Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Diagnosis and Management of Glioblastoma: A Comprehensive Perspective

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8065751/

  Glioblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor in adults. The current management relies on surgical resection and adjuvant radiotherapy and chemotherapy. […] In a recent article based on a prospective registry of central nervous system (CNS) tumors in the US, glioblastoma accounts for 54% of brain gliomas with an annual incidence of 3.19 per 100,000. […] The diagnosis of glioblastoma is easily made on surgical resections or biopsy samples. Glioblastomas are high grade gliomas, grade IV according to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification of the central nervous system tumors. […] Complementary immunohistochemistry and molecular techniques are now routinely used for diagnostics and prognostic purposes. […] The standard of care for patients aged less than 70 relies on radiotherapy (RT) and adjuvant temozolomide.

• #2 Diagnosis and Management of Glioblastoma: A Comprehensive Perspective

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8065751/

  Glioblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor in adults. The current management relies on surgical resection and adjuvant radiotherapy and chemotherapy. […] In a recent article based on a prospective registry of central nervous system (CNS) tumors in the US, glioblastoma accounts for 54% of brain gliomas with an annual incidence of 3.19 per 100,000. […] The diagnosis of glioblastoma is easily made on surgical resections or biopsy samples. Glioblastomas are high grade gliomas, grade IV according to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification of the central nervous system tumors. […] Complementary immunohistochemistry and molecular techniques are now routinely used for diagnostics and prognostic purposes. […] The standard of care for patients aged less than 70 relies on radiotherapy (RT) and adjuvant temozolomide.

• #3 What is Glioblastoma? Symptoms, Risk Factors & Treatments | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/glioblastoma.html

  Glioblastoma is the most common primary brain cancer, or cancer that starts in the brain, with around 12,000 cases diagnosed in the United States each year. All glioblastomas are grade IV brain tumors, meaning they contain the most abnormal looking cells and are the most aggressive. […] Glioblastoma is the most common primary brain cancer, or cancer that starts in the brain, with around 12,000 cases diagnosed in the United States each year. All glioblastomas are grade IV brain tumors, meaning they contain the most abnormal looking cells and are the most aggressive. […] There is currently no cure for glioblastoma. The median length of survival after a diagnosis is 15-18 months, while the diseases five-year survival rate is around 10%. Though all glioblastomas recur, initial treatments may keep the tumor controlled for months or even years.

• #4 What is Glioblastoma? Symptoms, Risk Factors & Treatments | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/glioblastoma.html

  Glioblastoma is the most common primary brain cancer, or cancer that starts in the brain, with around 12,000 cases diagnosed in the United States each year. All glioblastomas are grade IV brain tumors, meaning they contain the most abnormal looking cells and are the most aggressive. […] Glioblastoma is the most common primary brain cancer, or cancer that starts in the brain, with around 12,000 cases diagnosed in the United States each year. All glioblastomas are grade IV brain tumors, meaning they contain the most abnormal looking cells and are the most aggressive. […] There is currently no cure for glioblastoma. The median length of survival after a diagnosis is 15-18 months, while the diseases five-year survival rate is around 10%. Though all glioblastomas recur, initial treatments may keep the tumor controlled for months or even years.

• #5 Glioblastoma Multiforme – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558954/

  GBM gold standard treatment comprises surgical resection followed by adjuvant radiochemotherapy. […] The level of evidence advocating resections for GBM in the current literature is as follows: Level II: 7%, Level III:66%, Level IV: 11%, Level V: 16%. […] The goal of surgery is the maximum safe resection to preserve neurological function with improved survival. […] The decision regarding STR vs stereotactic biopsy vs palliative surgery depends on the tumor’s location, the patient’s age, comorbidities, and care goals. […] MRI with contrast is recommended within 1 month after completing radiotherapy and then frequently every 2 months during adjuvant TMZ to assess the disease status. […] The current standard of care connotes survival of only up to 1.2 years from diagnosis. […] A median survival time of only 15 months and a 5-year survival of a dismal 7.2% have been reported.

• #6 Glioblastoma Diagnosis, Treatment, Side Effect Management, and Survivorship Recommendations | Oncology Nursing Society

  http://www.ons.org/publications-research/voice/news-views/glioblastoma-diagnosis-treatment-side-effect-management-and

  Glioblastoma or glioblastoma multiform (GBM) is a primary central nervous system tumor. Approximately 23,890 new brain tumors are diagnosed in the United States each year, with GBM accounting for 38%. […] Patients often present with neurologic symptoms such as headache, vision changes (diplopia or blurred vision), vomiting, mood or personality changes, seizures, and speech changes. […] Diagnostic workup typically consists of computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to identify the extent of disease followed by histologic diagnosis. Tissue biopsy or excision may be added depending on the location of the disease. […] IDH variants, 1p/19q deletion, MGMT promoter methylation, TERT, and EGFRvIII amplification are frequently tested in the diagnosis and prognosis for GBM. […] Variants in IDH1 or IDH2 genes can confirm that a lesion is a tumor and help diagnose specific subtypes of tumors. […] Gliomas with a BRAF V600E variant may respond to melanoma drugs (e.g., vemurafenib).

• #7 Glioblastoma Tumor: A Detailed Overview

  https://www.hcgoncology.com/blog/glioblastoma-multiforme/

  Glioblastoma diagnosis can be made through the following process: […] The symptoms depend upon the location of the tumor and its size. Because glioblastoma is a rapidly growing tumor, the symptoms are of short duration (over days or weeks) and progress rapidly. […] Thus, it is important to consult with neuro-oncologists and neurosurgeons if patients experience any neurologic symptoms. […] Patients with any neurologic symptoms should visit the neurologists for a comprehensive evaluation. […] Several imaging tests are performed to determine the presence and severity of glioblastoma. […] It might often be the first test done by a neurologist. […] Conventional MRI is the imaging of choice for brain tumors; it is best performed with a contrast agent. […] Functional MRI provides useful information about the parts of the brain that are activated when the patient is asked to perform certain activities, such as the movement of a leg or hand. […] A histopathological examination is performed on the intra-operatively removed tumor for a definitive diagnosis. […] The definitive diagnosis is made through a biopsy.

• #8 Glioblastoma – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/glioblastoma/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20569078

  Tests and procedures used to diagnose glioblastoma include: […] Imaging tests can help find the location and size of a glioblastoma. MRI is the imaging test used most often. […] A biopsy is a procedure to remove a sample of tissue for testing. It can be done with a needle before surgery or during surgery to remove the glioblastoma. […] Special tests of the cancer cells can give your health care team more information about your glioblastoma and your prognosis. The team uses this information to create a treatment plan.

• #9 Glioblastoma (Multiforme) Imaging: Practice Essentials, Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/340870-overview

  The National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines consider magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain to be the gold standard imaging study for glioblastoma. Although computed tomography is often the first imaging study performed in patients with possible central nervous system lesions, it lacks the resolution of MRI, but it should be used in patients who cannot have an MRI. […] MRI has a high degree of confidence in the diagnosis of glioblastoma and is widely used for identifying location and size of brain tumors. In fact, it has the highest degree of confidence of any imaging modality. […] Conventional MRI is limited in its ability to determine type and grade of brain tumors, but more advanced MRI techniques, such as perfusion weighted imaging, may provide potentially more physiologic information.

• #10 Glioblastoma (Multiforme) Imaging: Practice Essentials, Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/340870-overview

  Glioblastomas (malignant glioma) are the most common adult malignant brain tumors, and 20% of all primary brain neoplasms are glioblastoma tumors. Glioblastoma (GBM; malignant glioma) is the highest-grade form (grad IV) of astrocytoma and makes up about two thirds of all brain astrocytomas. Mortality associated with GBM is greater than 90% at 5 years, with a median survival of 12.6 months. The prognosis for this tumor is at the extreme worst end because of its high-grade status. […] In the fifth edition of the WHO classification of CNS tumors, glioblastomas are classified as a grade 4 diffuse astrocytic tumor in adults that must be IDH-wildtype. The term ”glioblastoma’ is no longer applied to pediatric tumors. […] Computed tomography (CT) scanning can demonstrate the tumor and associated findings; however, in making the glioblastoma diagnosis, CT scanning may cause small tumors to be missed. A small low-grade glioma that is missed with a screening study may eventually progress to glioblastoma. In addition, this modality may not depict all multifocal lesions. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) spread, particularly early spread, may also be difficult to diagnose with CT scanning. CT can provide additional information regarding calcification or hemorrhage and can be useful for patients who are unable to undergo MR imaging.

• #11 Glioblastoma (Multiforme) Imaging: Practice Essentials, Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/340870-overview

  Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is significantly more sensitive to the presence of tumor, as well as its associated findings, in the inclusion of peritumoral edema, and is the modality of choice for the examination of a patient with suspected or confirmed glioblastoma. This lesion is a highly infiltrative tumor; thus, tumor cells are usually found beyond the margins of an area of abnormal signal intensity on MRIs. […] Although a formal diagnosis of glioblastoma relies on histopathology and genetic markers for grading, structural MRIs are routinely performed and can be used to help guide surgery. […] After surgery, differentiating between recurrent tumor and scar tissue on the basis of MRI findings alone may be difficult. Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning is useful in this regard.

• #12 Glioblastoma (Multiforme) Imaging: Practice Essentials, Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/340870-overview

  MRI findings demonstrate a heterogeneous mass that is generally of low signal intensity on T1-weighted images and high signal intensity on T2-weighted images. […] Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning is a useful adjunct to the evaluation of glioblastoma, particularly after resection. In this setting, differentiation of residual or recurrent tumor and postoperative edema or scarring is often difficult on MRIs or CT scans. […] Angiographic findings associated with glioblastoma include the following: hypervascular mass with tumor blush; prominent feeding and draining vessels, as well as arteriovenous shunting (this may mimic an arteriovenous malformation); aberrant vessels and vascular pooling and stasis (common); and mass effect, which is seen as displacement of vessels.

• #13 Advances in Glioblastoma Diagnosis: Integrating Genetics, Noninvasive Sampling, and Advanced Imaging

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/17/1/124

  Liquid biopsy involves the analysis of bodily fluids, such as blood obtained via peripheral venipuncture or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collected through lumbar or cisternal puncture, offering a relatively noninvasive alternative to direct tissue sampling. […] Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a noninvasive imaging modality that complements conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by producing a volume pixel (voxel) to represent the concentration of various metabolites in the tissue. […] Relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) is an advanced MRI sequence derived from dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC) MRI, a perfusion-weighted imaging technique that utilizes a contrast to quantify blood volume. […] The integration of PET with MRI offers an advantage in differentiating between tumor recurrence and treatment-related changes, such as radiation necrosis or pseudoprogression, which often present with overlapping radiographic features on MRI alone. […] Overall, as imaging technology and other less-invasive diagnostic tools continue to progress, we will be able to better diagnose and surveil treatment and disease recurrence.

• #14 Glioblastoma Multiforme – AANS

  https://www.aans.org/patients/conditions-treatments/glioblastoma-multiforme/

  Glioblastoma (GBM), also referred to as a grade IV astrocytoma, is a fast-growing and aggressive brain tumor. […] GBMs present unique treatment challenges due to: […] Sophisticated imaging techniques can accurately pinpoint the location of brain tumors. Diagnostic tools include computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). […] Conventional MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most important imaging study for astrocytoma. […] MRI spectroscopy (MRS): This is an imaging tool, based on MRI, that provides information on the chemical composition of the tumor and works based on the fact that certain chemicals are abundant in the normal brain, while others are abundant in tumors (for example, choline). […] Functional MRI (fMRI): fMRI is a useful technique to find which parts of the brain become activated when the patient is asked to perform a certain task (for example, talking or moving one arm or leg).

• #15 Glioblastoma (Risk Factors, Diagnosis & Treatments)

  https://www.cancertherapyadvisor.com/ddi/glioblastoma/

  An initial computed tomography (CT) scan can reveal an ill-defined tumor, prompting further testing. Standard CT scans are not sensitive enough to confirm a glioblastoma diagnosis, but they can be augmented with cerebral perfusion mapping. […] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is often used in the evaluation of patients with suspected glioblastoma. […] A combination of diffusion-weighted imaging and MRI radiomics can facilitate an accurate diagnosis. […] Clinicians can perform surgical resection or a stereotactic biopsy to accurately assess tumor histology and molecular biomarker status. […] After resection or biopsy, molecular analysis of glioblastoma tumors can help establish the diagnosis and guide treatment.

• #16 Glioblastoma Workup: Laboratory Studies, Imaging Studies, Other Tests

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/283252-workup

  Because glioblastoma is currently a molecular diagnosis, genetic studies for IDH and H3 status are essential, and genetic studies for TERT promoter mutation, EGFR gene amplification, and +7/-10 chromosome copy number changes are also important. Furthermore, excluding a metabolic or infectious process with routine laboratory studies is critical in the evaluation of an otherwise healthy patient who presents with new-onset seizures or neurologic deficit. […] Imaging studies of the brain are essential to make the diagnosis of glioblastoma (GBM). For complete discussion, see Imaging in Glioblastoma. […] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with and without contrast is the study of choice for the evaluation and diagnosis of glioblastoma. […] Positron emission tomography (PET) is very sensitive at the initial stage of the diagnosis and can be helpful in diagnosing glioblastomas in difficult cases, such as those associated with radiation necrosis or hemorrhage.

• #17 Glioblastoma Multiforme – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558954/

  Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most malignant and pervasive subtype of glioma and is the most common primary brain tumor in adults. […] The definitive diagnosis is made through a histopathological examination that reveals poorly differentiated pleomorphic cells with predominant astrocytic differentiation. […] Testing is also recommended for the presence or absence of GFAP, IDH mutation V status, and O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter methylation status. […] The definitive diagnosis is through a histopathological examination. […] Further testing is also recommended for the presence or absence of GFAP, IDH mutation status, and O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter methylation status. […] Formulating a treatment plan requires a multidisciplinary team, including surgical, medical, and radiation oncologists.

• #18 Glioblastoma Workup: Laboratory Studies, Imaging Studies, Other Tests

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/283252-workup

  Electroencephalography (EEG) changes observed in the setting of glioblastoma and other CNS tumors result mainly from disruptions in the surrounding neural tissue, as tumor is electrically silent. […] Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) studies do not currently aid in the diagnosis of glioblastoma, but research is being conducted in monitoring of genetic changes in glioblastoma and the presence of circulating tumor DNA. […] Glioblastomas are highly cellular tumors composed of poorly differentiated, fusiform, round, or pleomorphic astrocytic cells with marked nuclear atypia and brisk mitotic activity. […] The WHO recognizes three histologic patterns characterized by the predominance of a particular cell type: giant cell glioblastoma, gliosarcoma, and epitheliod glioblastoma. […] Staging of glioblastomas is neither practical nor possible because these tumors do not have clearly defined margins. Rather, they exhibit well-known tendencies to invade locally and spread along compact white matter pathways, such as the corpus callosum, internal capsule, optic radiation, anterior commissure, fornix, and subependymal regions.

• #19 Glioblastoma: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Latest Advances in 2025 – OncoDaily

  https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/glioblastoma

  Histopathological confirmation is mandatory for a definitive diagnosis. This is achieved through stereotactic biopsy or surgical resection. Histologically, glioblastomas exhibit hypercellularity, nuclear atypia, mitotic figures, microvascular proliferation, and necrosis, hallmarks of a WHO grade 4 astrocytoma (Louis et al., 2021). […] Molecular diagnostics play an increasingly critical role. Testing for mutations in the isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH1/2) gene is essential, as IDH-wildtype glioblastomas have a poorer prognosis and different biology compared to IDH-mutant astrocytomas. Other key markers include O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter methylation status, which predicts response to alkylating agents like temozolomide, and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) amplification, particularly the EGFRvIII variant (Weller et al., 2021).

• #20 Glioblastoma, IDH-wildtype | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma-idh-wildtype?lang=us

  Glioblastomas (GBM) are the most common adult primary brain tumor and are aggressive, relatively resistant to therapy, and have a corresponding poor prognosis. […] The 5th edition (2021) of the WHO classification of CNS tumors incorporates molecular parameters into the diagnostic criteria. In this classification, to make the diagnosis of a glioblastoma the following are required: adult patient, diffuse astrocytic tumor, IDH-wildtype, and at least one of the following: necrosis, microvascular proliferation, TERT promoter mutation, EGFR gene amplification, combined gain of whole chromosome 7 and loss of chromosome 10 [+7/-10]. […] In the rare situation where these criteria are not met, it is likely the tumor will be denoted as not elsewhere classified (NEC) although a variety of pediatric-type diffuse gliomas may be worth considering.

• #21 Glioblastoma, IDH-wildtype | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma-idh-wildtype?lang=us

  An IDH wild-type status can be reached without the need for sequencing in patients over the age of 55 years on the basis of negative IDH-1 R132H immunohistochemistry, as the likelihood of finding other IDH mutations in older age is very unlikely. […] Maximal safe resection remains an important first step, not only debulking the tumor and reducing symptoms of raised intracranial pressure but also providing tissue for formal diagnosis and assessment of molecular features. […] Following surgery, postoperative adjuvant radiotherapy and chemotherapy (temozolomide) is the most common treatment (Stupp protocol). […] Despite substantial advances, even in the best-case scenario, glioblastoma carries a poor prognosis with a median survival of 2 years. […] Glioblastomas should be followed up closely with MRI.

• #22 Glioblastoma (GBM) – American Brain Tumor Association | Learn More

  https://www.abta.org/tumor_types/glioblastoma-gbm/

  Molecular profiling is the detection of specific genes, proteins, or other molecules in a tumor. This information helps confirm tumor diagnosis, inform treatment options, and predict prognosis. […] Glioblastomas are characterized by EGFR amplification, TERT promoter mutation, or combined gain of chromosome 7/loss of chromosome 10 copy number changes. […] Tumors that exhibit MGMT promoter hypermethylation have been found to predict a longer length of survival and tend to respond better to chemotherapy like temozolomide (Temodar).

• #23 Advances in Glioblastoma Diagnosis: Integrating Genetics, Noninvasive Sampling, and Advanced Imaging

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/17/1/124

  We also examined new advances in image processing as well as less invasive and noninvasive diagnostic tools that can aid in the diagnosis and surveillance of those undergoing treatment for glioblastoma. Our review is intended to serve as an overview of the current state-of-the-art in the diagnosis and management of glioblastoma. […] While the field of neuro-oncology has made significant advancements in prognosticating survival for patients with glioblastoma, initial diagnosis and disease monitoring remain areas with fewer breakthroughs. The current gold standard for diagnosing glioblastoma involves obtaining a molecular profile of the tumor, which requires surgically acquired pathologic tissue for analysis. […] However, emerging noninvasive diagnostic techniques are gaining attention as promising alternatives for glioblastoma diagnosis. This section of the literature review will explore these up-and-coming methods, focusing on their strengths, limitations, and potential to shape the future of glioblastoma diagnostics.

• #24 Liquid biopsy and glioblastoma

  https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/etat/Article/1002121

  Liquid biopsy is currently used in observational and interventional studies with glioblastoma patients for monitoring tumor development or treatment response. This will help to improve clinical decisions. […] The average size of (tumor-derived) cfDNA fragments from blood is slightly shorter than the size of normal background cfDNA. […] Currently, transcriptomics for the detection of sequence mutations, and methylomics for the epigenetic signature of tumors lead to clinically most promising approaches in liquid biopsy of glioblastoma. […] A recent paradigm shift in diagnosing glioblastomas by their genetic profile, and the newly established entity of astrocytoma IV can be combined with different methods of liquid biopsy from CSF or blood, and to a lesser extent also from urine. Gene alterations detected in ctDNA mirror the heterogeneity of the original tumor and allow an accurate molecular diagnosis with follow-ups to monitor tumor and resistance development.

• #25 Liquid biopsy and glioblastoma

  https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/etat/Article/1002121

  ctDNA can detect MRD earlier which may open a time-frame, especially for emerging new potential therapeutic options with immune or vaccination therapies. […] Currently, a rising number of clinical studies in several countries use ctDNA mainly from blood to match the molecular profile with the tissue biopsy. Other clinical studies include liquid biopsy from ctDNA as monitoring of treatment response, i.e. it is already accepted that such an approach is reasonable for glioblastomas and other brain tumors. […] Several methods of liquid biopsy of glioblastoma are entering the clinic, ctDNA has been shown as a versatile biomarker for glioblastoma monitoring in both observational and interventional clinical studies, but further studies need to establish suitable protocols and validate new gold standards.

• #26 Extracellular vesicles in glioblastoma: a challenge and an opportunity | npj Precision Oncology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41698-024-00600-2

  In this scenario, developing a blood-based EV-associated non-invasive biomarker can be a reliable strategy to accurately identify glioblastoma severity. In fact, using well-defined clinical cohorts, we showed that EV-associated Syndecan-1 (EV SDC1) protein can identify high-grade glioblastoma from low-grade astrocytoma patients with high diagnostic accuracy. Moreover, in post-operative glioblastoma patients, EV SDC1 levels in blood plasma changed according to the extent of tumor resection indicating the reliability of EV-associated molecules for monitoring treatment response. […] The emergence of EVs as the most preferred liquid biopsy candidate primarily stems from their ability to mimic the pathological state of the host cell and interactions with the TME. In a pioneering set of studies, we found that EVs can reflect the hypoxic status of their host malignant glioma cells. […] Given these possibilities, there is a lot of interest in using EVs as source of biomarkers not only to study glioblastoma heterogeneity, but also to identify the disease severity.

• #27 Glioblastoma Diagnosis and Stages – Brigham and Women’s Hospital

  https://www.brighamandwomens.org/cancer/glioblastoma/diagnosis-and-stages

  Glioblastoma is not classified by stages like some cancers. Instead, brain cancers are graded based on how abnormal the cells look under a microscope and how quickly they are likely to grow and spread. […] All glioblastomas are grade 4 tumors, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) grading system. This designation reflects their aggressive nature and rapid growth. […] This grading highlights the severity of glioblastomas and helps guide treatment planning.

• #28 Diagnosis and Management of Glioblastoma: A Comprehensive Perspective

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8065751/

  The disease progression is evaluated using brain MRI every 2 to 3 months according to the response assessment in Neuro-oncology (RANO) criteria. […] The REGOMA trial (Regorafenib in Relapsed Glioblastoma) is a phase II randomized trial. The aim was to propose the use regorafenib, an inhibitor of angiogenic and oncogenic receptor of tyrosine kinases at the recurrence of glioblastomas. […] Over the last decade, precision medicine, also through omics approaches, has offered new insights in the diagnosis and management of glioblastomas. […] Cancer vaccination has recently been proposed referring to the activation of an immune response against tumor antigens. […] Despite encouraging results in animal models in terms of disease control, cancer vaccination in glioblastomas has not yet proven its efficacy on overall survival in phase III studies.

• #29 Glioblastoma Multiforme – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558954/

  Young age, good performance status, MGMT methylation, and IDH mutant variant confer improved survival. […] There is a need for identifying potent antigens to evoke immune responses to combat GBM. […] Fostering awareness about the importance of early symptom recognition and seeking prompt medical evaluation can facilitate timely diagnosis and intervention, potentially improving treatment outcomes for affected individuals.

• #30 Gliomas – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/intracranial-and-spinal-tumors/gliomas

  Use of tumor-treating fields plus adjuvant temozolomide may be appropriate for some patients. Tumor-treating fields appear to improve survival in patients with glioblastoma. […] After conventional multimodal treatment, the survival rate for patients with glioblastomas is about 50% at 1 year, 25% at 2 years, and 10 to 15% at 5 years. […] With standard treatment, the median survival time is about 26 months for patients with anaplastic astrocytoma and about 13 months for patients with glioblastoma. […] Prognosis is better in the following cases: Patients are 45 years or younger; Histology is that of anaplastic astrocytoma or a lower-grade tumor (rather than glioblastoma); Initial excision improves neurologic function and leaves minimal or no residual tumor; Tumors have the IDH1 mutation; MGMT (methylguanine-methyltransferase) promoter methylation is present.

• #31 Glioblastoma Long-Term Survivors | Aaron Cohen-Gadol, MD

  https://www.aaroncohen-gadol.com/en/patients/glioma/survival/long-term-survivors

  Patients with tumors that have MGMT promoter methylation are reported to survive longer (with a median survival time of 22 months) compared to those without MGMT promoter methylation (a median survival of between 14 to 16 months). […] Having an IDH mutation in the tumor is favorable for the patient, as it impairs the tumors metabolism and slows growth. Patients with glioblastoma carrying an IDH1 or IDH2 mutation have a longer median survival time of 31 months. […] Although survival statistics are meant to provide factual historical data, each glioblastoma patient is different, and each day we make progress towards understanding this disease and broadening treatment options.

• #32 Glioblastoma: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Latest Advances in 2025 – OncoDaily

  https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/glioblastoma

  Diagnosing glioblastoma requires a combination of clinical evaluation, neuroimaging, histopathological analysis, and increasingly, molecular profiling. Due to the tumors aggressive growth, patients often present with rapidly progressive neurological symptoms, prompting urgent medical evaluation. […] Neuroimaging is the cornerstone of initial diagnosis. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with contrast is the preferred modality due to its superior resolution and ability to characterize brain tumors. Glioblastomas typically appear as irregular, ring-enhancing lesions with central necrosis and surrounding vasogenic edema. T1-weighted images show the contrast-enhancing tumor margins, while T2-weighted and FLAIR sequences highlight the extent of edema and infiltrative spread (Weller et al., 2021).

• #33 Glioblastoma: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Latest Advances in 2025 – OncoDaily

  https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/glioblastoma

  The 2021 WHO classification of CNS tumors has refined glioblastoma criteria, requiring IDH-wildtype status and the presence of specific histological or molecular features such as TERT promoter mutations, EGFR amplification, or combinations gain of chromosome 7 and loss of chromosome 10 (7+/10) (Louis et al., 2021).

• #34 Understanding Glioblastoma: Diagnosis, Treatment & Support

  https://www.idcancercenter.org/glioblastoma

  Glioblastoma, also known as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is an aggressive type of cancer that occurs in the brain or spinal cord. Glioblastomas are classified as grade IV tumors by the World Health Organization (WHO), meaning they are the most aggressive form of brain cancer. […] Glioblastoma diagnosis typically involves a combination of imaging and biopsy procedures: […] MRI is the gold standard for diagnosing glioblastoma. It provides detailed images of the brain, helping to determine the size and location of the tumor. […] A neurosurgeon takes a small sample of the tumor tissue, which is then examined under a microscope to confirm the diagnosis and identify specific genetic mutations. […] Molecular testing: Tests to identify genetic mutations such as MGMT methylation, IDH mutation, and EGFR amplification help guide treatment decisions. […] While glioblastoma remains difficult to cure, ongoing research is offering hope for improved outcomes and longer survival. Early detection, a strong treatment plan, and participation in clinical trials can help extend life expectancy and improve the quality of life for patients.

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