathogenesis.
  • #67 Molecular pathogenesis of glioblastoma multiforme: Nuances, obstacles, and implications for treatment
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6212/full/v5/i3/88.htm
    IDH-wild-type gliomas include grade I pilocytic astrocytomas and primary GBMs. […] Tumorigenesis in this case is, therefore, independent of the IDH status and is mediated by other oncogenes. […] The mutations in p53 and its regulatory pathways primarily play a role in development of secondary gliomas as opposed to the primary glioblastomas. […] The aggregate of data from clinical trials on bevacuzimab for newly-diagnosed and recurrent GBM reveals that the proposed mechanism of action of bevacuzimab in antagonizing the VEGF pathway is not enough on its own to explain the observed results. […] Hypoxia has been also been proposed as a means of activating autophagy, the lysosomal degradation pathway that, as discussed earlier, likely promotes tumor cell survival. […] Glioblastoma contains multipotent tumor stem cells (GSCs) that could be responsible for populating and repopulating tumors. […] GSCs resist current standard chemotherapy and have intrinsic properties of chemo-resistance. […] This is despite a profusion of significant recent discoveries regarding its unique biology and intricate molecular pathogenesis.
  • #68 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    The IDH mutation involves both a loss and gain of regular enzymatic function. […] The abnormal accumulation of 2-HG, an oncometabolite, is responsible for cancerogenesis. […] This discovery resulted in mutant IDH (mIDH) inhibitors being identified as a new group of targeted cancer therapies which help to separate proliferating cancer cells. […] Studies have shown the Notch pathway to be a potential and effective target in stem-like glioma cells, which were found to express Notch family genes. […] These studies indicate that inhibition of the Notch pathway is a potential therapeutic strategy to treat glioblastoma. […] Previous studies have shown that glioblastomas express ASAH1 in high numbers. […] This led to the identification of overexpression of ASAH1 as a potential biomarker associated with glioblastomas and the development of anticancer therapy.
  • #69 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    The IDH mutation involves both a loss and gain of regular enzymatic function. […] The abnormal accumulation of 2-HG, an oncometabolite, is responsible for cancerogenesis. […] This discovery resulted in mutant IDH (mIDH) inhibitors being identified as a new group of targeted cancer therapies which help to separate proliferating cancer cells. […] Studies have shown the Notch pathway to be a potential and effective target in stem-like glioma cells, which were found to express Notch family genes. […] These studies indicate that inhibition of the Notch pathway is a potential therapeutic strategy to treat glioblastoma. […] Previous studies have shown that glioblastomas express ASAH1 in high numbers. […] This led to the identification of overexpression of ASAH1 as a potential biomarker associated with glioblastomas and the development of anticancer therapy.
  • #70 Glioblastoma Pathogenesis | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/5842
    The IDH mutation involves both a loss and gain of regular enzymatic function. […] The abnormal accumulation of 2-HG, an oncometabolite, is responsible for cancerogenesis. […] Studies have shown the Notch pathway to be a potential and effective target in stem-like glioma cells, which were found to express Notch family genes. […] These studies indicate that inhibition of the Notch pathway is a potential therapeutic strategy to treat glioblastoma. […] Previous studies have shown that glioblastomas express ASAH1 in high numbers. […] This led to the identification of overexpression of ASAH1 as a potential biomarker associated with glioblastomas and the development of anticancer therapy. […] Unfortunately, VEGF also plays a key role in promoting angiogenesis in glioma stem cells and optimizing the function and survival of its microenvironment.
  • #71 Molecular mechanisms of tumour development in glioblastoma: an emerging role for the circadian clock | npj Precision Oncology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00530-z
    Glioblastoma is one of the most lethal cancers with current therapeutic options lacking major successes. This underlines the necessity to understand glioblastoma biology on other levels and use these learnings for the development of new therapeutic concepts. […] Mounting evidence in the field of circadian medicine points to a tight interplay between disturbances of the circadian system and glioblastoma progression. The circadian clock, an internal biological mechanism governing numerous physiological processes across a 24-h cycle, also plays a pivotal role in regulating key cellular functions, including DNA repair, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis. These processes are integral to tumour development and response to therapy. Disruptions in circadian rhythms can influence tumour growth, invasion, and response to treatment in glioblastoma patients.
  • #72 Molecular mechanisms of tumour development in glioblastoma: an emerging role for the circadian clock | npj Precision Oncology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00530-z
    By unravelling the molecular mechanisms behind the intricate connections between the circadian clock and glioblastoma progression, researchers can pave the way for the identification of potential therapeutic targets, the development of innovative treatment strategies and personalized medicine approaches. […] The clock regulates hallmarks of cancer in GBM, in particular cell proliferation and cell cycle, apoptosis and survival, stemness, stress response, DNA-damage control and genomic instability, metabolic reprogramming, angiogenesis, tumour promoting inflammation and migration, invasion and metastasis, which are crucial for cancer progression. […] The proliferation of GBM cells was shown to be associated with GBM subtype and -subtumour localization. […] In GBM, core-clock proteins influence cell cycle progression and proliferation in a differential manner.
  • #73 Molecular mechanisms of tumour development in glioblastoma: an emerging role for the circadian clock | npj Precision Oncology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00530-z
    By unravelling the molecular mechanisms behind the intricate connections between the circadian clock and glioblastoma progression, researchers can pave the way for the identification of potential therapeutic targets, the development of innovative treatment strategies and personalized medicine approaches. […] The clock regulates hallmarks of cancer in GBM, in particular cell proliferation and cell cycle, apoptosis and survival, stemness, stress response, DNA-damage control and genomic instability, metabolic reprogramming, angiogenesis, tumour promoting inflammation and migration, invasion and metastasis, which are crucial for cancer progression. […] The proliferation of GBM cells was shown to be associated with GBM subtype and -subtumour localization. […] In GBM, core-clock proteins influence cell cycle progression and proliferation in a differential manner.
  • #74 Molecular mechanisms of tumour development in glioblastoma: an emerging role for the circadian clock | npj Precision Oncology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00530-z
    CLOCK/BMAL1 block the activation of pro-caspase 3. […] The circadian clock influences GBM cell survival both under stressed and normal conditions. […] CLOCK/BMAL1 had a positive effect on GBM cell survival in most studies whereas CRY2, PER1, and ROR negatively affected survival. […] The circadian clock is implicated in responses to DNA damage inducers (radiotherapy, TMZ), as well as responses to oxidative and nutrient stress and hypoxia. […] The clock network was shown to be implicated in several metabolic processes that are particularly critical for tumour cells. […] The expression of BMAL1 was shown to be positively correlated with the pro-angiogenic factors HIF1, VEGF, and ANG2 in a cohort of 79 patients of high- and low-grade glioma. […] CLOCK/BMAL1 induces tumour promoting inflammation whereas ROR abrogates it.
  • #75 Glioma synapses recruit mechanisms of adaptive plasticity | Nature
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06678-1
    Progression of glioma is robustly regulated by interactions with neurons, including tumour initiation, growth and invasion. Neuron-glioma interactions include both paracrine factor signalling and electrochemical signalling through AMPA receptor-mediated neuron-to-glioma synapses. Synaptic integration of high-grade gliomas into neural circuits is fundamental to cancer progression in preclinical model systems and in human patients. We hypothesized that gliomas may recruit mechanisms of adaptive neuroplasticity to elaborate and reinforce these powerful growth-promoting neuron-glioma interactions, and that neuronal activity-regulated BDNF signalling to the TrkB receptor in glioma cells may have a crucial role in such malignant plasticity. […] Genetic expression patterns of the neurotrophin receptors in DMG tumours suggest that BDNF acts on glioma cells through the TrkB receptor and that BDNF is a key neurotrophin to which paediatric glioma cells respond.
  • #76 Glioma synapses recruit mechanisms of adaptive plasticity | Nature
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06678-1
    Progression of glioma is robustly regulated by interactions with neurons, including tumour initiation, growth and invasion. Neuron-glioma interactions include both paracrine factor signalling and electrochemical signalling through AMPA receptor-mediated neuron-to-glioma synapses. Synaptic integration of high-grade gliomas into neural circuits is fundamental to cancer progression in preclinical model systems and in human patients. We hypothesized that gliomas may recruit mechanisms of adaptive neuroplasticity to elaborate and reinforce these powerful growth-promoting neuron-glioma interactions, and that neuronal activity-regulated BDNF signalling to the TrkB receptor in glioma cells may have a crucial role in such malignant plasticity. […] Genetic expression patterns of the neurotrophin receptors in DMG tumours suggest that BDNF acts on glioma cells through the TrkB receptor and that BDNF is a key neurotrophin to which paediatric glioma cells respond.
  • #77 Glioma synapses recruit mechanisms of adaptive plasticity | Nature
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06678-1
    The role of the nervous system in the regulation of cancer is increasingly appreciated. In gliomas, neuronal activity drives tumour progression through paracrine signalling factors such as neuroligin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and also through electrophysiologically functional neuron-to-glioma synapses mediated by AMPA receptors. The consequent glioma cell membrane depolarization drives tumour proliferation. Here we show that malignant synapses exhibit similar plasticity regulated by BDNF. Signalling through the receptor tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB) to CAMKII, BDNF promotes AMPA receptor trafficking to the glioma cell membrane, resulting in increased amplitude of glutamate-evoked currents in the malignant cells. Linking plasticity of glioma synaptic strength to tumour growth, graded optogenetic control of glioma membrane potential demonstrates that greater depolarizing current amplitude promotes increased glioma proliferation. This potentiation of malignant synaptic strength shares mechanistic features with synaptic plasticity that contributes to memory and learning in the healthy brain. BDNF-TrkB signalling also regulates the number of neuron-to-glioma synapses. Abrogation of activity-regulated BDNF secretion from the brain microenvironment or loss of glioma TrkB expression robustly inhibits tumour progression. Blocking TrkB genetically or pharmacologically abrogates these effects of BDNF on glioma synapses and substantially prolongs survival in xenograft models of paediatric glioblastoma and diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Together, these findings indicate that BDNF-TrkB signalling promotes malignant synaptic plasticity and augments tumour progression.
  • #78 Glioma synapses recruit mechanisms of adaptive plasticity | Nature
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06678-1
    We previously found that BDNF is one of multiple paracrine factors that can increase glioma proliferation in response to neuronal activity, albeit not as robustly as other neuron-glioma signalling mechanisms. […] Co-culture with neurons elicits a robust increase in glioma cell proliferation rate from around 20% to around 60%, underscoring the powerful effects of neurons on glioma proliferation that include neuroligin-3 signalling and neuron-to-glioma synaptic mechanisms. […] Together, these findings indicate that BDNF-TrkB signalling promotes malignant synaptic plasticity and augments tumour progression.
  • #79 Gene regulatory networks linked to GABA signalling emerge as relevant for glioblastoma pathogenesis | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.04.30.651564v1
    Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) are essential for precise control of gene expression, orchestrating cellular functions by coordinating interactions between transcription factors (TFs), enhancers, and gene promoters. […] Here, we integrated multi-omics datasets using the machine learning-based MOBILE (Multi-Omics Binary Integration via Lasso Ensembles) pipeline to uncover novel GRNs and pathways involved in glioblastoma (GB) pathogenesis, one of the most aggressive brain cancers. GABA-signalling emerged as a previously unrecognized potential driver of GB tumour pathogenesis, with the discovery of GABA-related networks and relevant transcription factors (TFs) such as ARX, GSX2 and members of the DLX family, which play key roles in GABAergic interneuron development. […] Our study provides insights into novel GRNs in GB pathogenesis, positioning GABA signalling as a potential therapeutic vulnerability in GB, and offering new promising therapeutic targets aimed at blocking neuron-glioma interactions. […] Integration of multi-omics data from glioblastoma (GB) patients identified networks related to GABA signalling as relevant for GB pathogenesis. In co-culture assays, GABAergic interneurons increase the proliferation of GB cells.
  • #80 Gene regulatory networks linked to GABA signalling emerge as relevant for glioblastoma pathogenesis | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.04.30.651564v1
    Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) are essential for precise control of gene expression, orchestrating cellular functions by coordinating interactions between transcription factors (TFs), enhancers, and gene promoters. […] Here, we integrated multi-omics datasets using the machine learning-based MOBILE (Multi-Omics Binary Integration via Lasso Ensembles) pipeline to uncover novel GRNs and pathways involved in glioblastoma (GB) pathogenesis, one of the most aggressive brain cancers. GABA-signalling emerged as a previously unrecognized potential driver of GB tumour pathogenesis, with the discovery of GABA-related networks and relevant transcription factors (TFs) such as ARX, GSX2 and members of the DLX family, which play key roles in GABAergic interneuron development. […] Our study provides insights into novel GRNs in GB pathogenesis, positioning GABA signalling as a potential therapeutic vulnerability in GB, and offering new promising therapeutic targets aimed at blocking neuron-glioma interactions. […] Integration of multi-omics data from glioblastoma (GB) patients identified networks related to GABA signalling as relevant for GB pathogenesis. In co-culture assays, GABAergic interneurons increase the proliferation of GB cells.
  • #81 Gene regulatory networks linked to GABA signalling emerge as relevant for glioblastoma pathogenesis | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.04.30.651564v1
    Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) are essential for precise control of gene expression, orchestrating cellular functions by coordinating interactions between transcription factors (TFs), enhancers, and gene promoters. […] Here, we integrated multi-omics datasets using the machine learning-based MOBILE (Multi-Omics Binary Integration via Lasso Ensembles) pipeline to uncover novel GRNs and pathways involved in glioblastoma (GB) pathogenesis, one of the most aggressive brain cancers. GABA-signalling emerged as a previously unrecognized potential driver of GB tumour pathogenesis, with the discovery of GABA-related networks and relevant transcription factors (TFs) such as ARX, GSX2 and members of the DLX family, which play key roles in GABAergic interneuron development. […] Our study provides insights into novel GRNs in GB pathogenesis, positioning GABA signalling as a potential therapeutic vulnerability in GB, and offering new promising therapeutic targets aimed at blocking neuron-glioma interactions. […] Integration of multi-omics data from glioblastoma (GB) patients identified networks related to GABA signalling as relevant for GB pathogenesis. In co-culture assays, GABAergic interneurons increase the proliferation of GB cells.
  • #82 Glioblastoma: A mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered – ecancer
    https://ecancer.org/en/news/25493-glioblastoma-a-mechanism-that-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    Glioblastoma: A mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered […] Chloride ion flows that enter the cells play an important role in the duplication of glioblastoma cells, a highly aggressive brain tumour. […] The study revealed that so-called Calcium-dependent chloride ion channels, which act like gates regulating chloride ion flows in and out of the cell, play a role in regulating tumour cell lines division and thus their proliferation. […] By using substances that block these flows, the research group demonstrated that it is possible to stop replication in tumour cells cultured in the laboratory. […] A higher concentration of chloride ions in cells promotes tumour progression. […] In glioblastoma cells, an increased concentration of chloride is found compared to normal levels.
  • #83 Glioblastoma: a mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered
    https://www.sissa.it/news/glioblastoma-mechanism-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    Chloride ion flows that enter the cells play an important role in the duplication of glioblastoma cells, a highly aggressive brain tumor. […] The study revealed that so-called Calcium-dependent chloride ion channels, which act like gates regulating chloride ion flows in and out of the cell, play a role in regulating tumor cell lines division and thus their proliferation. […] By using substances that block these flows, the research group demonstrated that it is possible to stop replication in tumor cells cultured in the laboratory. […] This result points to ion currents as a potential target for future therapeutic approaches.
  • #84 Glioblastoma: A mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered – ecancer
    https://ecancer.org/en/news/25493-glioblastoma-a-mechanism-that-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    Glioblastoma: A mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered […] Chloride ion flows that enter the cells play an important role in the duplication of glioblastoma cells, a highly aggressive brain tumour. […] The study revealed that so-called Calcium-dependent chloride ion channels, which act like gates regulating chloride ion flows in and out of the cell, play a role in regulating tumour cell lines division and thus their proliferation. […] By using substances that block these flows, the research group demonstrated that it is possible to stop replication in tumour cells cultured in the laboratory. […] A higher concentration of chloride ions in cells promotes tumour progression. […] In glioblastoma cells, an increased concentration of chloride is found compared to normal levels.
  • #85 Glioblastoma: a mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered
    https://www.sissa.it/news/glioblastoma-mechanism-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    Chloride ion flows that enter the cells play an important role in the duplication of glioblastoma cells, a highly aggressive brain tumor. […] The study revealed that so-called Calcium-dependent chloride ion channels, which act like gates regulating chloride ion flows in and out of the cell, play a role in regulating tumor cell lines division and thus their proliferation. […] By using substances that block these flows, the research group demonstrated that it is possible to stop replication in tumor cells cultured in the laboratory. […] This result points to ion currents as a potential target for future therapeutic approaches.
  • #86 Glioblastoma: A mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered – ecancer
    https://ecancer.org/en/news/25493-glioblastoma-a-mechanism-that-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    Glioblastoma: A mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered […] Chloride ion flows that enter the cells play an important role in the duplication of glioblastoma cells, a highly aggressive brain tumour. […] The study revealed that so-called Calcium-dependent chloride ion channels, which act like gates regulating chloride ion flows in and out of the cell, play a role in regulating tumour cell lines division and thus their proliferation. […] By using substances that block these flows, the research group demonstrated that it is possible to stop replication in tumour cells cultured in the laboratory. […] A higher concentration of chloride ions in cells promotes tumour progression. […] In glioblastoma cells, an increased concentration of chloride is found compared to normal levels.
  • #87 Glioblastoma: a mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered
    https://www.sissa.it/news/glioblastoma-mechanism-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    Chloride ion flows that enter the cells play an important role in the duplication of glioblastoma cells, a highly aggressive brain tumor. […] The study revealed that so-called Calcium-dependent chloride ion channels, which act like gates regulating chloride ion flows in and out of the cell, play a role in regulating tumor cell lines division and thus their proliferation. […] By using substances that block these flows, the research group demonstrated that it is possible to stop replication in tumor cells cultured in the laboratory. […] This result points to ion currents as a potential target for future therapeutic approaches.
  • #88 Glioblastoma: A mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered – ecancer
    https://ecancer.org/en/news/25493-glioblastoma-a-mechanism-that-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    By doing so, the researchers demonstrated that chloride ion channels indeed have a direct influence on the replication of these cells. […] In particular, by allowing the influx of chloride ions into the cell they seem to help increase the cell’s volume, a fundamental process that promotes division into two daughter cells. […] This evidence indicates that these channels play a significant role in making the tumour cell grow so that it can divide and multiply, thereby promoting tumour progression. […] These same channels could therefore be considered potential targets for novel drugs specifically designed to halt tumour progression.
  • #89 Glioblastoma: A mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered – ecancer
    https://ecancer.org/en/news/25493-glioblastoma-a-mechanism-that-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    By doing so, the researchers demonstrated that chloride ion channels indeed have a direct influence on the replication of these cells. […] In particular, by allowing the influx of chloride ions into the cell they seem to help increase the cell’s volume, a fundamental process that promotes division into two daughter cells. […] This evidence indicates that these channels play a significant role in making the tumour cell grow so that it can divide and multiply, thereby promoting tumour progression. […] These same channels could therefore be considered potential targets for novel drugs specifically designed to halt tumour progression.
  • #90 Glioblastoma: a mechanism that helps tumor cells multiply discovered | Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche
    https://www.cnr.it/en/news/13003/glioblastoma-a-mechanism-that-helps-tumor-cells-multiply-discovered
    Chloride ion flows that enter the cells play an important role in the duplication of glioblastoma cells, a highly aggressive brain tumor. […] The study revealed that so-called Calcium-dependent chloride ion channels, which act like gates regulating chloride ion flows in and out of the cell, play a role in regulating tumor cell lines division and thus their proliferation. […] By doing so, the researchers demonstrated that chloride ion channels indeed have a direct influence on the replication of these cells. […] This evidence, the researchers explain, indicates that these channels play a significant role in making the tumor cell grow so that it can divide and multiply, thereby promoting tumor progression. […] These same channels could therefore be considered potential targets for novel drugs specifically designed to halt tumor progression.
  • #91 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/5/2607
    Cancer cells adapt DNA repair mechanisms to play a crucial factor in development of therapy resistance and tumour relapse. […] Glioblastoma cells show over-expression of certain growth factors and their receptors. This creates an autocrine growth-promoting loop which provides growth advantage to rapidly proliferating tumour cells. […] The complexity of GBMs arises at the cellular and genomic level, where they display significant inter- and intra-tumour heterogeneity. […] Inducing apoptosis is another potential approach for GBM treatment. Recently, studies have focused on the restoration of p53 function. […] It is obvious that neuroscience is progressing and shows true potential in finding new drugs against glioblastomas in the future.
  • #92 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    Unfortunately, VEGF also plays a key role in promoting angiogenesis in glioma stem cells and optimizing the function and survival of its microenvironment. […] Hence, blocking the VEGF pathway and thereby inhibiting angiogenesis would be an effective strategy to treat the disease. […] PDGF became a target for therapy for glioblastoma due to its ability to promote glioblastoma proliferation and survival. […] These studies indicate that PDGF is a well-studied pathway that could lead to possible treatments for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in EGFR have been widely recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioblastomas. […] The amplification of EGFR was found to be more commonly present in primary glioblastomas (40%), and rarely present in secondary glioblastomas. […] Overactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway reduces in the survival of glioblastoma patients and increases in the aggression of the tumor as it overstimulates processes responsible for cell proliferation, survival and migration in glioblastoma.
  • #93 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    Unfortunately, VEGF also plays a key role in promoting angiogenesis in glioma stem cells and optimizing the function and survival of its microenvironment. […] Hence, blocking the VEGF pathway and thereby inhibiting angiogenesis would be an effective strategy to treat the disease. […] PDGF became a target for therapy for glioblastoma due to its ability to promote glioblastoma proliferation and survival. […] These studies indicate that PDGF is a well-studied pathway that could lead to possible treatments for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in EGFR have been widely recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioblastomas. […] The amplification of EGFR was found to be more commonly present in primary glioblastomas (40%), and rarely present in secondary glioblastomas. […] Overactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway reduces in the survival of glioblastoma patients and increases in the aggression of the tumor as it overstimulates processes responsible for cell proliferation, survival and migration in glioblastoma.
  • #94 Glioblastoma Pathogenesis | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/5842
    In clinical settings, several receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) such as tivozanib, cediranib, lenvatinib, sorafenib, sunitinib, and pazopanib are currently being studied for VEGFR inhibition. […] In normal glial cells, PDGF signaling starts with the binding of the PDGF ligands such as PDGFA, PDGFB, and PDGFC to the platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFRα or PDGFRβ). […] These studies indicate that PDGF is a well-studied pathway that could lead to possible treatments for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in EGFR have been widely recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioblastomas. […] Though EGFR was one of the first molecule linked to oncogenesis of glioblastoma, targeting it has been challenging in this disease. […] The PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway is a vital intracellular signaling pathway for regulating the cell cycle.
  • #95 Glioblastoma: Pathogenesis and Current Status of Chemotherapy and Other Novel Treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7226351/
    Unfortunately, VEGF also plays a key role in promoting angiogenesis in glioma stem cells and optimizing the function and survival of its microenvironment. […] Hence, blocking the VEGF pathway and thereby inhibiting angiogenesis would be an effective strategy to treat the disease. […] PDGF became a target for therapy for glioblastoma due to its ability to promote glioblastoma proliferation and survival. […] These studies indicate that PDGF is a well-studied pathway that could lead to possible treatments for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in EGFR have been widely recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioblastomas. […] The amplification of EGFR was found to be more commonly present in primary glioblastomas (40%), and rarely present in secondary glioblastomas. […] Overactivation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway reduces in the survival of glioblastoma patients and increases in the aggression of the tumor as it overstimulates processes responsible for cell proliferation, survival and migration in glioblastoma.
  • #96 Glioblastoma Pathogenesis | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/5842
    In clinical settings, several receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) such as tivozanib, cediranib, lenvatinib, sorafenib, sunitinib, and pazopanib are currently being studied for VEGFR inhibition. […] In normal glial cells, PDGF signaling starts with the binding of the PDGF ligands such as PDGFA, PDGFB, and PDGFC to the platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFRα or PDGFRβ). […] These studies indicate that PDGF is a well-studied pathway that could lead to possible treatments for glioblastoma. […] Mutations in EGFR have been widely recognized to be involved in the pathogenesis of glioblastomas. […] Though EGFR was one of the first molecule linked to oncogenesis of glioblastoma, targeting it has been challenging in this disease. […] The PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway is a vital intracellular signaling pathway for regulating the cell cycle.
  • #97 Molecular pathogenesis of glioblastoma multiforme: Nuances, obstacles, and implications for treatment
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2218-6212/full/v5/i3/88.htm
    Thus, conceivably, this sequence can be pursued as a specific molecular target in next generation treatment. […] Many of the gene products inextricably involved in the development of GBM are growth factor signal transduction proteins that transduce an extracellular signal via ligand binding into a cellular response. […] The wild type PTEN gene is a tumor suppressor. […] When PTEN activity is lost through mutation or LOH, PIP3 accumulates and begets malignant growth though constitutive activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway. […] PTEN LOH mediating malignant features in GBM has been found to occur in as much as 60%-80% of all cases. […] The 1p/19q codeletion has both prognostic and predictive utility in malignant gliomas and may thereby represent a tool to guide clinicians in prognostication and treatment planning for patients with these malignancies.
  • #98 Molecular mechanisms of tumour development in glioblastoma: an emerging role for the circadian clock | npj Precision Oncology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00530-z
    The studies conducted so far revealed the importance of clock genes in the regulation of the immune tumour microenvironment. […] The clock influences several important hallmarks and pathways in GBM. This implies that combining current emerging targeted therapies such as therapies targeting energy metabolism, angiogenesis, the PI3K/AKT/mTORC pathway or immune therapies with chronotherapy could improve their performance.
  • #99 Molecular Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma in Adults and Future Perspectives: A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8910150/
    Glioblastoma cells show over-expression of certain growth factors and their receptors. […] Two proliferating signalling cascades have been found to be over-active in glioblastomas: PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/Raf/MAPK Pathways. […] The PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signalling Pathway is involved in various cellular processes including proliferation, growth, cytoskeletal rearrangement and apoptosis. […] RTK/PI3K/Akt signalling is altered in 80% of human GBMs. […] This pathway, which is often aberrantly activated in GBM, promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and tumour invasion through increased -catenin phosphorylation and/or nuclear localization. […] GBM cells show diffuse infiltration into the surrounding neural network as the disease progresses. […] Understanding the role of GBM extracellular vesicles in GBM/astrocyte interaction can help develop novel treatment strategies, including the use of vaccine immunotherapy. […] Exciting novel immune therapy strategies including dendritic cell vaccines, B-cell vaccines and viral vectors have been developed for the treatment of GBM.
  • #100 The Kynurenine Pathway: A Primary Resistance Mechanism in Patients with Glioblastoma | Anticancer Research
    https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/37/5/2159
    The most important checkpoint molecules are cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA4), programmed cell death-1 receptor (PD1) and IDO, and these checkpoint molecules are especially important in causing the profound immunosuppression associated with GBM. […] The increased antitumor effects correlated with increased T-effector to T-regulatory (Treg) ratios in the tumors. […] As noted, GBM tumors secrete high levels of IDO. […] The optimal use of IDO inhibitors may be in combination with other checkpoint inhibitors to give a more complete stimulation of the immune system.
  • #101 Drug Combinations Targeting FAK and MEK Overcomes Tumor Heterogeneity in Glioblastoma — Centre for Medicines Discovery (CMD)
    https://www.cmd.ox.ac.uk/publications/2120885
    Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor with limited treatment options and poor prognosis, largely owing to its heterogeneity and the involvement of multiple intracellular signaling pathways that contribute to drug resistance. […] Integrin-mediated signaling, particularly through Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK), plays a pivotal role in GBM pathogenesis and invasion, making it a potential therapeutic target and component of future drug combination strategies. […] Molecular mechanisms underlying these effects include suppression of multiple kinase signaling pathways and enhanced apoptosis, elucidated using Reverse-Phase Protein Array (RPPA) profiling and Western blot validation. […] These findings suggest that the combination of FAK and MEK inhibitors represents a promising therapeutic strategy to overcome the challenges of GBM treatment.
  • #102 Potential Therapeutic Breakthrough in Glioblastoma Tumor Growth Mechanism
    https://breakthroughsforphysicians.nm.org/neurosciences-research-article-investigating-glioblastoma-tumor-growth.html
    Glioblastoma, one of the most complex and treatment-resistant cancers, has a five-year survival rate of just 6.9 percent, according to the National Brain Tumor Society. […] Treating glioblastoma is particularly difficult because the tumor recruits immunosuppressive macrophages white blood cells that defend the body against disease and infections into the tumor microenvironment to support the tumors growth and make the tumor more resistant to therapy, said Peiwen Chen, PhD, assistant professor of Neurological Surgery and senior author of the study. […] The infiltration of macrophages and altered tumor metabolism are two key hallmarks of glioblastoma. However, we dont know much about the mechanism underlying their connection, so thats the question we are trying to answer. […] We identified that LDHA mediates the symbiotic interaction between glioblastoma cells and macrophages. And when we block this interaction by inhibiting LDHA, we find that this interaction was blocked and the tumor progression was significantly inhibited, Chen said. […] The findings suggest LDHA could serve as a potential therapeutic target for glioblastoma, Chen said.
  • #103 Mechanism Identified for Drug Resistance in Glioblastoma Brain Tumors | Duke Health
    https://corporate.dukehealth.org/news/mechanism-identified-drug-resistance-glioblastoma-brain-tumors
    One surprising finding was that CaMKK2, specifically in neurons, was supporting brain tumor growth and suppressing the function of the immune system. […] Understanding how neurons do this may identify additional therapeutic targets in the future. […] Because CaMKK2 is highly expressed in tumor-supporting neurons and macrophages, the researchers said, it promotes resistance to immune-checkpoint inhibitor drugs, which turn off a cellular brake to accelerate the cancer-killing ability of T-cells. […] This suggests that CaMKK2 represents a potential therapeutic target. If we could inhibit CaMMK2, we might be able to unleash the power of the whole class of immunotherapy drugs that have been beneficial in other cancers, but not glioblastoma.
  • #104 Mechanism Identified for Drug Resistance in Glioblastoma Brain Tumors | Duke Department of Neurosurgery
    https://neurosurgery.duke.edu/news/mechanism-identified-drug-resistance-glioblastoma-brain-tumors
    One surprising finding was that CaMKK2, specifically in neurons, was supporting brain tumor growth and suppressing the function of the immune system. […] Because CaMKK2 is highly expressed in tumor-supporting neurons and macrophages, the researchers said, it promotes resistance to immune-checkpoint inhibitor drugs, which turn off a cellular brake to accelerate the cancer-killing ability of T-cells. […] This suggests that CaMKK2 represents a potential therapeutic target. If we could inhibit CaMMK2, we might be able to unleash the power of the whole class of immunotherapy drugs that have been beneficial in other cancers, but not glioblastoma.