Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Glioblastoma Multiforme – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558954/

  Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most malignant and pervasive subtype of glioma and is the most common primary brain tumor in adults. […] The only well-established causative factor implicated in GBM is exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation. […] A study showed a high prevalence (17%) among patients with a history of prior therapeutic irradiation. […] There is no substantial evidence of GBM association with lifestyle factors like smoking, alcohol consumption, drug use, or exposure to N-nitroso compounds. […] Studies have shown that using mobile phones does not increase the risk of developing GBM; however, the association with long-term use needs further confirmation.

• #1 Glioblastoma (GBM) – American Brain Tumor Association | Learn More

  https://www.abta.org/tumor_types/glioblastoma-gbm/

  Glioblastomas represent about 14% of all primary brain tumors. On average, more than 12,000 glioblastoma cases are diagnosed each year in the United States. […] The exact cause of glioblastoma is unknown. The majority of glioblastoma patients have no family history or identifiable risk factors. Patients with Li-Fraumeni syndrome, neurofibromatosis, Turcot syndrome, Lynch syndrome, or constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome, however, may be at higher risk of developing high-grade gliomas like glioblastoma. Exposure to ionizing radiation as a result of radiation therapy for childhood brain tumors or leukemia is also a risk factor for high-grade gliomas. […] In the past, glioblastomas were categorized as either IDH mutant or IDH-wildtype. The 2021 World Health Organization (WHO) update on CNS tumor classifications defined glioblastomas as IDH-wild type. (IDH mutant tumors that were previously classified as glioblastoma are now classified as astrocytoma, IDH mutant, grade 4.) Glioblastomas are characterized by EGFR amplification, TERT promoter mutation, or combined gain of chromosome 7/loss of chromosome 10 copy number changes. Some glioblastomas (35-40%) may have hypermethylation of the MGMT promoter (the gene which encodes a DNA repair enzyme is not expressed). Tumors that exhibit MGMT promoter hypermethylation have been found to predict a longer length of survival and tend to respond better to chemotherapy like temozolomide (Temodar). In about 40% of all glioblastomas, amplification of the EGFR gene (epidermal growth factor receptor) is found. Other molecular markers include BRAFv600 mutation, FGFR mutations and FGFR-TACC gene fusions, H3K27M mutation, CDK4/6 and TP53.

• #1 Glioblastoma Multiforme: A Review of its Epidemiology and Pathogenesis through Clinical Presentation and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5563115/

  Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most malignant types of central nervous system tumors. […] It was found that radiation and certain genetic syndromes are the only risk factors identified to date for GBM. […] To date exposure to high dose ionizing radiation is the only confirmed risk factor. […] Since the 1960s more than 116 cases of GBM have been reported resulting from radiation exposure and it has been predicted/calculated/ estimated that the overall risk of developing GBM following radiotherapy is 2.5%. […] It has also been reported that relatively low doses of radiation that are used to treat tinea capitis and skin hemangioma in children or infants have also been associated with relative risks 3 for gliomas. […] No conclusive association has been found between GBM and environmental factors such as smoking, dietary risk factors, cell phones or electromagnetic field, severe head injury, occupational risk factors and pesticide exposure. […] Gliomas are also found to be run in families but the susceptibility gene is still unidentified. […] Rare genetic disorder including neurofibromatosis type 1 and type 2, tuberous sclerosis, are found to be associated with increased incidence.

• #1 Glioblastoma (GBM): What It Is, Symptoms & Prognosis

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17032-glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma causes […] Researchers dont know the exact cause. Like other gliomas (tumors that form in your brain and spinal cord), researchers suggest that changes in your DNA lead to the development of glioblastoma brain tumors. Your genes contain DNA. They give instructions to your cells about how to grow and multiply. Mutations, or changes, to the DNA in your genes can cause cells to multiply out of control. […] Its possible to inherit genetic variations from your biological parents. But inherited GBMs are rare. Most commonly, these mutations happen randomly during your lifetime. […] Glioblastoma most often affects people ages 45 to 70. The average age at diagnosis is 64. […] These factors may increase your risk: Exposure to chemicals, like pesticides, petroleum, synthetic rubber and vinyl chloride; Genetic, tumor-causing conditions, like neurofibromatosis, Li-Fraumeni syndrome and Turcot syndrome; Previous radiation therapy to your head. […] Genetic mutations that cause glioblastoma arent preventable. But early detection and treatment may slow the progression of a tumor.

• #1 Genes linked to familial brain cancer identified in Stanford Medicine-led study | News Center

  https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2023/05/familial-brain-cancer.html

  An international effort led by a Stanford Medicine researcher finds more than 50 genes linked to glioma a rare brain cancer. Although most gliomas are sporadic, a minority are inherited. […] „Our first question to his doctors was, 'Is this related to the glioblastoma that killed our grandmother?’,” Rierson recalled. „And they all said no.” Brain tumors happen randomly, the sisters were told. Their family’s experience was just a coincidence. […] Bondy assured the sisters that, yes, despite what their father’s doctors had told them, a small minority of glioma cases are familial. […] Most gliomas are sporadic and seem to have no clear genetic cause. Only about 5% of gliomas are familial, afflicting two or more members of the same family. […] In December 2014, Bondy and other members of the Gliogene consortium announced the discovery of one of the first genes associated with familial glioma – POT1. Mutations in POT1 carry an increased risk of developing glioma, the researchers found.

• #1 Glioblastoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/283252-overview

  The etiology of GBM is unknown in most cases. Suggested causes include the following: […] The only established non-genetic risk factor for glioblastoma is ionizing radiation to the head or neck. […] Although concerns have been raised regarding cell phone use as a potential risk factor for development of gliomas, study results have been inconsistent, and this possibility remains controversial. […] Studies of association with head injury, N-nitroso compounds, occupational hazards, and electromagnetic field exposure have been inconclusive. […] There is a growing consensus that atopic conditions, including asthma, hay fever, eczema, and food allergies, are protective, reducing the risk of various forms of gliomaincluding glioblastomaby nearly 40%.

• #1 Glioblastoma: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Latest Advances in 2025 – OncoDaily

  https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/glioblastoma

  Epigenetic changes, such as MGMT promoter methylation, are also significant. This silencing of the DNA repair enzyme MGMT enhances tumor response to temozolomide, an alkylating chemotherapeutic agent. […] Environmental exposures are not strongly linked to glioblastoma, with the notable exception of ionizing radiation, particularly therapeutic radiation during childhood. […] There is insufficient evidence to support a causal role for mobile phones, occupational chemicals, or dietary factors. […] Epidemiologically, glioblastoma occurs more commonly in older adults, typically between 65 and 75 years of age, and is slightly more prevalent in males than females, possibly due to hormonal or chromosomal influences. […] Though rare, hereditary cancer syndromes can increase the risk: Li-Fraumeni syndrome (TP53 mutations), Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1 mutations), Turcot syndrome (APC or mismatch repair gene mutations). […] These inherited disorders underline the role of germline mutations in glioblastoma pathogenesis in select cases.

• #1 Glioblastoma Cancer – Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/cancer/brain-cancer/what-is-glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma Causes and Risk Factors […] Experts arent exactly sure what causes glioblastoma. But certain things may make you more likely to have one, such as: […] Prior radiation to the head. If you previously got radiation to treat brain tumors or cancers that may have spread to the area, it can increase your risk of having a glioblastoma. […] Exposure to chemicals and other cancer causing agents may also increase your risk of genetic mutations. […] Age and gender. Its more common among those who are 50 or above. The average age at diagnosis is 64. Men are more likely to have it. […] Race. Its more common among White people than among Black, Asian, and Indigenous groups. […] Your risk of glioblastoma may be greater if you have hereditary disorders linked to genetic mutations, such as: Turcot syndrome, Neurofibromatosis type 1, Li-Fraumeni syndrome.

• #1 Glioblastoma – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioblastoma

  The cause of most cases of glioblastoma is not known. […] Uncommon risk factors include genetic disorders, such as neurofibromatosis and LiFraumeni syndrome, and previous radiation therapy. […] The cause of most cases is unclear. […] The best known risk factor is exposure to ionizing radiation, and CT scan radiation is an important cause. […] Uncommon risk factors include genetic disorders such as neurofibromatosis, LiFraumeni syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, or Turcot syndrome. […] Glioblastoma has been associated with the viruses SV40, HHV-6, and cytomegalovirus (CMV). […] Infection with an oncogenic CMV may even be necessary for the development of glioblastoma. […] Research has been done to see if consumption of cured meat is a risk factor. No risk had been confirmed as of 2003.

• #1 Glioblastoma – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioblastoma

  Similarly, exposure to formaldehyde, and residential electromagnetic fields, such as from cell phones and electrical wiring within homes, have been studied as risk factors. […] The cellular origin of glioblastoma is unknown. […] More recent studies suggest that astrocytes, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, and neural stem cells could all serve as the cell of origin. […] Glioblastoma cells with properties similar to progenitor cells (glioblastoma cancer stem cells) have been found in glioblastomas. […] Their presence, coupled with the glioblastoma’s diffuse nature results in difficulty in removing them completely by surgery, and is therefore believed to be the possible cause behind resistance to conventional treatments, and the high recurrence rate.

• #1 Causes for Glioma | Expert Surgeon | Aaron Cohen-Gadol, MD

  https://www.aaroncohen-gadol.com/en/patients/glioma/natural-history/causes

  The cause of a high-grade glioma is often a low-grade glioma that returns after it has been surgically removed or that continues to expand and evolve over time. […] The causes of glioma are not fully understood. Ionizing radiation and several rare genetic conditions are two potential causes. […] In many cases, it appears that brain tumors are the result of random spontaneous mutations.

• #1 Causes for Glioma | Expert Surgeon | Aaron Cohen-Gadol, MD

  https://www.aaroncohen-gadol.com/en/patients/glioma/natural-history/causes

  Gliomas are believed to arise from genetic mutations (changes) of glial cells. When the genetic makeup of these cells becomes mutated, abnormal tissue growth can lead to tumors such as glioma and glioblastoma. […] Though the cause of glioma is not fully understood, scientists and physicians have several strong theories. Below, we will explore the two most common potential causes of gliomas: Exposure to ionizing radiation and Genetic and hereditary conditions. […] In addition to ionizing radiation, many believe genetics play a role in causing brain tumors. […] Physicians do consider a family history of glioma or glioblastoma a risk factor for brain tumors. […] The reasons why mutations occur are not fully understood. However, once sufficient amounts of cellular mutations take place, the cells may progress to become cancerous and be able to undergo uncontrollable growth.

• #1 What Causes a Glioblastoma: Unraveling Brain Tumor Origins

  https://cancercenterforhealing.com/what-causes-a-glioblastoma/

  Pesticides are another environmental factor that has been linked to glioblastoma. […] Finally, exposure to ionizing radiation is another established risk factor for glioblastoma. […] The first step in glioblastoma formation is the accumulation of genetic mutations and alterations in the glial cells of the brain. […] Environmental factors, such as exposure to certain toxins and radiation, can also contribute to glioblastoma formation. […] Understanding the complex etiology of glioblastoma is crucial for developing effective treatment strategies. […] While the exact cause of glioblastoma is not yet fully understood, several risk factors have been identified that may increase the likelihood of developing this devastating brain tumor. […] Risk factors for glioblastoma include age, gender, family history, and previous medical conditions.

• #1 What is Glioblastoma? Symptoms, Risk Factors & Treatments | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/glioblastoma.html

  Glioblastoma is a brain tumor that almost always develops sporadically. Being diagnosed with glioblastoma does not mean your children or siblings are more likely to develop glioblastoma or another brain tumor. Some very rare cancer syndromes, such as Li-Fraumeni Syndrome, are associated with an increased risk for developing brain tumors and other cancers, but these patients usually are diagnosed with multiple types of cancer at a very young age. […] The standard treatment for glioblastoma starts with surgery to remove as much of the tumor as safely as possible. […] After surgery, patients usually get a combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy, followed by chemotherapy alone. […] Because it is impossible to remove or destroy all glioblastoma cells in a tumor, all glioblastomas recur. The timing can range from weeks to years. […] MD Anderson has one of the most active glioblastoma clinical trials programs in the world. Some trials study entirely new treatments, while others look at new combinations of existing treatments that may benefit patients.

• #1 Epidemiology of Glioblastoma Multiforme–Literature Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/10/2412

  Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most aggressive malignancies, accounting for 14.5% of all central nervous system tumors and 48.6% of malignant central nervous system tumors. […] The data indicate that GBM is the higher-grade primary brain tumor and is significantly more common in men. The risk of being diagnosed with glioma increases with age, and median survival remains low, despite medical advances. […] In addition, it is difficult to determine clearly how GBM is influenced by stimulants, certain medications (e.g., NSAIDs), cell phone use, and exposure to heavy metals. […] The mutation of IDH1 and IDH2 reduces the affinity of enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase for the standard substrate, isocitrate, and increases its affinity towards alpha-ketoglutarate. […] Further transformation of low-grade gliomas with an IDH mutation to secondary GBM requires more genetic alterations, such as the amplification of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and lost expression of the phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN).

• #1 Epidemiology of Glioblastoma Multiforme–Literature Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/10/2412

  The trend of GBM genotyping is expanded in the new WHO classification. […] The latest criteria and nomenclature introduced by the WHO in 2021 continue to strengthen the role of molecular genetics in the diagnosis of GBM. […] Despite the alarming growing trend in the incidence of GBM, it is still difficult to directly determine the causes of its occurrence, which is why further research into the etiology and treatment of GBM tumors should continue.

• #2 Glioblastoma (GBM) – American Brain Tumor Association | Learn More

  https://www.abta.org/tumor_types/glioblastoma-gbm/

  Glioblastomas represent about 14% of all primary brain tumors. On average, more than 12,000 glioblastoma cases are diagnosed each year in the United States. […] The exact cause of glioblastoma is unknown. The majority of glioblastoma patients have no family history or identifiable risk factors. Patients with Li-Fraumeni syndrome, neurofibromatosis, Turcot syndrome, Lynch syndrome, or constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome, however, may be at higher risk of developing high-grade gliomas like glioblastoma. Exposure to ionizing radiation as a result of radiation therapy for childhood brain tumors or leukemia is also a risk factor for high-grade gliomas. […] In the past, glioblastomas were categorized as either IDH mutant or IDH-wildtype. The 2021 World Health Organization (WHO) update on CNS tumor classifications defined glioblastomas as IDH-wild type. (IDH mutant tumors that were previously classified as glioblastoma are now classified as astrocytoma, IDH mutant, grade 4.) Glioblastomas are characterized by EGFR amplification, TERT promoter mutation, or combined gain of chromosome 7/loss of chromosome 10 copy number changes. Some glioblastomas (35-40%) may have hypermethylation of the MGMT promoter (the gene which encodes a DNA repair enzyme is not expressed). Tumors that exhibit MGMT promoter hypermethylation have been found to predict a longer length of survival and tend to respond better to chemotherapy like temozolomide (Temodar). In about 40% of all glioblastomas, amplification of the EGFR gene (epidermal growth factor receptor) is found. Other molecular markers include BRAFv600 mutation, FGFR mutations and FGFR-TACC gene fusions, H3K27M mutation, CDK4/6 and TP53.

• #2 Glioblastoma: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Latest Advances in 2025 – OncoDaily

  https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma, the most aggressive primary brain tumor in adults, arises from complex interactions between genetic, molecular, and environmental factors. While most cases are sporadic, advances in molecular profiling have uncovered several underlying mechanisms. Genetically, glioblastomas frequently harbor mutations in key regulatory genes: […] TP53, a tumor suppressor gene, is commonly mutated, leading to a loss of cell cycle control. […] EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) amplification or mutation is seen in nearly 50% of glioblastomas, promoting tumor growth through the PI3K/AKT and RAS/MAPK signaling pathways. […] PTEN mutations contribute to unchecked cell proliferation by disrupting negative regulation of the PI3K pathway. […] Mutations in IDH1/IDH2 are typically found in secondary glioblastomas and are associated with a better prognosis.

• #2 Glioblastoma Multiforme: A Review of its Epidemiology and Pathogenesis through Clinical Presentation and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5563115/

  Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most malignant types of central nervous system tumors. […] It was found that radiation and certain genetic syndromes are the only risk factors identified to date for GBM. […] To date exposure to high dose ionizing radiation is the only confirmed risk factor. […] Since the 1960s more than 116 cases of GBM have been reported resulting from radiation exposure and it has been predicted/calculated/ estimated that the overall risk of developing GBM following radiotherapy is 2.5%. […] It has also been reported that relatively low doses of radiation that are used to treat tinea capitis and skin hemangioma in children or infants have also been associated with relative risks 3 for gliomas. […] No conclusive association has been found between GBM and environmental factors such as smoking, dietary risk factors, cell phones or electromagnetic field, severe head injury, occupational risk factors and pesticide exposure. […] Gliomas are also found to be run in families but the susceptibility gene is still unidentified. […] Rare genetic disorder including neurofibromatosis type 1 and type 2, tuberous sclerosis, are found to be associated with increased incidence.

• #2 What is Glioblastoma? Symptoms, Risk Factors & Treatments | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/glioblastoma.html

  Glioblastoma is the most common primary brain cancer, or cancer that starts in the brain, with around 12,000 cases diagnosed in the United States each year. All glioblastomas are grade IV brain tumors, meaning they contain the most abnormal looking cells and are the most aggressive. […] Glioblastoma begins in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes that help protect the brain from diseases in the blood and provide it with nutrients. […] Doctors have only identified a few risk factors for glioblastoma. The most significant is prior radiation to the head. People often receive radiation to the head to treat other cancers near the brain or cancers that have or may spread to the brain. […] A few hereditary cancer syndromes are also connected to glioblastoma. These include Li Fraumeni syndrome, neurofibromatosis type 1 and Turcot syndrome.

• #2 Glioblastoma Cancer – Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/cancer/brain-cancer/what-is-glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma Causes and Risk Factors […] Experts arent exactly sure what causes glioblastoma. But certain things may make you more likely to have one, such as: […] Prior radiation to the head. If you previously got radiation to treat brain tumors or cancers that may have spread to the area, it can increase your risk of having a glioblastoma. […] Exposure to chemicals and other cancer causing agents may also increase your risk of genetic mutations. […] Age and gender. Its more common among those who are 50 or above. The average age at diagnosis is 64. Men are more likely to have it. […] Race. Its more common among White people than among Black, Asian, and Indigenous groups. […] Your risk of glioblastoma may be greater if you have hereditary disorders linked to genetic mutations, such as: Turcot syndrome, Neurofibromatosis type 1, Li-Fraumeni syndrome.

• #2 Genes linked to familial brain cancer identified in Stanford Medicine-led study | News Center

  https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2023/05/familial-brain-cancer.html

  They found six mutations in one gene, called HERC2, that were associated with familial glioma. […] All told, the researchers identified 54 mutations in 28 genes or non-coding regions that were associated with familial glioma in 50 out of 304 families in the Gliogene study. Many of the genes are involved in cell division, blood vessel development and immune regulation – all factors that can contribute to tumor growth.

• #2 Glioblastoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/283252-overview

  The etiology of GBM is unknown in most cases. Suggested causes include the following: […] The only established non-genetic risk factor for glioblastoma is ionizing radiation to the head or neck. […] Although concerns have been raised regarding cell phone use as a potential risk factor for development of gliomas, study results have been inconsistent, and this possibility remains controversial. […] Studies of association with head injury, N-nitroso compounds, occupational hazards, and electromagnetic field exposure have been inconclusive. […] There is a growing consensus that atopic conditions, including asthma, hay fever, eczema, and food allergies, are protective, reducing the risk of various forms of gliomaincluding glioblastomaby nearly 40%.

• #2 Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) | Treatment | UTHealth Houston

  https://med.uth.edu/neurosciences/conditions-and-treatments/brain-tumor/glioblastoma-multiforme-gbm/

  Glioblastoma, also called glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is a Grade 4 malignant astrocytoma that begins in the brain. […] Doctors and researchers do not know what causes glioblastoma, although they do know that past radiation to the central nervous system or head increases the lifetime risk of developing glioblastoma. […] Some research has shown that seasonal allergies, such as hay fever, may have a protective effect, possibly through a heightened immune system.

• #2 Glioblastoma: Factors That Can Increase Risk Of This Aggressive Form Of Brain Cancer | TheHealthSite.com

  https://www.thehealthsite.com/diseases-conditions/brain-tumour/glioblastoma-factors-that-can-increase-risk-of-developing-this-aggressive-brain-cancer-983806/

  Glioblastoma tends to be more common in older adults. Men have a higher risk of developing this aggressive form of brain cancer compared to women. […] Exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation is a known risk factor for glioblastoma. […] Genetics plays a significant role in glioblastoma development, with certain inherited conditions increasing the risk of developing the disease. The most well-known genetic disorder linked to glioblastoma is called neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1). Individuals with NF1 have a higher risk of developing gliomas, including glioblastoma. Another genetic disorder, called Li-Fraumeni syndrome, caused by mutations in the TP53 tumor suppressor gene, has also been associated with an increased risk of developing glioblastoma. […] Exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation is a known risk factor for glioblastoma. This can occur through various sources, including therapeutic radiation treatments for other types of cancer, such as radiation therapy for head and neck tumors. Additionally, individuals who have been exposed to radiation as a result of accidents or occupational hazards, such as nuclear plant workers or radiologists, may be at an increased risk. However, it is important to note that the vast majority of glioblastoma cases are not linked to radiation exposure.

• #2 Viruses in glioblastoma: an update on evidence and clinical trials | BJC Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s44276-024-00051-z

  Glioblastoma (GB) is a lethal and aggressive brain tumour. While molecular characteristics of GB is studied extensively, the aetiology of GB remains uncertain. The interest in exploring viruses as a potential contributor to the development of GB stems from the notion that viruses are known to play a key role in pathogenesis of other human cancers such as cervical cancer. Nevertheless, the role of viruses in GB remains controversial. […] A considerable number of GB patients do not exhibit identifiable risk factors for tumour development. Currently, the sole confirmed risk factor is exposure to high-dose ionising radiation. […] Approximately 20% of all human cancers worldwide are caused by viruses, with seven viruses causally linked to human cancers: HBV, HCV, HPV, EBV, HTLV, MCPyV and KSHV.

• #2

  https://braintumourresearch.org/pages/types-of-brain-tumours-glioblastoma-multiforme-gbm?srsltid=AfmBOorv3n_w60zQqzj_zoPo97g4LhzKr7XbFC3itzMQRMcoIqapnn2o

  Glioblastoma is a grade 4 brain tumour – a classification assigned by the World Health Organisation (WHO) – on the basis of the histology (how it looks under the microscope) of a tumour sample (biopsy). […] Latest research indicates that GBMs are unlikely to develop from fully formed brain cells but instead develop from immature cells or stem cells which suffered DNA damage at some point in their life during their development from a stem cell to a progenitor cell and/or a mature brain cell. […] Currently, we do not know what causes glioblastoma. The main contributing factor appears to be an accumulation of genetic mutations, which lead normal cells to develop into cancerous cells, and these grow further to become a tumour. We do not know what causes these mutations. Research is identifying some of the genes that become mutated in glioblastoma, which we hope will improve our ability to detect, diagnose and treat it. There is no substantial evidence linking lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol consumption or use of mobile phones to the development of glioblastoma.

• #2 Glioblastomas ▷ Symptoms, causes & specialists

  https://www.primomedico.com/en/treatment/glioblastomas/

  Glioblastoma is usually new (de novo) but can also develop from less malignant astrocytoma and often occurs as a recurrence of the astrocytoma. […] Also, certain diseases are associated with glioblastoma’s frequent occurrence and are, therefore, partly hereditary. […] Except for therapeutic radiotherapy in childhood, which can lead to a brain tumor after many years, no factors (nutrition, toxins, standard X-rays, etc.) are known, which would forward the occurrence of a glioblastoma.

• #2 Glioblastoma Symptoms and Treatments – Goodman Campbell

  https://www.goodmancampbell.com/conditions/brain/tumor/glioblastoma/

  Glioblastoma can develop as a new tumor, or a lower-grade glioma can transform into a glioblastoma over time. […] Unhealthy changes (called mutations) in the DNA of brain tumor cells dangerously alter their normal life cycle and the way they function. […] The cause of these DNA mutations is not fully understood. Some may be inherited or occur spontaneously. Exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation or chemicals called carcinogens may lead to the development of some mutations.

• #2 What Causes a Glioblastoma: Unraveling Brain Tumor Origins

  https://cancercenterforhealing.com/what-causes-a-glioblastoma/

  Pesticides are another environmental factor that has been linked to glioblastoma. […] Finally, exposure to ionizing radiation is another established risk factor for glioblastoma. […] The first step in glioblastoma formation is the accumulation of genetic mutations and alterations in the glial cells of the brain. […] Environmental factors, such as exposure to certain toxins and radiation, can also contribute to glioblastoma formation. […] Understanding the complex etiology of glioblastoma is crucial for developing effective treatment strategies. […] While the exact cause of glioblastoma is not yet fully understood, several risk factors have been identified that may increase the likelihood of developing this devastating brain tumor. […] Risk factors for glioblastoma include age, gender, family history, and previous medical conditions.

• #2 What is Glioblastoma? | Glioblastoma Symptoms & Treatment in Florida

  https://themorrisonclinic.com/conditions/glioblastoma-symptoms-causes-treatment

  Glioblastoma is an aggressive cancer found in the brain or spinal cord. Glioblastoma forms from cells called astrocytes that support nerve cells. […] While glioblastoma causes can vary widely, and there is sadly not a cure, there are glioblastoma treatments. These treatments ease symptoms and comfortably prolong your life. Most people live on average 12 to 18 months after diagnosis. Roughly 7% of people are still alive in five years. […] Clinical trial therapies that target specific cancer cell genes nonetheless show promise, and researchers are actively working on how to deliver chemotherapy directly to the tumor.

• #2

  https://www.parkwayeast.com.sg/conditions-diseases/glioblastoma/symptoms-causes

  Glioblastoma, also known as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is the most common and most aggressive form of primary brain tumour in adults. […] The exact cause of glioblastoma is not well understood. Most cases appear randomly, with no identifiable cause. […] However, a small number of cases are linked to genetic disorders such as neurofibromatosis type 1, Turcot syndrome, and Li-Fraumeni syndrome. […] Other potential risk factors include age, with most cases occurring in adults aged 45 to 70, and a slightly higher incidence in males compared to females. […] With genetic testing, there are more genes that have been identified that affect the progression and treatment of glioblastoma. […] Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 2 (IDH-1 IDH-2 mutations have been found to confer a better prognosis for GBM whereas GBM with IDH wild-type have a much worse prognosis. […] O6-methylguanine-DNA-methyltransferase (MGMT) promotor methylation confers better response to chemotherapy with temozolomide. […] Currently, there are no known preventive measures for glioblastoma due to its unclear causes.

• #2 Glioblastoma | Recurrence, symptoms and treatment options

  https://mytomorrows.com/blog/patients/understanding-glioblastoma-recurrence-and-treatment-options/

  Glioblastoma recurrence is unfortunately quite common, with a high percentage of patients experiencing tumour regrowth after initial treatment. […] The complete reasons behind glioblastoma relapse remain unclear. However, several factors may contribute to its reappearance. One significant factor is the presence of residual cancer cells that remain in the brain after initial treatment. These cells can later develop into recurrent tumours. […] The invasive nature of glioblastoma cells and their tendency to spread into healthy brain tissue makes it challenging to eradicate them completely. The recurrence and progression of the disease are worsened by genetic mutations in the tumour and changes in the surrounding environment.

• #2 Glioblastoma Multiforme – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558954/

  Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most malignant and pervasive subtype of glioma and is the most common primary brain tumor in adults. […] The only well-established causative factor implicated in GBM is exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation. […] A study showed a high prevalence (17%) among patients with a history of prior therapeutic irradiation. […] There is no substantial evidence of GBM association with lifestyle factors like smoking, alcohol consumption, drug use, or exposure to N-nitroso compounds. […] Studies have shown that using mobile phones does not increase the risk of developing GBM; however, the association with long-term use needs further confirmation.

• #2 Epidemiology of Glioblastoma Multiforme–Literature Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/10/2412

  The trend of GBM genotyping is expanded in the new WHO classification. […] The latest criteria and nomenclature introduced by the WHO in 2021 continue to strengthen the role of molecular genetics in the diagnosis of GBM. […] Despite the alarming growing trend in the incidence of GBM, it is still difficult to directly determine the causes of its occurrence, which is why further research into the etiology and treatment of GBM tumors should continue.

• #2 Glioblastoma multiforme Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options

  https://www.drugs.com/health-guide/glioblastoma-multiforme.html

  Scientists do not know what causes most brain tumors. However, they are working to better understand the biology of glioblastoma multiforme and identify possible environmental, occupational, family, and genetic risk factors. […] There is no known way to prevent glioblastoma. Some risk factors may increase a person’s chance of developing a brain tumor. These include radiation therapy to the brain and certain inherited disorders.

• #3 Glioma – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/glioma/symptoms-causes/syc-20350251

  Glioma is a growth of cells that starts in the brain or spinal cord. […] Doctors aren’t sure what causes glioma. It starts when cells in the brain or spinal cord develop changes in their DNA. […] The DNA changes tell the cells to make more cells quickly. The cells continue living when healthy cells would die. This causes too many cells that don’t work right. The cells form a mass called a tumor. […] Some gliomas develop more changes in their DNA that cause them to become brain cancers. The changes tell the cells to invade and destroy healthy brain tissue.

• #3

  https://www.parkwayeast.com.sg/conditions-diseases/glioblastoma/symptoms-causes

  Glioblastoma, also known as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is the most common and most aggressive form of primary brain tumour in adults. […] The exact cause of glioblastoma is not well understood. Most cases appear randomly, with no identifiable cause. […] However, a small number of cases are linked to genetic disorders such as neurofibromatosis type 1, Turcot syndrome, and Li-Fraumeni syndrome. […] Other potential risk factors include age, with most cases occurring in adults aged 45 to 70, and a slightly higher incidence in males compared to females. […] With genetic testing, there are more genes that have been identified that affect the progression and treatment of glioblastoma. […] Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 2 (IDH-1 IDH-2 mutations have been found to confer a better prognosis for GBM whereas GBM with IDH wild-type have a much worse prognosis. […] O6-methylguanine-DNA-methyltransferase (MGMT) promotor methylation confers better response to chemotherapy with temozolomide. […] Currently, there are no known preventive measures for glioblastoma due to its unclear causes.

• #3 Glioblastoma Cancer – Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/cancer/brain-cancer/what-is-glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma Causes and Risk Factors […] Experts arent exactly sure what causes glioblastoma. But certain things may make you more likely to have one, such as: […] Prior radiation to the head. If you previously got radiation to treat brain tumors or cancers that may have spread to the area, it can increase your risk of having a glioblastoma. […] Exposure to chemicals and other cancer causing agents may also increase your risk of genetic mutations. […] Age and gender. Its more common among those who are 50 or above. The average age at diagnosis is 64. Men are more likely to have it. […] Race. Its more common among White people than among Black, Asian, and Indigenous groups. […] Your risk of glioblastoma may be greater if you have hereditary disorders linked to genetic mutations, such as: Turcot syndrome, Neurofibromatosis type 1, Li-Fraumeni syndrome.

• #3 Glioblastoma Diagnosis | Radiation Exposure Lawyer | The Lyon Firm

  https://thelyonfirm.com/toxic-exposure-lawyer/radiation/glioblastoma/

  Ionizing radiation is high-energy radiation, and a cause for concern for radiation exposure in numerous occupational settings. Ionizing radiation contains enough energy to cause brain cancer and other serious health issues with acute or chronic exposure. Glioblastoma patients develop brain tumors after exposure to certain substances or high doses of ionizing radiation directed at the body. […] The risk of developing brain cancer increases with age, and studies show risk increases in certain groups exposed to ionizing radiation. Radiation exposure can occur from ingesting, inhaling, injecting, or absorbing radioactive materials. […] Ionizing radiation may affect a person by chronic or acute exposure by means of Radon, medical X-rays, nuclear medicine, and exposure to toxic consumer products.

• #3 Glioblastoma Brain Tumor – Symptoms, Diagnosis, TreatmentsSecond Opinion IconGroup 49

  https://www.barrowneuro.org/condition/glioblastoma-multiforme/

  Glioblastoma tumors—formerly called glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) and occasionally called gliomas or high-grade astrocytomas—are malignant or cancerous brain tumors. Scientists are attempting to discover what kind of cells within the brain and spinal cord give rise to glioblastomas, with possibilities including neural stem cells or cells called astrocytes. […] As with most brain tumors, the exact cause of glioblastomas is not fully understood. Genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors likely play a role, but more research is needed to pinpoint their specific mechanisms. […] Risk factors identified in glioblastoma development include: Age: Glioblastomas are more common in older adults, with the risk increasing with age. Gender: Glioblastomas are slightly more common in males than females. Genetic mutations: Changes in specific genes, such as EGFR, TERT, and TP53 gene mutations, and specific chromosomal abnormalities have been linked to glioblastoma development. These mutations can disrupt normal cell growth and division, leading to the uncontrolled growth of cancer cells. Radiation exposure: Previous exposure to ionizing radiation—like radiation therapy for other cancers—is a known risk factor for glioblastoma. However, this accounts for only a small percentage of cases. Environmental factors: Although there isn’t a conclusive link, exposure to certain chemicals, like pesticides, solvents, and industrial pollutants, has been investigated as a potential risk factor for glioblastoma.

• #3

  https://www.uptothesky.org/causes

  The exact cause of glioblastoma is not known. Some risk factors may make someone more likely to develop high-grade gliomas like glioblastoma, but the majority of patients have no family history or identifiable risk factors. […] Exposure to ionizing radiation as a result of radiation therapy for childhood brain tumors or leukemia is a risk factor for high-grade gliomas like glioblastoma. […] Hereditary disorders linked to genetic mutations, such as: Turcot syndrome, Neurofibromatosis type 1, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, Lynch syndrome, Constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome. […] Exposure to chemicals and other cancer-causing agents may increase your risk for genetic mutations. […] Glioblastomas can occur at any age but are more common in older patients between the ages of 65 and 74. The median age of a glioblastoma diagnosis is 65. […] Glioblastomas are slightly more common in men than in women.

• #3 Glioblastoma (GBM): What It Is, Symptoms & Prognosis

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17032-glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma causes […] Researchers dont know the exact cause. Like other gliomas (tumors that form in your brain and spinal cord), researchers suggest that changes in your DNA lead to the development of glioblastoma brain tumors. Your genes contain DNA. They give instructions to your cells about how to grow and multiply. Mutations, or changes, to the DNA in your genes can cause cells to multiply out of control. […] Its possible to inherit genetic variations from your biological parents. But inherited GBMs are rare. Most commonly, these mutations happen randomly during your lifetime. […] Glioblastoma most often affects people ages 45 to 70. The average age at diagnosis is 64. […] These factors may increase your risk: Exposure to chemicals, like pesticides, petroleum, synthetic rubber and vinyl chloride; Genetic, tumor-causing conditions, like neurofibromatosis, Li-Fraumeni syndrome and Turcot syndrome; Previous radiation therapy to your head. […] Genetic mutations that cause glioblastoma arent preventable. But early detection and treatment may slow the progression of a tumor.

• #3 Viruses in glioblastoma: an update on evidence and clinical trials | BJC Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s44276-024-00051-z

  However, whether viruses from these families play a causative role in GB has yet to be confirmed. […] In conclusion, while the role of PyVs in GB remains an area of active investigation, ongoing research holds the promise of unravelling their potential contributions to the aetiology and therapeutic strategies in GB. […] Despite the rapidly expanding and evolving literature on the potential influence of viruses in cancer development and treatment, this field still presents numerous challenges and unanswered questions. Establishing causality becomes challenging when the viruses under discussion are prevalent in large proportions of the human population.

• #3 Brain cancer (Glioblastoma): Causes, symptoms and treatment | Hyperthermia Centre Hannover | Germany

  https://www.hyperthermia-centre-hannover.com/brain-cancer-glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor in adults. […] Glioblastomas can develop completely new or develop from less malignant astrocytoma as a result of progressive degeneration. […] It is therefore not uncommon that treated astrocytoma relapse manifest as glioblastomas. […] There is no indication that heredity plays any role.

• #3

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13402-024-01024-7

  BRCA1 mutations or dysregulation in glioblastoma can lead to impaired DNA repair mechanisms, resulting in tumor progression and resistance to standard therapies. […] Several studies have shown that BRCA1 expression is altered, albeit rarely, in glioblastoma, leading to poor prognosis and increased tumor aggressiveness. […] In addition, the communication of BRCA1 with other molecular pathways such as p53 and PTEN further complicates its role in glioblastoma pathogenesis. […] Targeting BRCA1-related pathways in these cases has shown the potential to improve the efficacy of standard treatments, including radiotherapy and chemotherapy. […] The development of (Poly (ADP-ribose) Polymerase) PARP inhibitors that exploit the lack of HR also offers a therapeutic approach to glioblastoma patients with BRCA1 mutations. […] This review discusses the current mechanisms of etiology and potential treatment of BRCA1-related glioblastoma.

• #3 Glioblastoma brain tumours | The Brain Tumour Charity

  https://www.thebraintumourcharity.org/brain-tumour-diagnosis-treatment/types-of-brain-tumour-adult/glioblastoma/

  As with most brain tumours, its not known why glioblastoma multiforme tumours start growing, although we do understand some of the risk factors involved. […] Its important to know that there is nothing you could have done, or avoided doing, that would have caused you or somebody you know to develop a brain tumour.

• #4 Glioblastoma – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/glioblastoma/symptoms-causes/syc-20569077

  Glioblastoma is a type of cancer that starts in cells called astrocytes that support nerve cells. It can form in the brain or spinal cord. […] The cause of most glioblastomas isn’t known. […] Glioblastoma happens when cells in the brain or spinal cord develop changes in their DNA. Healthcare professionals sometimes call these changes mutations or variations. […] The cancer cells form a mass called a tumor. The tumor can grow to press on nearby nerves and parts of the brain or spinal cord. This leads to glioblastoma symptoms and can cause complications. The tumor can grow to invade and destroy healthy body tissue. […] Factors that can increase the risk of glioblastoma include getting older, being exposed to radiation, and inherited syndromes that increase cancer risk.

• #5 Glioblastoma (GBM): What It Is, Symptoms & Prognosis

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17032-glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma causes […] Researchers dont know the exact cause. Like other gliomas (tumors that form in your brain and spinal cord), researchers suggest that changes in your DNA lead to the development of glioblastoma brain tumors. Your genes contain DNA. They give instructions to your cells about how to grow and multiply. Mutations, or changes, to the DNA in your genes can cause cells to multiply out of control. […] Its possible to inherit genetic variations from your biological parents. But inherited GBMs are rare. Most commonly, these mutations happen randomly during your lifetime. […] Glioblastoma most often affects people ages 45 to 70. The average age at diagnosis is 64. […] These factors may increase your risk: Exposure to chemicals, like pesticides, petroleum, synthetic rubber and vinyl chloride; Genetic, tumor-causing conditions, like neurofibromatosis, Li-Fraumeni syndrome and Turcot syndrome; Previous radiation therapy to your head. […] Genetic mutations that cause glioblastoma arent preventable. But early detection and treatment may slow the progression of a tumor.

• #6 Glioma: What Is It, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Outlook

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21969-glioma

  Research suggests that changes to DNA lead to the development of brain tumors and spinal cord tumors like gliomas. Our genes contain DNA. They give instructions to cells about how to grow and multiply. Mutations, or changes, to the DNA in our genes can cause cells to multiply out of control. […] It’s possible to inherit genetic mutations from your parents. They can also occur suddenly during your lifetime.

• #7 Glioblastoma: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Latest Advances in 2025 – OncoDaily

  https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma, the most aggressive primary brain tumor in adults, arises from complex interactions between genetic, molecular, and environmental factors. While most cases are sporadic, advances in molecular profiling have uncovered several underlying mechanisms. Genetically, glioblastomas frequently harbor mutations in key regulatory genes: […] TP53, a tumor suppressor gene, is commonly mutated, leading to a loss of cell cycle control. […] EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) amplification or mutation is seen in nearly 50% of glioblastomas, promoting tumor growth through the PI3K/AKT and RAS/MAPK signaling pathways. […] PTEN mutations contribute to unchecked cell proliferation by disrupting negative regulation of the PI3K pathway. […] Mutations in IDH1/IDH2 are typically found in secondary glioblastomas and are associated with a better prognosis.

• #8 Glioblastoma (GBM) – American Brain Tumor Association | Learn More

  https://www.abta.org/tumor_types/glioblastoma-gbm/

  Glioblastomas represent about 14% of all primary brain tumors. On average, more than 12,000 glioblastoma cases are diagnosed each year in the United States. […] The exact cause of glioblastoma is unknown. The majority of glioblastoma patients have no family history or identifiable risk factors. Patients with Li-Fraumeni syndrome, neurofibromatosis, Turcot syndrome, Lynch syndrome, or constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome, however, may be at higher risk of developing high-grade gliomas like glioblastoma. Exposure to ionizing radiation as a result of radiation therapy for childhood brain tumors or leukemia is also a risk factor for high-grade gliomas. […] In the past, glioblastomas were categorized as either IDH mutant or IDH-wildtype. The 2021 World Health Organization (WHO) update on CNS tumor classifications defined glioblastomas as IDH-wild type. (IDH mutant tumors that were previously classified as glioblastoma are now classified as astrocytoma, IDH mutant, grade 4.) Glioblastomas are characterized by EGFR amplification, TERT promoter mutation, or combined gain of chromosome 7/loss of chromosome 10 copy number changes. Some glioblastomas (35-40%) may have hypermethylation of the MGMT promoter (the gene which encodes a DNA repair enzyme is not expressed). Tumors that exhibit MGMT promoter hypermethylation have been found to predict a longer length of survival and tend to respond better to chemotherapy like temozolomide (Temodar). In about 40% of all glioblastomas, amplification of the EGFR gene (epidermal growth factor receptor) is found. Other molecular markers include BRAFv600 mutation, FGFR mutations and FGFR-TACC gene fusions, H3K27M mutation, CDK4/6 and TP53.

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