Wirusowe zapalenie wątroby typu b
Etiologia i przyczyny

Wirusowe zapalenie wątroby typu B (HBV) to zakażenie wątroby wywołane przez wirusa z rodziny Hepadnaviridae, o wielkości 4042 nm, charakteryzujące się wysoką zakaźnością – 50-100 razy większą niż HIV. HBV replikuje się głównie w hepatocytach i może przetrwać poza organizmem do 7 dni. Okres inkubacji wynosi 30-180 dni. Zakażenie przenosi się przez kontakt z krwią, nasieniem lub innymi płynami ustrojowymi, głównie drogą wertykalną, seksualną, przez kontakt z zakażonym sprzętem medycznym lub dożylnym używaniem narkotyków. Szczepionka przeciw HBV jest pierwszą szczepionką przeciwnowotworową, zapobiegającą rakowi wątroby. Czynniki genetyczne, takie jak polimorfizmy w genach HLA, TNFSF9, IFNGR1 i IL10R2, wpływają na podatność na przewlekłe zakażenie. Ryzyko przewlekłości zakażenia jest zależne od wieku: 90% niemowląt zakażonych przy porodzie rozwija przewlekłe zakażenie, w porównaniu do <5% osób zakażonych po 5. roku życia.

Etiologia Wirusowego zapalenia wątroby typu B

Wirusowe zapalenie wątroby typu B (WZW B) jest poważną infekcją wątroby wywołaną przez wirus zapalenia wątroby typu B (HBV). Jest to powszechna choroba na całym świecie, która dotyka miliony ludzi i stanowi znaczące zagrożenie dla zdrowia publicznego. HBV należy do rodziny Hepadnaviridae i jest wirusem enwelopowym o wielkości 4042 nanometrów1. Wirus ten atakuje komórki wątroby, powodując stan zapalny, który może prowadzić do poważnego uszkodzenia tego narządu23.

Budowa i charakterystyka wirusa HBV

Wirus zapalenia wątroby typu B jest znacznie bardziej zakaźny niż wirus HIV – jest od 50 do 100 razy bardziej zakaźny4. Głównym miejscem replikacji HBV jest wątroba5. Wirus może przetrwać poza organizmem przez co najmniej 7 dni, zachowując zdolność do wywołania infekcji67. Okres inkubacji wirusa HBV waha się od 30 do 180 dni8.

HBV zawiera gen X, którego funkcja nie jest w pełni zrozumiała, ale wiąże się z rozwojem raka wątroby9. Szczepionka przeciwko wirusowemu zapaleniu wątroby typu B była pierwszą szczepionką zdolną do zapobiegania rakowi, konkretnie rakowi wątroby10.

Drogi transmisji wirusa

Wirus zapalenia wątroby typu B przenosi się przez kontakt z krwią, nasieniem lub innymi płynami ustrojowymi osoby zakażonej1112. W przeciwieństwie do niektórych innych infekcji wirusowych, HBV nie rozprzestrzenia się przez kichanie lub kaszel13.

Główne drogi transmisji wirusa HBV obejmują:

  • Kontakt seksualny bez zabezpieczenia z osobą zakażoną1415
  • Dzielenie się igłami, strzykawkami lub innym sprzętem do wstrzykiwania narkotyków16
  • Transmisję z matki na dziecko podczas porodu (transmisja wertykalna)17
  • Dzielenie się przyborami osobistymi, takimi jak szczoteczki do zębów, maszynki do golenia lub obcinacze do paznokci18
  • Przypadkowe ukłucia igłą19
  • Bezpośredni kontakt z krwią lub otwartymi ranami osoby zakażonej20
  • Wykonywanie tatuażu lub piercingu przy użyciu niesterylnych igieł21

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Transmisja wertykalna (z matki na dziecko) jest dominującym sposobem przenoszenia wirusa w obszarach o wysokiej częstości występowania HBV23. W przeszłości transfuzje krwi były częstym sposobem rozprzestrzeniania się WZW B, podobnie jak przeszczepy narządów. Obecnie w rozwiniętych krajach wszystkie dawane krew i narządy są badane pod kątem obecności wirusa, co sprawia, że zakażenie tą drogą jest niezwykle mało prawdopodobne24.

Wirus nie przenosi się podczas normalnych kontaktów społecznych, takich jak trzymanie się za ręce, przytulanie, całowanie czy wspólne korzystanie z naczyń25. Ważne jest również, aby podkreślić, że nie można zarazić się WZW B od osoby, na którą kaszlnięto lub kichnięto, ani przez spożywanie skażonej żywności czy napojów26.

Czynniki ryzyka zakażenia HBV

Istnieją określone grupy osób, które są szczególnie narażone na zakażenie wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B:

  • Osoby urodzone w krajach o wysokim wskaźniku występowania WZW B (Afryka, Azja, Bliski Wschód, części Ameryki Południowej i wschodniej Europy)27
  • Mężczyźni uprawiający seks z mężczyznami28
  • Osoby przyjmujące narkotyki drogą dożylną29
  • Partnerzy seksualni osób zakażonych HBV30
  • Pracownicy ochrony zdrowia narażeni na kontakt z krwią31
  • Osoby poddawane hemodializie32
  • Osoby z wieloma partnerami seksualnymi33
  • Noworodki matek zakażonych HBV34
  • Osoby zakażone HIV35

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Badania wykazały, że płeć męska może być dodatkowym czynnikiem ryzyka – mężczyźni są ponad dwukrotnie bardziej narażeni na zostanie przewlekłymi nosicielami wirusa zapalenia wątroby typu B niż kobiety, chociaż przyczyny tego zjawiska nie są do końca jasne37.

Genetyczne uwarunkowania podatności na zakażenie

Istnieją dowody na to, że czynniki genetyczne mogą wpływać na podatność na przewlekłe zakażenie wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B. Kilka genów, szczególnie tych związanych z odpowiedzią immunologiczną gospodarza, zostało powiązanych z podatnością na przewlekłe zakażenie HBV38.

Ekspresja genu TNFSF9, który koduje białko CD137L, była znacząco wyższa u pacjentów z przewlekłym zakażeniem HBV niż u zdrowych osób. Jego ekspresja była również wyższa u pacjentów z marskością wątroby spowodowaną przewlekłym WZW B, w porównaniu do pacjentów bez marskości39.

Badania przeprowadzone w Afryce Zachodniej, gdzie 90% populacji jest zakażonych wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B, wykazały, że określone haplotypy HLA klasy II wpływają na prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju przewlekłego zakażenia. Z przyczyn, które nie są w pełni jasne, pacjenci heterozygotyczni dla genów HLA-DRA i HLA-DQA1 byli mniej narażeni na rozwój przewlekłego zakażenia40.

Gen IFNGR1, znajdujący się w lokalizacji 6q23.3, koduje receptor interferonu gamma, który odgrywa ważną rolę w komunikacji międzykomórkowej i może być aktywowany w odpowiedzi na infekcję, ale nie jest specyficzny dla zapalenia wątroby typu B. Bardziej subtelna zmiana w regionie promotora w lokalizacji -56 tego genu wykazała znaczący związek z naturalną historią zakażenia wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B. Osoby z allelem C w tej lokalizacji były bardziej skłonne do eliminacji wirusa, podczas gdy osoby z allelem T w tej lokalizacji były bardziej narażone na utrzymywanie się infekcji wirusowej41.

To samo badanie wykazało również, że polimorfizm w genie IL10R2 (lub genie CRFB4), również zlokalizowanym w 21q22.11, jest związany ze zwiększonym ryzykiem przewlekłego zakażenia wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B. Ten konkretny polimorfizm prowadzi do podstawienia lizyny na kwas glutaminowy w pozycji 4742.

Przebieg zakażenia HBV

Zakażenie wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B może prowadzić do ostrego lub przewlekłego zapalenia wątroby. W przypadku zakażenia ostrego, objawy mogą być łagodne lub ciężkie i trwać od kilku tygodni do 6 miesięcy43. Większość dorosłych (około 95%) z ostrym WZW B jest w stanie zwalczyć wirusa i w pełni wyzdrowieć w ciągu kilku miesięcy44.

Jednak w niektórych przypadkach wirus pozostaje w organizmie, prowadząc do przewlekłego zakażenia. Przewlekłe WZW B definiuje się jako utrzymywanie się antygenu powierzchniowego wirusa zapalenia wątroby typu B (HBsAg) przez co najmniej 6 miesięcy45. Ryzyko rozwoju przewlekłego zakażenia jest ściśle związane z wiekiem, w którym doszło do zakażenia46:

  • Około 90% niemowląt zakażonych przy urodzeniu rozwija przewlekłe zakażenie47
  • Od 25% do 50% dzieci zakażonych w wieku 1-5 lat rozwija przewlekłe zakażenie48
  • Mniej niż 5% osób zakażonych po 5. roku życia rozwija przewlekłe zakażenie49

50

Ryzyko rozwoju przewlekłego zakażenia jest również wyższe u osób z osłabionym układem odpornościowym51.

Patogeneza uszkodzenia wątroby

Uszkodzenie wątroby w zakażeniu HBV jest głównie mediowane immunologicznie, choć w niektórych okolicznościach HBV może powodować bezpośrednie uszkodzenie cytotoksyczne wątroby52. Kiedy układ odpornościowy wykrywa zakażenie, wysyła specjalne komórki do jego zwalczania. Te komórki zwalczające chorobę mogą z kolei powodować stan zapalny wątroby53.

W przewlekłym wirusowym zapaleniu wątroby typu B układ odpornościowy i wirus znajdują się w impasie. Układ odpornościowy stale próbuje pozbyć się wirusa, zabijając zakażone komórki wątroby. Jednak wirus zapalenia wątroby typu B może hamować prawidłowe funkcjonowanie układu odpornościowego lub ukrywać się przed nim54.

Jak wspomniano wcześniej, w przypadku ostrego WZW B większość dorosłych jest w stanie zwalczyć infekcję. Jednak w przypadku przewlekłego WZW B, stan zapalny i uszkodzenie mogą narastać, prowadząc do poważnych problemów wątrobowych. Podobnie jak w przypadku ostrego zakażenia HBV, marskość wątroby i rak wątrobowokomórkowy nie są wynikiem bezpośredniego działania wirusa, ale rozwijają się z powodu mediowanej immunologicznie odpowiedzi zapalnej55.

Przewlekłe następstwa zakażenia HBV

Przewlekłe wirusowe zapalenie wątroby typu B może prowadzić do szeregu poważnych powikłań zdrowotnych56:

  • Marskość wątroby – szacuje się, że od 12% do 20% pacjentów z przewlekłym zakażeniem HBV rozwinie marskość wątroby w ciągu 5 lat5758
  • Niewydolność wątroby – u osób z marskością, około 20% rocznie rozwija dekompensację wątroby59
  • Rak wątrobowokomórkowy (HCC) – od 2% do 5% osób z przewlekłym WZW B rocznie rozwija HCC60
  • Zgon – szacuje się, że u 15-25% osób przewlekle zakażonych dochodzi do zgonu z powodu przewlekłej choroby wątroby lub raka wątroby61

62

Przewlekłe zakażenie HBV znacząco zwiększa ryzyko raka wątrobowokomórkowego63. W rzeczywistości HCC jest główną przyczyną zgonów związanych z rakiem w obszarach, gdzie HBV jest endemiczny64. Przewlekłe wirusowe zapalenie wątroby typu B jest najczęstszą przyczyną raka wątroby na świecie65.

Wirus zapalenia wątroby typu B został również powiązany z rozwojem kłębuszkowego zapalenia nerek z błoniastymi zmianami (MGN)66.

Osoby zakażone wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B są również narażone na zakażenie wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu D (HDV), który jest wirusem defektywnym wymagającym do replikacji jednoczesnego zakażenia HBV67. Przewlekłe współzakażenie zarówno wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B, jak i D, jeśli nie jest leczone, powoduje marskość wątroby u nawet 70% przypadków68.

Zachorowanie na przewlekłe wirusowe zapalenie wątroby typu B nie oznacza jednak wyroku. Wiele osób z przewlekłym WZW B może oczekiwać długiego i zdrowego życia69. Istnieją skuteczne terapie lekowe, które mogą kontrolować, a nawet zatrzymać wirusa zapalenia wątroby typu B przed dalszym uszkadzaniem wątroby70.

Rola koinfekcji w patogenezie WZW B

Zakażenie wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B może współwystępować z innymi infekcjami wirusowymi, co może wpływać na przebieg choroby i rokowanie. Szczególnie istotne są koinfekcje z wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu D (HDV) oraz wirusem HIV71.

Koinfekcja z wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu D

Wirus zapalenia wątroby typu D (HDV) jest unikalnym wirusem, który atakuje tylko osoby z już istniejącym zakażeniem wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B. Wirus HDV jest zależny od HBV w procesie replikacji – oznacza to, że aby rozwinąć zapalenie wątroby typu D, konieczna jest już obecność zakażenia wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B w organizmie72.

Koinfekcja (jednoczesne zakażenie) HBV i HDV może prowadzić do bardziej ciężkiego przebiegu ostrego zapalenia wątroby niż zakażenie samym HBV. W przypadku koinfekcji, około 95% pacjentów jest w stanie pozbyć się obu wirusów. Jednak w przypadku superinfekcji (zakażenie HDV u osoby już zakażonej HBV), około 80% przypadków przechodzi w przewlekłą formę HDV73.

Przewlekłe współzakażenie HBV i HDV, jeśli nie jest leczone, powoduje marskość wątroby w nawet 70% przypadków74. Długotrwałe zakażenie wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu D i wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B może zwiększyć ryzyko rozwoju poważnych problemów, takich jak marskość wątroby i rak wątroby75.

Koinfekcja z wirusem HIV

Około 2% osób z HIV w Stanach Zjednoczonych jest współzakażonych wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B76. Osoby z HIV są bardziej narażone na powikłania i śmierć z powodu zakażenia HBV77.

Zakażenie HIV może wpływać na przebieg zakażenia HBV na kilka sposobów. Po pierwsze, osoby z HIV mają osłabiony układ odpornościowy, co może ułatwiać replikację HBV i prowadzić do wyższego poziomu wiremii. Po drugie, uszkodzenie wątroby może postępować szybciej u osób współzakażonych HIV i HBV, co zwiększa ryzyko marskości wątroby i raka wątrobowokomórkowego78.

Ponadto, niektóre leki stosowane w leczeniu HIV mogą być hepatotoksyczne, co może dodatkowo obciążać wątrobę już uszkodzoną przez HBV. Jednak wiele leków stosowanych w leczeniu HIV ma również działanie przeciwko HBV, co może być korzystne dla pacjentów współzakażonych79.

Współzakażenie HIV-HBV może być skutecznie leczone u większości osób80. W przypadku zapalenia wątroby typu B, leczenie może opóźnić lub ograniczyć uszkodzenie wątroby przez supresję wirusa81.

Podsumowanie etiologii wirusowego zapalenia wątroby typu B

Wirusowe zapalenie wątroby typu B jest poważną infekcją wątroby wywołaną przez wirus zapalenia wątroby typu B (HBV). Wirus ten przenosi się głównie przez kontakt z krwią lub innymi płynami ustrojowymi osoby zakażonej82. Zakażenie może prowadzić do ostrego lub przewlekłego zapalenia wątroby, z którego to drugie może prowadzić do poważnych powikłań, takich jak marskość wątroby, rak wątrobowokomórkowy i niewydolność wątroby83.

Ryzyko rozwoju przewlekłego zakażenia jest ściśle związane z wiekiem, w którym doszło do zakażenia, przy czym niemowlęta i małe dzieci są najbardziej narażone84. Istnieją również czynniki genetyczne, które mogą wpływać na podatność na przewlekłe zakażenie HBV85.

Koinfekcje z innymi wirusami, takimi jak HDV i HIV, mogą wpływać na przebieg i rokowanie zakażenia HBV86. Szczepienie przeciwko WZW B jest najskuteczniejszym sposobem zapobiegania zakażeniu87.

Lepsze zrozumienie etiologii wirusowego zapalenia wątroby typu B jest kluczowe dla opracowania skuteczniejszych strategii zapobiegania i leczenia tej choroby, która stanowi istotne zagrożenie dla zdrowia publicznego na całym świecie88.

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Clinical Overview of Hepatitis B | Hepatitis B | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis-b/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html
    Hepatitis B is a vaccine-preventable disease caused by infection of the liver with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is caused by infection with HBV. HBV is a 4042-nanometer enveloped virus classified in the Hepadnaviridae family. […] The liver is the primary site of HBV replication. […] Acute hepatitis B can lead to lifelong infection, or chronic hepatitis B. […] Approximately 15%-25% of people with chronic infection develop chronic liver disease, including cirrhosis, liver failure, or liver cancer.
  • #2 Hepatitis B – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555945/
    Hepatitis B infection is a serious global healthcare problem. Often transmitted via body fluids like blood, semen, and vaginal secretions, the hepatitis B virus can cause liver injury. […] Hepatitis B viral infection is a serious global healthcare problem. It is a potentially life-threatening liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It is often transmitted via body fluids like blood, semen, and vaginal secretions. […] Transmission of hepatitis B involves the transfer of the virus from infected people to non-immune people in various ways. Major modes of transmission for hepatitis B are as follows: […] Horizontal transmission: It involves the transmission of hepatitis B through sexual contact or mucosal surface contact. Unprotected sex and injection drug use are major modes of transmission in low to intermediate prevalence areas.
  • #3 Hepatitis B Basics | Hepatitis B | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis-b/about/index.html
    Hepatitis B is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is a vaccine-preventable liver infection caused by HBV. HBV is transmitted when blood, semen, or another body fluid from a person infected with the virus enters the body of someone who is uninfected. […] Acute hepatitis B can lead to a lifelong infection known as chronic hepatitis B. […] Left untreated, chronic hepatitis B can cause serious health problems, including liver damage, cirrhosis, liver cancer, and even death. […] Many people with hepatitis B do not have any symptoms. […] You can still spread HBV to others even if you don’t have any symptoms. […] Most people infected with hepatitis B who do not clear the virus within 6 months are diagnosed with chronic hepatitis B and remain infected. They cannot be infected again. […] Chronic hepatitis B can cause serious health problems, so having someone in your corner is critical.
  • #4 Hepatitis B – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B
    Hepatitis B is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) that affects the liver; it is a type of viral hepatitis. […] The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids. […] Hepatitis B virus replication primarily interferes with the functions of the liver by replicating in hepatocytes. […] Transmission of hepatitis B virus results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood. […] HBV is 50 to 100 times more infectious than human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). […] The primary method of HBV transmission and the prevalence of chronic HBV infection in specific regions often correspond with one another. […] In populations where HBV infection rates are 8% or higher, which are classified as high prevalence, vertical transmission (usually occurring during birth) is most common.
  • #5 Hepatitis B – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B
    Hepatitis B is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) that affects the liver; it is a type of viral hepatitis. […] The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids. […] Hepatitis B virus replication primarily interferes with the functions of the liver by replicating in hepatocytes. […] Transmission of hepatitis B virus results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood. […] HBV is 50 to 100 times more infectious than human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). […] The primary method of HBV transmission and the prevalence of chronic HBV infection in specific regions often correspond with one another. […] In populations where HBV infection rates are 8% or higher, which are classified as high prevalence, vertical transmission (usually occurring during birth) is most common.
  • #6
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus. The infection can be acute (short and severe) or chronic (long term). […] Hepatitis B can cause a chronic infection and puts people at high risk of death from cirrhosis and liver cancer. […] Hepatitis B infection acquired in adulthood leads to chronic hepatitis in less than 5% of cases, whereas infection in infancy and early childhood leads to chronic hepatitis in about 95% of cases. […] The hepatitis B virus can survive outside the body for at least 7 days. […] The incubation period of the hepatitis B virus ranges from 30 to 180 days. […] Chronic hepatitis B infection can be treated with oral medicines, including tenofovir or entecavir. […] Hepatitis B can be passed from mother to child. This can be prevented by taking antiviral medicines to prevent transmission, in addition to the vaccine.
  • #7 Hepatitis B: Symptoms & Causes | NewYork-Presbyterian
    https://www.nyp.org/digestive/liver-diseases/hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B, also known as hep B, is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Two billion people have been infected with the hepatitis B virus, making it the most common cause of hepatitis worldwide. […] Hepatitis B is spread when people come in contact with the blood, open sores, or other body fluids of someone who is infected with the HBV virus. The hepatitis B virus can survive outside the body for 7 days. During those 7 days, the virus can still cause infection. […] Causes of hepatitis B are: Childbirth (when a mother with HBV transmits the virus to her baby), Sex with an infected partner, Sharing needles or syringes, Sharing items such as razors or toothbrushes with someone who has HBV, Direct contact with the blood of an HBV-infected person, Exposure to the blood of an infected person through needlesticks or other sharp instruments.
  • #8
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus. The infection can be acute (short and severe) or chronic (long term). […] Hepatitis B can cause a chronic infection and puts people at high risk of death from cirrhosis and liver cancer. […] Hepatitis B infection acquired in adulthood leads to chronic hepatitis in less than 5% of cases, whereas infection in infancy and early childhood leads to chronic hepatitis in about 95% of cases. […] The hepatitis B virus can survive outside the body for at least 7 days. […] The incubation period of the hepatitis B virus ranges from 30 to 180 days. […] Chronic hepatitis B infection can be treated with oral medicines, including tenofovir or entecavir. […] Hepatitis B can be passed from mother to child. This can be prevented by taking antiviral medicines to prevent transmission, in addition to the vaccine.
  • #9 Hepatitis B – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B
    Hepatitis B virus has been linked to the development of membranous glomerulonephritis (MGN). […] The function of the protein coded for by gene X is not fully understood but it is associated with the development of liver cancer. […] The hepatitis B vaccine was the first vaccine capable of preventing cancer, specifically liver cancer.
  • #10 Hepatitis B – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B
    Hepatitis B virus has been linked to the development of membranous glomerulonephritis (MGN). […] The function of the protein coded for by gene X is not fully understood but it is associated with the development of liver cancer. […] The hepatitis B vaccine was the first vaccine capable of preventing cancer, specifically liver cancer.
  • #11 Hepatitis B – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hepatitis-b/symptoms-causes/syc-20366802
    Hepatitis B is a serious liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). The virus passes from person to person through blood, semen or other body fluids. It does not spread by sneezing or coughing. […] Common ways that HBV can spread are: […] The younger you are when you get hepatitis B, the higher your risk of the condition becoming chronic. That’s especially true for newborns or children younger than 5. Chronic hepatitis B may not be detected for decades until a person becomes very ill from liver disease.
  • #12 Hepatitis B: What It Is, Symptoms, Transmission & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4246-hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B is a viral infection that causes inflammation in your liver. […] You get hepatitis B if you’re exposed to bodily fluids from someone who has the virus. This can be amniotic fluid, blood, menstrual fluid, saliva, semen or vaginal fluid. […] Anyone can get hepatitis B. But you may have increased risk if you: […] Chronic hepatitis B is the leading cause of liver cancer.
  • #13 Hepatitis B – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hepatitis-b/symptoms-causes/syc-20366802
    Hepatitis B is a serious liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). The virus passes from person to person through blood, semen or other body fluids. It does not spread by sneezing or coughing. […] Common ways that HBV can spread are: […] The younger you are when you get hepatitis B, the higher your risk of the condition becoming chronic. That’s especially true for newborns or children younger than 5. Chronic hepatitis B may not be detected for decades until a person becomes very ill from liver disease.
  • #14 What Causes Hepatitis B? | Austin Gastroenterology
    https://www.austingastro.com/2019/09/27/causes-of-hepatitis-b/
    There are approximately 1.2 million people in the United States who have hepatitis B, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a division of the Department of Health & Human Services (HHS). This is a type of liver infection that is caused by the hepatitis B virus, or HBV. […] This condition is caused by a virus that specifically attacks the liver. You can get this virus in many ways, including the following: […] Even using an infected person’s toothbrush, razors, or nail file can cause you to acquire the infection.
  • #15 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver thats caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is spread when the blood, semen, or other bodily fluid of an infected person enters the body of someone who doesnt have the virus. […] In the United States, the infection is mainly spread through blood, including during injection drug use and through sex. […] Here are the ways hepatitis B can be spread: Through sex with a partner who has the virus, By sharing needles, syringes, or other drug equipment with someone who has the virus, During birth, when an infected mother passes the virus to her baby, By sharing toothbrushes, razors, nail clippers, or other items with an infected person, Through accidental needle stick injuries that occur from an infected person, Making direct contact with an infected persons blood or open sores, Getting a tattoo or piercing from a contaminated needle.
  • #16 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver thats caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is spread when the blood, semen, or other bodily fluid of an infected person enters the body of someone who doesnt have the virus. […] In the United States, the infection is mainly spread through blood, including during injection drug use and through sex. […] Here are the ways hepatitis B can be spread: Through sex with a partner who has the virus, By sharing needles, syringes, or other drug equipment with someone who has the virus, During birth, when an infected mother passes the virus to her baby, By sharing toothbrushes, razors, nail clippers, or other items with an infected person, Through accidental needle stick injuries that occur from an infected person, Making direct contact with an infected persons blood or open sores, Getting a tattoo or piercing from a contaminated needle.
  • #17 Hepatitis B – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555945/
    Vertical transmission involves the maternal-to-newborn perinatal transmission of the virus. It is the predominant mode of transmission in high-prevalence areas. […] High-risk groups for HBV infection include intravenous drug users, infants born to infected mothers, males who have sexual intercourse with other males, hemodialysis patients (and workers), healthcare workers, household contacts of known patients with chronic HBV. A majority of the global HBV disease burden is primarily through vertical transmission. […] The pathogenesis of liver disease in HBV infection is mainly immune-mediated, and in some circumstances, HBV can cause direct cytotoxic injury to the liver. […] Hepatitis B virus is transmitted via percutaneous inoculation or through mucosal exposure with infectious bodily fluids.
  • #18 Hepatitis B Information | Mount Sinai – New York
    https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B is irritation and swelling (inflammation) of the liver due to infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] You can catch hepatitis B infection through contact with the blood or body fluids (semen, vaginal fluids, and saliva) of a person who has the virus. […] People who may be at risk for hepatitis B are those who: Have unprotected sex with an infected partner, Receive blood transfusions (not common in the United States), Have contact with blood at work (such as health care workers), Have been on long-term kidney dialysis, Get a tattoo or acupuncture with unclean needles, Share needles or straws during drug use, Share personal items (such as toothbrush, razor, and nail clippers) with a person who has the virus, Were born to a hepatitis-B infected mother. […] Severe liver damage or cirrhosis can be caused by hepatitis B.
  • #19 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver thats caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is spread when the blood, semen, or other bodily fluid of an infected person enters the body of someone who doesnt have the virus. […] In the United States, the infection is mainly spread through blood, including during injection drug use and through sex. […] Here are the ways hepatitis B can be spread: Through sex with a partner who has the virus, By sharing needles, syringes, or other drug equipment with someone who has the virus, During birth, when an infected mother passes the virus to her baby, By sharing toothbrushes, razors, nail clippers, or other items with an infected person, Through accidental needle stick injuries that occur from an infected person, Making direct contact with an infected persons blood or open sores, Getting a tattoo or piercing from a contaminated needle.
  • #20 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver thats caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is spread when the blood, semen, or other bodily fluid of an infected person enters the body of someone who doesnt have the virus. […] In the United States, the infection is mainly spread through blood, including during injection drug use and through sex. […] Here are the ways hepatitis B can be spread: Through sex with a partner who has the virus, By sharing needles, syringes, or other drug equipment with someone who has the virus, During birth, when an infected mother passes the virus to her baby, By sharing toothbrushes, razors, nail clippers, or other items with an infected person, Through accidental needle stick injuries that occur from an infected person, Making direct contact with an infected persons blood or open sores, Getting a tattoo or piercing from a contaminated needle.
  • #21 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver thats caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is spread when the blood, semen, or other bodily fluid of an infected person enters the body of someone who doesnt have the virus. […] In the United States, the infection is mainly spread through blood, including during injection drug use and through sex. […] Here are the ways hepatitis B can be spread: Through sex with a partner who has the virus, By sharing needles, syringes, or other drug equipment with someone who has the virus, During birth, when an infected mother passes the virus to her baby, By sharing toothbrushes, razors, nail clippers, or other items with an infected person, Through accidental needle stick injuries that occur from an infected person, Making direct contact with an infected persons blood or open sores, Getting a tattoo or piercing from a contaminated needle.
  • #22 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Hepatitis B is an infection of the liver thats caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is spread when the blood, semen, or other bodily fluid of an infected person enters the body of someone who doesnt have the virus. […] In the United States, the infection is mainly spread through blood, including during injection drug use and through sex. […] Here are the ways hepatitis B can be spread: Through sex with a partner who has the virus, By sharing needles, syringes, or other drug equipment with someone who has the virus, During birth, when an infected mother passes the virus to her baby, By sharing toothbrushes, razors, nail clippers, or other items with an infected person, Through accidental needle stick injuries that occur from an infected person, Making direct contact with an infected persons blood or open sores, Getting a tattoo or piercing from a contaminated needle.
  • #23 Hepatitis B – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B
    Hepatitis B is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) that affects the liver; it is a type of viral hepatitis. […] The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids. […] Hepatitis B virus replication primarily interferes with the functions of the liver by replicating in hepatocytes. […] Transmission of hepatitis B virus results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood. […] HBV is 50 to 100 times more infectious than human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). […] The primary method of HBV transmission and the prevalence of chronic HBV infection in specific regions often correspond with one another. […] In populations where HBV infection rates are 8% or higher, which are classified as high prevalence, vertical transmission (usually occurring during birth) is most common.
  • #24 Hepatitis B Causes | Stanford Health Care
    https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/liver-kidneys-and-urinary-system/hepatitis-b/causes.html
    The condition is caused by an infection with the hepatitis B virus. […] The virus is spread when blood, semen, or vaginal fluids (including menstrual blood) from an infected person enter another person’s body. […] In the past, blood transfusions were a common way of spreading hepatitis B. Organ transplants could also spread the disease. Today, all donated blood and organs in the United States are screened for the virus. So it’s extremely unlikely that you could be infected from a blood transfusion or an organ transplant.
  • #25 Hepatitis B: Causes, Symptoms, and Vaccine Information
    https://patient.info/digestive-health/hepatitis/hepatitis-b
    Blood and other bodily fluids, such as semen and vaginal secretions, contain the virus in infected people. […] The virus is not passed on during normal social contact such as holding hands, hugging, kissing or sharing cups or crockery. […] In around 4% of otherwise healthy adults, the virus remains long-term (chronic hepatitis B infection). […] Some people develop persistent liver inflammation (sometimes called chronic active hepatitis B). […] Some people develop cirrhosis. Cirrhosis is like a scarring of the liver, which can cause serious problems and liver failure when it is severe. […] A small number of people who develop cirrhosis then develop liver cancer after a further period of time. […] Treatment for hepatitis B does not cure hepatitis B but works to delay or even to prevent complications from developing, like liver damage and 'scarring’ of the liver (cirrhosis). […] People with chronic hepatitis B usually need treatment to stop or to reduce the activity of the virus, so limiting liver damage.
  • #26 Hepatitis B – prevention, symptoms and treatment | healthdirect
    https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus. It can cause long lasting liver damage. […] Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus. It can happen through exposure to infected blood and other bodily fluids in the following situations: […] You cannot catch hepatitis B by being coughed or sneezed on by infected people or by having contaminated food and drink. You cannot catch the virus from saliva, breast milk or tears.
  • #27 Hepatitis B
    https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hepatitis-b/
    Hepatitis B is caused by a virus that is spread through blood, semen and vaginal fluids. […] The risk of getting hepatitis B is higher in some parts of the world, including: Africa, Asia, the Middle East, parts of South America and eastern Europe. […] If hepatitis B lasts for over 6 months it is called long-term (chronic) hepatitis B. […] If left untreated, chronic hepatitis B can cause liver damage (cirrhosis) and increase your risk of getting liver cancer.
  • #28 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Some people are more at risk for infection than others. Hepatitis B testing is recommended for: People who were born in countries with high rates of hepatitis B, People who were born in the United States, but werent vaccinated as infants, to parents who were from countries with high rates of hepatitis B, Men who have sex with men, People who work in a job where theyre exposed to blood (such as healthcare workers), People who inject drugs, People who have HIV, People who live with people who have hepatitis B, People who are sexually active with someone who has hepatitis B, Pregnant women, Infants who are born to mothers with hepatitis B, People who are now or have been incarcerated in jail, prison, or other detention setting, People who have a sexually transmitted infection and/or multiple sex partners, People who are on immunosuppressive therapy, People with high liver enzyme levels, People with certain health conditions, such as hepatitis C or end-stage renal disease. […] If you have hepatitis B, youre at risk for hepatitis D, a virus that is also spread through bodily fluids.
  • #29 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Some people are more at risk for infection than others. Hepatitis B testing is recommended for: People who were born in countries with high rates of hepatitis B, People who were born in the United States, but werent vaccinated as infants, to parents who were from countries with high rates of hepatitis B, Men who have sex with men, People who work in a job where theyre exposed to blood (such as healthcare workers), People who inject drugs, People who have HIV, People who live with people who have hepatitis B, People who are sexually active with someone who has hepatitis B, Pregnant women, Infants who are born to mothers with hepatitis B, People who are now or have been incarcerated in jail, prison, or other detention setting, People who have a sexually transmitted infection and/or multiple sex partners, People who are on immunosuppressive therapy, People with high liver enzyme levels, People with certain health conditions, such as hepatitis C or end-stage renal disease. […] If you have hepatitis B, youre at risk for hepatitis D, a virus that is also spread through bodily fluids.
  • #30 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Some people are more at risk for infection than others. Hepatitis B testing is recommended for: People who were born in countries with high rates of hepatitis B, People who were born in the United States, but werent vaccinated as infants, to parents who were from countries with high rates of hepatitis B, Men who have sex with men, People who work in a job where theyre exposed to blood (such as healthcare workers), People who inject drugs, People who have HIV, People who live with people who have hepatitis B, People who are sexually active with someone who has hepatitis B, Pregnant women, Infants who are born to mothers with hepatitis B, People who are now or have been incarcerated in jail, prison, or other detention setting, People who have a sexually transmitted infection and/or multiple sex partners, People who are on immunosuppressive therapy, People with high liver enzyme levels, People with certain health conditions, such as hepatitis C or end-stage renal disease. […] If you have hepatitis B, youre at risk for hepatitis D, a virus that is also spread through bodily fluids.
  • #31 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Some people are more at risk for infection than others. Hepatitis B testing is recommended for: People who were born in countries with high rates of hepatitis B, People who were born in the United States, but werent vaccinated as infants, to parents who were from countries with high rates of hepatitis B, Men who have sex with men, People who work in a job where theyre exposed to blood (such as healthcare workers), People who inject drugs, People who have HIV, People who live with people who have hepatitis B, People who are sexually active with someone who has hepatitis B, Pregnant women, Infants who are born to mothers with hepatitis B, People who are now or have been incarcerated in jail, prison, or other detention setting, People who have a sexually transmitted infection and/or multiple sex partners, People who are on immunosuppressive therapy, People with high liver enzyme levels, People with certain health conditions, such as hepatitis C or end-stage renal disease. […] If you have hepatitis B, youre at risk for hepatitis D, a virus that is also spread through bodily fluids.
  • #32 Hepatitis B Information | Mount Sinai – New York
    https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B is irritation and swelling (inflammation) of the liver due to infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] You can catch hepatitis B infection through contact with the blood or body fluids (semen, vaginal fluids, and saliva) of a person who has the virus. […] People who may be at risk for hepatitis B are those who: Have unprotected sex with an infected partner, Receive blood transfusions (not common in the United States), Have contact with blood at work (such as health care workers), Have been on long-term kidney dialysis, Get a tattoo or acupuncture with unclean needles, Share needles or straws during drug use, Share personal items (such as toothbrush, razor, and nail clippers) with a person who has the virus, Were born to a hepatitis-B infected mother. […] Severe liver damage or cirrhosis can be caused by hepatitis B.
  • #33 A Visual Guide to Hepatitis A, B, C
    https://www.webmd.com/hepatitis/ss/slideshow-hepatitis-overview
    Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver. It may be caused by drugs, alcohol use, or certain medical conditions. But in most cases, it’s caused by a virus. This is known as viral hepatitis, and the most common forms are hepatitis A, B, and C. […] Many adults who get hepatitis B have mild symptoms for a short time and then get better on their own. But some people are not able to clear the virus from the body, which causes a long-term infection. Nearly 90% of infants who get the virus will carry it for life. Over time, hepatitis B can lead to serious problems, such as liver damage, liver failure, and liver cancer. […] You can get it through contact with the blood or body fluids of an infected person. In the U.S., it’s most often spread through unprotected sex. It’s also possible to get hepatitis B by sharing an infected person’s needles, razors, or toothbrush. And an infected mother can pass the virus to their baby during childbirth. Hepatitis B is not spread by hugging, sharing food, or coughing. […] Anyone can get hepatitis B, but people who have multiple sex partners or inject illegal drugs have a higher risk. Other risk factors include being a health care worker who is exposed to blood, or living with someone who has chronic hepatitis B.
  • #34 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Some people are more at risk for infection than others. Hepatitis B testing is recommended for: People who were born in countries with high rates of hepatitis B, People who were born in the United States, but werent vaccinated as infants, to parents who were from countries with high rates of hepatitis B, Men who have sex with men, People who work in a job where theyre exposed to blood (such as healthcare workers), People who inject drugs, People who have HIV, People who live with people who have hepatitis B, People who are sexually active with someone who has hepatitis B, Pregnant women, Infants who are born to mothers with hepatitis B, People who are now or have been incarcerated in jail, prison, or other detention setting, People who have a sexually transmitted infection and/or multiple sex partners, People who are on immunosuppressive therapy, People with high liver enzyme levels, People with certain health conditions, such as hepatitis C or end-stage renal disease. […] If you have hepatitis B, youre at risk for hepatitis D, a virus that is also spread through bodily fluids.
  • #35 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Some people are more at risk for infection than others. Hepatitis B testing is recommended for: People who were born in countries with high rates of hepatitis B, People who were born in the United States, but werent vaccinated as infants, to parents who were from countries with high rates of hepatitis B, Men who have sex with men, People who work in a job where theyre exposed to blood (such as healthcare workers), People who inject drugs, People who have HIV, People who live with people who have hepatitis B, People who are sexually active with someone who has hepatitis B, Pregnant women, Infants who are born to mothers with hepatitis B, People who are now or have been incarcerated in jail, prison, or other detention setting, People who have a sexually transmitted infection and/or multiple sex partners, People who are on immunosuppressive therapy, People with high liver enzyme levels, People with certain health conditions, such as hepatitis C or end-stage renal disease. […] If you have hepatitis B, youre at risk for hepatitis D, a virus that is also spread through bodily fluids.
  • #36 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Some people are more at risk for infection than others. Hepatitis B testing is recommended for: People who were born in countries with high rates of hepatitis B, People who were born in the United States, but werent vaccinated as infants, to parents who were from countries with high rates of hepatitis B, Men who have sex with men, People who work in a job where theyre exposed to blood (such as healthcare workers), People who inject drugs, People who have HIV, People who live with people who have hepatitis B, People who are sexually active with someone who has hepatitis B, Pregnant women, Infants who are born to mothers with hepatitis B, People who are now or have been incarcerated in jail, prison, or other detention setting, People who have a sexually transmitted infection and/or multiple sex partners, People who are on immunosuppressive therapy, People with high liver enzyme levels, People with certain health conditions, such as hepatitis C or end-stage renal disease. […] If you have hepatitis B, youre at risk for hepatitis D, a virus that is also spread through bodily fluids.
  • #37 Hepatitis B Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Coping
    https://www.verywellhealth.com/men-more-at-risk-hepatitis-b-2328360
    Hepatitis B is an inflammation of the liver caused by a virus. Globally, there are over 400 million chronic carriers of hepatitis B. Its estimated that more than 13,000 people contract hepatitis B each year in the U.S. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that about 5% of HPV cases acquired in adulthood progress to chronic hepatitis, while about 90% of cases acquired in infancy progress to chronic. […] Men are more than twice as likely as women to become chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus (HBV), but the reasons for this are unclear. […] Hepatitis B is transmitted through contaminated bodily fluids like blood, sweat, tears, saliva, semen, vaginal secretions, menstrual blood, and breast milk. […] Hepatitis D (HDV) can only exist with the hepatitis B virus. Hepatitis D is transmitted in the same way as hepatitis B and can be caught at the same time as HBV (coinfection) or subsequent to HBV infection (superinfection). Coinfection is known to clear the body well (about 95%). In the case of superinfection, about 80% go on to have the more serious chronic form of HDV.
  • #38 Hepatitis B: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/177632-overview
    Hepatitis B infection, caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), is commonly transmitted via body fluids such as blood, semen, and vaginal secretions. Consequently, sexual contact, accidental needle sticks or sharing of needles, blood transfusions, and organ transplantation are routes for HBV infection. Infected mothers can also pass the infection to their newborns during the delivery period (vertical transmission). […] Several genes, many having to do with the host immune response, have been implicated in the susceptibility to chronic hepatitis B infection. The TNFSF9 gene encodes the CD137L protein, and its expression was found to be significantly higher in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection than in healthy controls. Its expression was also found to be higher in patients who had chronic hepatitis B with cirrhosis, in contrast to those without cirrhosis.
  • #39 Hepatitis B: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/177632-overview
    Hepatitis B infection, caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), is commonly transmitted via body fluids such as blood, semen, and vaginal secretions. Consequently, sexual contact, accidental needle sticks or sharing of needles, blood transfusions, and organ transplantation are routes for HBV infection. Infected mothers can also pass the infection to their newborns during the delivery period (vertical transmission). […] Several genes, many having to do with the host immune response, have been implicated in the susceptibility to chronic hepatitis B infection. The TNFSF9 gene encodes the CD137L protein, and its expression was found to be significantly higher in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection than in healthy controls. Its expression was also found to be higher in patients who had chronic hepatitis B with cirrhosis, in contrast to those without cirrhosis.
  • #40 Hepatitis B: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/177632-overview
    Research done in West Africa, where 90% of the population is infected with hepatitis B, shows that certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II haplotypes influence the likelihood of chronic infection. For reasons that are not completely clear, patients in the study who were heterozygous for the HLA-DRA and HLA-DQA1 genes were found to be less likely to develop a chronic infection. […] The IFNGR1 gene is located at 6q23.3 and encodes the interferon gamma (IFN-) receptor 1, which has an important role in cell-to-cell communications and can be activated in response to infection, but it is not specific to hepatitis B. […] A more subtle change in the promoter region at location -56 in this gene has shown significant association with the natural history of hepatitis B infection. Individuals with the C allele at this location were found in a study to be more likely to clear the virus, whereas individuals with the T allele at this location were more likely to have persistent viral infection. […] The same study also found that a polymorphism in the IL10R2 gene (or the CRFB4 gene), also located at 21q22.11, is associated with an increased risk of chronic hepatitis B infection. This particular polymorphism results in a lysine-to-glutamic acid substitution at position 47.
  • #41 Hepatitis B: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/177632-overview
    Research done in West Africa, where 90% of the population is infected with hepatitis B, shows that certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II haplotypes influence the likelihood of chronic infection. For reasons that are not completely clear, patients in the study who were heterozygous for the HLA-DRA and HLA-DQA1 genes were found to be less likely to develop a chronic infection. […] The IFNGR1 gene is located at 6q23.3 and encodes the interferon gamma (IFN-) receptor 1, which has an important role in cell-to-cell communications and can be activated in response to infection, but it is not specific to hepatitis B. […] A more subtle change in the promoter region at location -56 in this gene has shown significant association with the natural history of hepatitis B infection. Individuals with the C allele at this location were found in a study to be more likely to clear the virus, whereas individuals with the T allele at this location were more likely to have persistent viral infection. […] The same study also found that a polymorphism in the IL10R2 gene (or the CRFB4 gene), also located at 21q22.11, is associated with an increased risk of chronic hepatitis B infection. This particular polymorphism results in a lysine-to-glutamic acid substitution at position 47.
  • #42 Hepatitis B: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/177632-overview
    Research done in West Africa, where 90% of the population is infected with hepatitis B, shows that certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II haplotypes influence the likelihood of chronic infection. For reasons that are not completely clear, patients in the study who were heterozygous for the HLA-DRA and HLA-DQA1 genes were found to be less likely to develop a chronic infection. […] The IFNGR1 gene is located at 6q23.3 and encodes the interferon gamma (IFN-) receptor 1, which has an important role in cell-to-cell communications and can be activated in response to infection, but it is not specific to hepatitis B. […] A more subtle change in the promoter region at location -56 in this gene has shown significant association with the natural history of hepatitis B infection. Individuals with the C allele at this location were found in a study to be more likely to clear the virus, whereas individuals with the T allele at this location were more likely to have persistent viral infection. […] The same study also found that a polymorphism in the IL10R2 gene (or the CRFB4 gene), also located at 21q22.11, is associated with an increased risk of chronic hepatitis B infection. This particular polymorphism results in a lysine-to-glutamic acid substitution at position 47.
  • #43 Hepatitis B, Acute – Liver and Gallbladder Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/liver-and-gallbladder-disorders/hepatitis/hepatitis-b-acute
    Acute hepatitis B is inflammation of the liver that is caused by the hepatitis B virus and that lasts from a few weeks up to 6 months. […] Hepatitis B is spread through contact with blood or other bodily fluids of infected people, as when people share unsterilized needles to inject illicit drugs. […] The hepatitis B virus is the second most common cause of acute viral hepatitis. […] Hepatitis B is less easily transmitted than hepatitis A. […] Many cases of hepatitis B have no known source. […] Overall, about 5 to 10% of people infected with the hepatitis B virus develop chronic hepatitis B. […] If hepatitis B becomes chronic, severe scarring of the liver (cirrhosis) can develop, and liver cancer can eventually develop. […] The infection can be mild or very severe (called fulminant hepatitis). […] If fulminant hepatitis develops, an antiviral medication, usually entecavir or tenofovir, is used. […] Liver transplantation is the most effective treatment for fulminant hepatitis B and is the best hope of survival, particularly for adults.
  • #44 Hepatitis B: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
    https://www.webmd.com/hepatitis/digestive-diseases-hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B is liver inflammation caused by infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Inflammation can damage your liver. […] You get hepatitis B from contact with blood, spit, semen, or other body fluids from a person infected with HBV. Someone with HBV can spread it even if they don’t feel sick. The most common ways for this to happen include: […] In the U.S., HBV transmission happens most often through contact with infected blood; for instance, by sharing equipment for injection drug use, or through having sex with an infected person. […] The younger you are when you’re infected with HBV, the more likely it is that you will have a chronic infection. About 90% of infants who are infected go on to get a lifelong infection, but this risk goes down as a child gets older. […] Whether or not hepatitis B is curable depends on whether you were infected as an infant or child or as an adult. Most adults (about 95%) who get acute hepatitis B will fight off the virus. […] The younger you are when you are infected with HBV, the more likely you are to get a chronic infection. About 90% of infants and 30% of children younger than 6 years old who are infected develop a chronic hepatitis B infection.
  • #45 Hepatitis B | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/0101/p75.html
    Hepatitis B causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. More than 400 million persons, including 1.25 million Americans, have chronic hepatitis B. […] Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a common cause of liver disease throughout the world. An estimated one third of the world’s population has serologic evidence of past infection, and the virus causes more than 1 million deaths annually. […] HBV is transmitted through blood and other body fluids, including semen and saliva. The virus is 100 times more infectious than human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and, unlike HIV, it can live outside the body in dried blood for longer than a week. […] Because newborns have an immature immune system, 90 percent of infants infected perinatally progress to chronic infection. […] Chronic HBV infection is defined as hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) positivity for at least six months.
  • #46 Hepatitis B Foundation: Acute vs. Chronic Hepatitis B Infection
    https://www.hepb.org/what-is-hepatitis-b/what-is-hepb/acute-vs-chronic/
    A hepatitis B infection can result in either an acute infection or a chronic infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is directly related to the age at which a person is first exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] More than 90% of infants that are infected will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] 90% of infected newborns and babies will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is also directly related to the age at which one first becomes exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] Most people with chronic hepatitis B should expect to live a long and healthy life. […] There are effective drug therapies that can control and even stop the hepatitis B virus from further damaging a liver. […] Although the risk of developing a serious liver disease or liver cancer is higher for those living with chronic hepatitis B than those who are not infected, there are still many simple things a person can do to help reduce their risks.
  • #47 Hepatitis B Foundation: Acute vs. Chronic Hepatitis B Infection
    https://www.hepb.org/what-is-hepatitis-b/what-is-hepb/acute-vs-chronic/
    A hepatitis B infection can result in either an acute infection or a chronic infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is directly related to the age at which a person is first exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] More than 90% of infants that are infected will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] 90% of infected newborns and babies will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is also directly related to the age at which one first becomes exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] Most people with chronic hepatitis B should expect to live a long and healthy life. […] There are effective drug therapies that can control and even stop the hepatitis B virus from further damaging a liver. […] Although the risk of developing a serious liver disease or liver cancer is higher for those living with chronic hepatitis B than those who are not infected, there are still many simple things a person can do to help reduce their risks.
  • #48 Hepatitis B – Fact Sheet
    https://portal.ct.gov/dph/aids–chronic-diseases/hepatitis/hepatitis-b—fact-sheet
    Hepatitis B is a contagious liver disease caused by the hepatitis B virus. […] Chronic hepatitis B results from the hepatitis B virus remaining in the body for six months or more. […] Chronic hepatitis B infection can cause long term illness including cirrhosis and liver cancer. […] Transmission occurs when blood or body fluids from an infected person enters the body of an uninfected or unvaccinated person. […] Hepatitis B can be spread through sexual activity, sharing needles or „works” when „shooting” drugs, through workplace needle sticks or sharps injuries, or from an infected mother to her baby during birth. […] If the virus is not cleared during the acute phase, chronic infection may lead to liver disease including liver cancer. […] Chronic infection occurs in 90% of infants infected at birth, 25-50% of children infected at age 1-5, and in 5% of persons infected after 5 years of age.
  • #49 Overview of Chronic Hepatitis – Liver and Gallbladder Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/liver-and-gallbladder-disorders/hepatitis/overview-of-chronic-hepatitis
    Chronic hepatitis is inflammation of the liver that lasts at least 6 months. […] Common causes include hepatitis B and C viruses and certain medications. […] The most common causes of chronic hepatitis are Hepatitis C virus, Hepatitis B virus, Fatty liver not due to alcohol use, and Alcohol-related liver disease. […] About 5 to 10% of hepatitis B cases in adults become chronic, sometimes with hepatitis D coinfection. […] Acute hepatitis B becomes chronic in up to 90% of infected newborns and in 25 to 50% of young children. […] Hepatitis A virus does not cause chronic hepatitis. […] Chronic hepatitis B tends to worsen, sometimes rapidly but sometimes over decades, leading to cirrhosis. Chronic hepatitis B also increases the risk of liver cancer whether cirrhosis develops or not. […] Chronic coinfection with both hepatitis B and D viruses, if untreated, causes cirrhosis in up to 70%. […] No one knows exactly why a particular virus or medication causes chronic hepatitis in some people but not in others or why the degree of severity varies.
  • #50 Hepatitis B Foundation: Acute vs. Chronic Hepatitis B Infection
    https://www.hepb.org/what-is-hepatitis-b/what-is-hepb/acute-vs-chronic/
    A hepatitis B infection can result in either an acute infection or a chronic infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is directly related to the age at which a person is first exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] More than 90% of infants that are infected will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] 90% of infected newborns and babies will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is also directly related to the age at which one first becomes exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] Most people with chronic hepatitis B should expect to live a long and healthy life. […] There are effective drug therapies that can control and even stop the hepatitis B virus from further damaging a liver. […] Although the risk of developing a serious liver disease or liver cancer is higher for those living with chronic hepatitis B than those who are not infected, there are still many simple things a person can do to help reduce their risks.
  • #51 Viral Hepatitis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775507-overview
    The major reservoir of HBV in the United States consists of the 850,000 to 2.2 million people with chronic HBV infection. […] HBV is transmitted both parenterally and sexually, most often by mucous membrane exposure or percutaneous exposure to infectious body fluids. […] Globally and in the United States, perinatal transmission is one of the major modes of HBV transmission. […] The greatest risk of perinatal transmission occurs in infants of HBeAg-positive women. […] The risk of chronic infection is also higher in patients who are immunocompromised. […] Patients with chronic HBV infection are at significantly higher risk for HCC. […] In fact, HCC is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in areas where HBV is endemic.
  • #52 Hepatitis B – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555945/
    Vertical transmission involves the maternal-to-newborn perinatal transmission of the virus. It is the predominant mode of transmission in high-prevalence areas. […] High-risk groups for HBV infection include intravenous drug users, infants born to infected mothers, males who have sexual intercourse with other males, hemodialysis patients (and workers), healthcare workers, household contacts of known patients with chronic HBV. A majority of the global HBV disease burden is primarily through vertical transmission. […] The pathogenesis of liver disease in HBV infection is mainly immune-mediated, and in some circumstances, HBV can cause direct cytotoxic injury to the liver. […] Hepatitis B virus is transmitted via percutaneous inoculation or through mucosal exposure with infectious bodily fluids.
  • #53 multimedia – Hepatitis B
    https://ssl.adam.com/content.aspx?productid=117&pid=57&gid=000159&site=makatimed.adam.com&login=MAKA1603&category=videomain
    Hepatitis B is irritation and swelling of the liver from infection with the hepatitis B virus. Infection can spread through contact with the blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and other body fluids of someone who already has the disease. Hepatitis B can also be passed to an infant during childbirth if the mother is infected. Most of the damage from the virus happens because of how the body responds to the infection. When the body’s immune system detects the infection, it sends out special cells to fight it off. These disease-fighting cells, in turn, can cause liver inflammation. […] If your doctor thinks you have hepatitis B, you will need blood tests to confirm diagnosis. […] Some people may have chronic hepatitis and need antiviral medications or another medicine, called peginterferon. These medicines can remove hepatitis B from your blood and reduce your risk of cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) and reduce your risk of liver cancer. […] If you have severe chronic hepatitis B, you may eventually need a liver transplant.
  • #54 How does hepatitis B cause liver disease? – British Liver Trust
    https://britishlivertrust.org.uk/information-and-support/liver-conditions/hepatitis-b/causes/
    Your liver can be damaged by your immune system attacking the virus. […] In chronic hepatitis B your immune system cant totally fight off the virus. Liver damage and scarring can build up and lead to liver disease or cancer in some people. […] Your immune system also attacks and kills the infected liver cells. This causes inflammation and damage in your liver. […] If your liver gets lots of scars, this is a stage of liver disease called cirrhosis. Your liver can stop working properly and you can become very ill. The damage to your liver also increases the chances of developing liver cancer. […] In chronic hepatitis B, your immune system and the virus are in a standoff. Your immune system keeps trying to get rid of the virus by killing infected liver cells. But the hepatitis B virus can stop your immune system working properly or hide from it.
  • #55 Hepatitis B | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/0101/p75.html
    It has been estimated that 12 percent of patients with chronic HBV infection develop cirrhosis annually, and that a smaller percentage develop hepatocellular carcinoma. […] As with acute HBV infection, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma are not the result of a direct effect of the virus but develop because of an immune-mediated inflammatory response.
  • #56 Hepatitis B Basics | HHS.govLock
    https://www.hhs.gov/hepatitis/learn-about-viral-hepatitis/hepatitis-b-basics/index.html
    Chronic hepatitis B can lead to cirrhosis, liver cancer, liver failure, and premature death. […] There is no cure for hepatitis B, but there are several FDA-approved medications that treat HBV infection. People with chronic hepatitis B should be monitored regularly for signs of liver disease and evaluated for possible treatment. […] Hepatitis B is spread in several distinct ways: sexual contact; sharing needles, syringes, or other drug-injection equipment; or from mother-to-child at birth. […] Mother-to-child transmission of HBV is especially concerning, because it is preventable. An estimated 25,000 infants are born to mothers diagnosed with HBV each year in the United States, and approximately 1,000 mothers transmit HBV to their infants. Without appropriate medical care and vaccinations, 90% of HBV-infected newborns will develop chronic infection, remaining infected throughout their lives. Up to 25% of people infected at birth will die prematurely of HBV-related causes.
  • #57 Hepatitis B | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/0101/p75.html
    It has been estimated that 12 percent of patients with chronic HBV infection develop cirrhosis annually, and that a smaller percentage develop hepatocellular carcinoma. […] As with acute HBV infection, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma are not the result of a direct effect of the virus but develop because of an immune-mediated inflammatory response.
  • #58 Viral Hepatitis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775507-overview
    Hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV [which requires coexisting HBV infection]), and E (HEV) cause the majority of clinical cases of viral hepatitis. […] In the United States, viral hepatitis is most commonly caused by hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] These three viruses can all result in acute disease with symptoms of nausea, abdominal pain, fatigue, malaise, and jaundice. […] The likelihood of progressing to chronic hepatitis B infection varies with the age at the time of infection. […] Chronic hepatitis B infection develops in up to 90% of individuals infected as neonates; however only 1-5% of individuals infected with HBV as adults develop chronic hepatitis B infection. […] An approximately 8-20% of untreated adults with chronic hepatitis B go on to develop cirrhosis within 5 years; of these individuals, 20% annually develop hepatic decompensation and 2-5% annually develop HCC.
  • #59 Viral Hepatitis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775507-overview
    Hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV [which requires coexisting HBV infection]), and E (HEV) cause the majority of clinical cases of viral hepatitis. […] In the United States, viral hepatitis is most commonly caused by hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] These three viruses can all result in acute disease with symptoms of nausea, abdominal pain, fatigue, malaise, and jaundice. […] The likelihood of progressing to chronic hepatitis B infection varies with the age at the time of infection. […] Chronic hepatitis B infection develops in up to 90% of individuals infected as neonates; however only 1-5% of individuals infected with HBV as adults develop chronic hepatitis B infection. […] An approximately 8-20% of untreated adults with chronic hepatitis B go on to develop cirrhosis within 5 years; of these individuals, 20% annually develop hepatic decompensation and 2-5% annually develop HCC.
  • #60 Viral Hepatitis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775507-overview
    Hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV [which requires coexisting HBV infection]), and E (HEV) cause the majority of clinical cases of viral hepatitis. […] In the United States, viral hepatitis is most commonly caused by hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] These three viruses can all result in acute disease with symptoms of nausea, abdominal pain, fatigue, malaise, and jaundice. […] The likelihood of progressing to chronic hepatitis B infection varies with the age at the time of infection. […] Chronic hepatitis B infection develops in up to 90% of individuals infected as neonates; however only 1-5% of individuals infected with HBV as adults develop chronic hepatitis B infection. […] An approximately 8-20% of untreated adults with chronic hepatitis B go on to develop cirrhosis within 5 years; of these individuals, 20% annually develop hepatic decompensation and 2-5% annually develop HCC.
  • #61 Hepatitis B – Fact Sheet
    https://portal.ct.gov/dph/aids–chronic-diseases/hepatitis/hepatitis-b—fact-sheet
    Death from chronic liver disease or liver cancer occurs in 15-25% of chronically infected people. […] Goals of treatment consist of eliminating hepatitis B virus from the body or suppressing replication of the virus to limit damage to the liver and prevent the spread of the disease to others. […] Hepatitis B vaccine is the best protection.
  • #62 Viral Hepatitis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775507-overview
    Hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV [which requires coexisting HBV infection]), and E (HEV) cause the majority of clinical cases of viral hepatitis. […] In the United States, viral hepatitis is most commonly caused by hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] These three viruses can all result in acute disease with symptoms of nausea, abdominal pain, fatigue, malaise, and jaundice. […] The likelihood of progressing to chronic hepatitis B infection varies with the age at the time of infection. […] Chronic hepatitis B infection develops in up to 90% of individuals infected as neonates; however only 1-5% of individuals infected with HBV as adults develop chronic hepatitis B infection. […] An approximately 8-20% of untreated adults with chronic hepatitis B go on to develop cirrhosis within 5 years; of these individuals, 20% annually develop hepatic decompensation and 2-5% annually develop HCC.
  • #63 Viral Hepatitis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775507-overview
    The major reservoir of HBV in the United States consists of the 850,000 to 2.2 million people with chronic HBV infection. […] HBV is transmitted both parenterally and sexually, most often by mucous membrane exposure or percutaneous exposure to infectious body fluids. […] Globally and in the United States, perinatal transmission is one of the major modes of HBV transmission. […] The greatest risk of perinatal transmission occurs in infants of HBeAg-positive women. […] The risk of chronic infection is also higher in patients who are immunocompromised. […] Patients with chronic HBV infection are at significantly higher risk for HCC. […] In fact, HCC is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in areas where HBV is endemic.
  • #64 Viral Hepatitis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775507-overview
    The major reservoir of HBV in the United States consists of the 850,000 to 2.2 million people with chronic HBV infection. […] HBV is transmitted both parenterally and sexually, most often by mucous membrane exposure or percutaneous exposure to infectious body fluids. […] Globally and in the United States, perinatal transmission is one of the major modes of HBV transmission. […] The greatest risk of perinatal transmission occurs in infants of HBeAg-positive women. […] The risk of chronic infection is also higher in patients who are immunocompromised. […] Patients with chronic HBV infection are at significantly higher risk for HCC. […] In fact, HCC is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in areas where HBV is endemic.
  • #65 Hepatitis B: Symptoms, causes, and treatment | Liver Disease News
    https://liverdiseasenews.com/hepatitis-b/
    Hepatitis B is caused by an infection with the hepatitis B virus. […] For one, HBV is primarily spread by contact with bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, or vaginal secretions. […] Hepatitis B transmission can commonly occur during childbirth, by passing from the infected mother to the newborn baby, as well as during the preschool ages, when children may be exposed to each other’s blood, usually through scrapes, sores, or cuts. […] Other risk factors for an HBV infection include being born in regions where hepatitis B is especially common, including Africa and the Western Pacific. […] Hepatitis B is the most common serious liver infection in the world. […] Chronic hepatitis B is the most common cause of liver cancer, which is the second-leading cause of premature death from cancer around the world.
  • #66 Hepatitis B – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis_B
    Hepatitis B virus has been linked to the development of membranous glomerulonephritis (MGN). […] The function of the protein coded for by gene X is not fully understood but it is associated with the development of liver cancer. […] The hepatitis B vaccine was the first vaccine capable of preventing cancer, specifically liver cancer.
  • #67 What Is Hepatitis B? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/hepatitis-b/guide/
    Some people are more at risk for infection than others. Hepatitis B testing is recommended for: People who were born in countries with high rates of hepatitis B, People who were born in the United States, but werent vaccinated as infants, to parents who were from countries with high rates of hepatitis B, Men who have sex with men, People who work in a job where theyre exposed to blood (such as healthcare workers), People who inject drugs, People who have HIV, People who live with people who have hepatitis B, People who are sexually active with someone who has hepatitis B, Pregnant women, Infants who are born to mothers with hepatitis B, People who are now or have been incarcerated in jail, prison, or other detention setting, People who have a sexually transmitted infection and/or multiple sex partners, People who are on immunosuppressive therapy, People with high liver enzyme levels, People with certain health conditions, such as hepatitis C or end-stage renal disease. […] If you have hepatitis B, youre at risk for hepatitis D, a virus that is also spread through bodily fluids.
  • #68 Overview of Chronic Hepatitis – Liver and Gallbladder Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/liver-and-gallbladder-disorders/hepatitis/overview-of-chronic-hepatitis
    Chronic hepatitis is inflammation of the liver that lasts at least 6 months. […] Common causes include hepatitis B and C viruses and certain medications. […] The most common causes of chronic hepatitis are Hepatitis C virus, Hepatitis B virus, Fatty liver not due to alcohol use, and Alcohol-related liver disease. […] About 5 to 10% of hepatitis B cases in adults become chronic, sometimes with hepatitis D coinfection. […] Acute hepatitis B becomes chronic in up to 90% of infected newborns and in 25 to 50% of young children. […] Hepatitis A virus does not cause chronic hepatitis. […] Chronic hepatitis B tends to worsen, sometimes rapidly but sometimes over decades, leading to cirrhosis. Chronic hepatitis B also increases the risk of liver cancer whether cirrhosis develops or not. […] Chronic coinfection with both hepatitis B and D viruses, if untreated, causes cirrhosis in up to 70%. […] No one knows exactly why a particular virus or medication causes chronic hepatitis in some people but not in others or why the degree of severity varies.
  • #69 Hepatitis B Foundation: Acute vs. Chronic Hepatitis B Infection
    https://www.hepb.org/what-is-hepatitis-b/what-is-hepb/acute-vs-chronic/
    A hepatitis B infection can result in either an acute infection or a chronic infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is directly related to the age at which a person is first exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] More than 90% of infants that are infected will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] 90% of infected newborns and babies will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is also directly related to the age at which one first becomes exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] Most people with chronic hepatitis B should expect to live a long and healthy life. […] There are effective drug therapies that can control and even stop the hepatitis B virus from further damaging a liver. […] Although the risk of developing a serious liver disease or liver cancer is higher for those living with chronic hepatitis B than those who are not infected, there are still many simple things a person can do to help reduce their risks.
  • #70 Hepatitis B Foundation: Acute vs. Chronic Hepatitis B Infection
    https://www.hepb.org/what-is-hepatitis-b/what-is-hepb/acute-vs-chronic/
    A hepatitis B infection can result in either an acute infection or a chronic infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is directly related to the age at which a person is first exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] More than 90% of infants that are infected will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] 90% of infected newborns and babies will develop a chronic hepatitis B infection. […] The risk of developing a chronic hepatitis B infection is also directly related to the age at which one first becomes exposed to the hepatitis B virus. […] Most people with chronic hepatitis B should expect to live a long and healthy life. […] There are effective drug therapies that can control and even stop the hepatitis B virus from further damaging a liver. […] Although the risk of developing a serious liver disease or liver cancer is higher for those living with chronic hepatitis B than those who are not infected, there are still many simple things a person can do to help reduce their risks.
  • #71 Hepatitis B & C
    https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/staying-in-hiv-care/other-related-health-issues/hepatitis-b-and-c
    Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. This condition is often caused by a virus. In the United States, the most common causes of viral hepatitis are hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] Given the risks of hepatitis B or hepatitis C coinfection to people with HIV, it is important to understand these risks, take steps to prevent infection, know your status, and, if necessary, get medical care from a health care provider who is experienced in treating people who are coinfected with HIV and HBV, or HIV and HCV. […] About 2% of people with HIV in the United States are coinfected with HBV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HBV infection. […] HCV infection is common among people with HIV who also inject drugs. Nearly 75% of people with HIV who report a history of injection drug use are co-infected with HCV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HCV infection.
  • #72 Causes and Risk Factors of Hepatitis
    https://www.health.com/hepatitis-causes-8408354
    Globally, an estimated 296 million people live with chronic (long-term) hepatitis B, and 1.5 million new cases occur each year. […] Hepatitis D virus (HDV) is a unique virus that only affects people with preexisting hepatitis B. The HDV virus is dependent on HBV for its replicationmeaning, that in order to develop hepatitis D, you have to have the hepatitis B infection already in your system. […] Viral hepatitis is not hereditary, though some research suggests that genetics may influence the severity of the disease and the likelihood of an acute hepatitis infection progressing to a chronic illness. Currently, research in this area is ongoing, and limited evidence suggests genetics may play some role in your body’s immune response to hepatitis B and C.
  • #73 Hepatitis B Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Coping
    https://www.verywellhealth.com/men-more-at-risk-hepatitis-b-2328360
    Hepatitis B is an inflammation of the liver caused by a virus. Globally, there are over 400 million chronic carriers of hepatitis B. Its estimated that more than 13,000 people contract hepatitis B each year in the U.S. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that about 5% of HPV cases acquired in adulthood progress to chronic hepatitis, while about 90% of cases acquired in infancy progress to chronic. […] Men are more than twice as likely as women to become chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus (HBV), but the reasons for this are unclear. […] Hepatitis B is transmitted through contaminated bodily fluids like blood, sweat, tears, saliva, semen, vaginal secretions, menstrual blood, and breast milk. […] Hepatitis D (HDV) can only exist with the hepatitis B virus. Hepatitis D is transmitted in the same way as hepatitis B and can be caught at the same time as HBV (coinfection) or subsequent to HBV infection (superinfection). Coinfection is known to clear the body well (about 95%). In the case of superinfection, about 80% go on to have the more serious chronic form of HDV.
  • #74 Overview of Chronic Hepatitis – Liver and Gallbladder Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/liver-and-gallbladder-disorders/hepatitis/overview-of-chronic-hepatitis
    Chronic hepatitis is inflammation of the liver that lasts at least 6 months. […] Common causes include hepatitis B and C viruses and certain medications. […] The most common causes of chronic hepatitis are Hepatitis C virus, Hepatitis B virus, Fatty liver not due to alcohol use, and Alcohol-related liver disease. […] About 5 to 10% of hepatitis B cases in adults become chronic, sometimes with hepatitis D coinfection. […] Acute hepatitis B becomes chronic in up to 90% of infected newborns and in 25 to 50% of young children. […] Hepatitis A virus does not cause chronic hepatitis. […] Chronic hepatitis B tends to worsen, sometimes rapidly but sometimes over decades, leading to cirrhosis. Chronic hepatitis B also increases the risk of liver cancer whether cirrhosis develops or not. […] Chronic coinfection with both hepatitis B and D viruses, if untreated, causes cirrhosis in up to 70%. […] No one knows exactly why a particular virus or medication causes chronic hepatitis in some people but not in others or why the degree of severity varies.
  • #75 Hepatitis
    https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hepatitis/
    Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus, which is spread in the blood of an infected person. […] It’s a common infection worldwide and is usually spread from infected pregnant women to their babies, or from child-to-child contact. […] It can also be spread through unprotected sex and injecting drugs. […] Most adults infected with hepatitis B are able to fight off the virus and fully recover from the infection within a couple of months. […] But most people infected as children develop a long-term infection. This is known as chronic hepatitis B, and can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer. Antiviral medicine can be used to treat it. […] Long-term infection with hepatitis D and hepatitis B can increase your risk of developing serious problems, such as cirrhosis and liver cancer.
  • #76 Hepatitis B & C
    https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/staying-in-hiv-care/other-related-health-issues/hepatitis-b-and-c
    Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. This condition is often caused by a virus. In the United States, the most common causes of viral hepatitis are hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] Given the risks of hepatitis B or hepatitis C coinfection to people with HIV, it is important to understand these risks, take steps to prevent infection, know your status, and, if necessary, get medical care from a health care provider who is experienced in treating people who are coinfected with HIV and HBV, or HIV and HCV. […] About 2% of people with HIV in the United States are coinfected with HBV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HBV infection. […] HCV infection is common among people with HIV who also inject drugs. Nearly 75% of people with HIV who report a history of injection drug use are co-infected with HCV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HCV infection.
  • #77 Hepatitis B & C
    https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/staying-in-hiv-care/other-related-health-issues/hepatitis-b-and-c
    Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. This condition is often caused by a virus. In the United States, the most common causes of viral hepatitis are hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] Given the risks of hepatitis B or hepatitis C coinfection to people with HIV, it is important to understand these risks, take steps to prevent infection, know your status, and, if necessary, get medical care from a health care provider who is experienced in treating people who are coinfected with HIV and HBV, or HIV and HCV. […] About 2% of people with HIV in the United States are coinfected with HBV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HBV infection. […] HCV infection is common among people with HIV who also inject drugs. Nearly 75% of people with HIV who report a history of injection drug use are co-infected with HCV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HCV infection.
  • #78 Hepatitis B & C
    https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/staying-in-hiv-care/other-related-health-issues/hepatitis-b-and-c
    Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. This condition is often caused by a virus. In the United States, the most common causes of viral hepatitis are hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] Given the risks of hepatitis B or hepatitis C coinfection to people with HIV, it is important to understand these risks, take steps to prevent infection, know your status, and, if necessary, get medical care from a health care provider who is experienced in treating people who are coinfected with HIV and HBV, or HIV and HCV. […] About 2% of people with HIV in the United States are coinfected with HBV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HBV infection. […] HCV infection is common among people with HIV who also inject drugs. Nearly 75% of people with HIV who report a history of injection drug use are co-infected with HCV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HCV infection.
  • #79 Hepatitis B & C
    https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/staying-in-hiv-care/other-related-health-issues/hepatitis-b-and-c
    Like HIV, the hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses are spread: By sharing needles, syringes, and other equipment used to prepare and inject drugs. […] Having HIV and HCV coinfection or HIV and HBV coinfection increases the risk of passing HCV or HBV to the baby. […] Vaccination is the best way to prevent all the ways that hepatitis B is transmitted. […] Injection drug use is one of the risk factors for hepatitis C. For people who inject drugs, the best way to prevent hepatitis C infection is to always use new, sterile needles or syringes, and never reuse or share needles or syringes, water, or other drug preparation equipment. […] HIV-HBV and HIV-HCV coinfections can be effectively treated in most people. […] For hepatitis B, treatment can delay or limit liver damage by suppressing the virus. […] Hepatitis C is a curable disease. Left untreated, it can cause severe liver damage, liver cancer, or death.
  • #80 Hepatitis B & C
    https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/staying-in-hiv-care/other-related-health-issues/hepatitis-b-and-c
    Like HIV, the hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses are spread: By sharing needles, syringes, and other equipment used to prepare and inject drugs. […] Having HIV and HCV coinfection or HIV and HBV coinfection increases the risk of passing HCV or HBV to the baby. […] Vaccination is the best way to prevent all the ways that hepatitis B is transmitted. […] Injection drug use is one of the risk factors for hepatitis C. For people who inject drugs, the best way to prevent hepatitis C infection is to always use new, sterile needles or syringes, and never reuse or share needles or syringes, water, or other drug preparation equipment. […] HIV-HBV and HIV-HCV coinfections can be effectively treated in most people. […] For hepatitis B, treatment can delay or limit liver damage by suppressing the virus. […] Hepatitis C is a curable disease. Left untreated, it can cause severe liver damage, liver cancer, or death.
  • #81 Hepatitis B & C
    https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/staying-in-hiv-care/other-related-health-issues/hepatitis-b-and-c
    Like HIV, the hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses are spread: By sharing needles, syringes, and other equipment used to prepare and inject drugs. […] Having HIV and HCV coinfection or HIV and HBV coinfection increases the risk of passing HCV or HBV to the baby. […] Vaccination is the best way to prevent all the ways that hepatitis B is transmitted. […] Injection drug use is one of the risk factors for hepatitis C. For people who inject drugs, the best way to prevent hepatitis C infection is to always use new, sterile needles or syringes, and never reuse or share needles or syringes, water, or other drug preparation equipment. […] HIV-HBV and HIV-HCV coinfections can be effectively treated in most people. […] For hepatitis B, treatment can delay or limit liver damage by suppressing the virus. […] Hepatitis C is a curable disease. Left untreated, it can cause severe liver damage, liver cancer, or death.
  • #82 Hepatitis B Basics | HHS.govLock
    https://www.hhs.gov/hepatitis/learn-about-viral-hepatitis/hepatitis-b-basics/index.html
    Hepatitis B is a vaccine-preventable liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) that can lead to chronic infection causing cirrhosis, liver cancer and death. […] Hepatitis B is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). HBV infection causes inflammation of the liver. When the liver is inflamed or damaged, its function can be affected. […] Hepatitis B is transmitted when blood, semen, or another body fluid from a person infected with HBV enters the body of someone who is not infected. This can happen through sexual contact; sharing needles, syringes, or other drug-injection equipment; or from mother to baby at birth. […] For some people, HBV infection is an acute, or short-term, illness; for others, it can become a long-term, chronic infection. Risk for chronic infection is related to age at infection: approximately 90% of infected infants become chronically infected, compared with 2-6% of adults.
  • #83 Hepatitis B Basics | Hepatitis B | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis-b/about/index.html
    Hepatitis B is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). […] Hepatitis B is a vaccine-preventable liver infection caused by HBV. HBV is transmitted when blood, semen, or another body fluid from a person infected with the virus enters the body of someone who is uninfected. […] Acute hepatitis B can lead to a lifelong infection known as chronic hepatitis B. […] Left untreated, chronic hepatitis B can cause serious health problems, including liver damage, cirrhosis, liver cancer, and even death. […] Many people with hepatitis B do not have any symptoms. […] You can still spread HBV to others even if you don’t have any symptoms. […] Most people infected with hepatitis B who do not clear the virus within 6 months are diagnosed with chronic hepatitis B and remain infected. They cannot be infected again. […] Chronic hepatitis B can cause serious health problems, so having someone in your corner is critical.
  • #84 Hepatitis B: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
    https://www.webmd.com/hepatitis/digestive-diseases-hepatitis-b
    Hepatitis B is liver inflammation caused by infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Inflammation can damage your liver. […] You get hepatitis B from contact with blood, spit, semen, or other body fluids from a person infected with HBV. Someone with HBV can spread it even if they don’t feel sick. The most common ways for this to happen include: […] In the U.S., HBV transmission happens most often through contact with infected blood; for instance, by sharing equipment for injection drug use, or through having sex with an infected person. […] The younger you are when you’re infected with HBV, the more likely it is that you will have a chronic infection. About 90% of infants who are infected go on to get a lifelong infection, but this risk goes down as a child gets older. […] Whether or not hepatitis B is curable depends on whether you were infected as an infant or child or as an adult. Most adults (about 95%) who get acute hepatitis B will fight off the virus. […] The younger you are when you are infected with HBV, the more likely you are to get a chronic infection. About 90% of infants and 30% of children younger than 6 years old who are infected develop a chronic hepatitis B infection.
  • #85 Hepatitis B: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/177632-overview
    Hepatitis B infection, caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), is commonly transmitted via body fluids such as blood, semen, and vaginal secretions. Consequently, sexual contact, accidental needle sticks or sharing of needles, blood transfusions, and organ transplantation are routes for HBV infection. Infected mothers can also pass the infection to their newborns during the delivery period (vertical transmission). […] Several genes, many having to do with the host immune response, have been implicated in the susceptibility to chronic hepatitis B infection. The TNFSF9 gene encodes the CD137L protein, and its expression was found to be significantly higher in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection than in healthy controls. Its expression was also found to be higher in patients who had chronic hepatitis B with cirrhosis, in contrast to those without cirrhosis.
  • #86 Hepatitis B & C
    https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/staying-in-hiv-care/other-related-health-issues/hepatitis-b-and-c
    Hepatitis means inflammation of the liver. This condition is often caused by a virus. In the United States, the most common causes of viral hepatitis are hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). […] Given the risks of hepatitis B or hepatitis C coinfection to people with HIV, it is important to understand these risks, take steps to prevent infection, know your status, and, if necessary, get medical care from a health care provider who is experienced in treating people who are coinfected with HIV and HBV, or HIV and HCV. […] About 2% of people with HIV in the United States are coinfected with HBV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HBV infection. […] HCV infection is common among people with HIV who also inject drugs. Nearly 75% of people with HIV who report a history of injection drug use are co-infected with HCV. People with HIV are at greater risk for complications and death from HCV infection.
  • #87 Hepatitis B Basics | HHS.govLock
    https://www.hhs.gov/hepatitis/learn-about-viral-hepatitis/hepatitis-b-basics/index.html
    Hepatitis B is a vaccine-preventable disease. The best way to prevent hepatitis B is to get vaccinated. The hepatitis B vaccine is safe and effective. […] Hepatitis B can also be prevented by avoiding contact with contaminated blood and unprotected sexual exposure. Using condoms has also been shown to reduce the chance of sexually transmitted infections. […] There are several antiviral treatments available for chronic hepatitis B. Everyone with chronic hepatitis B should be linked to care, considered for treatment, and regularly checked for liver damage and liver cancer. Hepatitis B treatments reduce the amount of virus in the body and reduce the chance of developing serious liver disease and liver cancer. There is no cure for hepatitis B and treatment is recommended to continue for years if not for life. Research is ongoing for more effective treatments and a cure for HBV.
  • #88 Navigating the landscape of hepatitis B: Symptoms, causes, and testing | Medical Laboratory Observer
    https://www.mlo-online.com/molecular/mdx/article/55041758/navigating-the-landscape-of-hepatitis-b-symptoms-causes-and-testing
    Hepatitis B virus (HBV), despite widespread vaccination efforts, poses a global health challenge affecting around 2 billion people worldwide. Chronic HBV contributes to 30% of cirrhosis-related deaths and 40% of hepatocellular carcinoma-related deaths. HBV transmission occurs through percutaneous (skin-penetrating) or mucosal contact with infectious blood or body fluids, such as semen and saliva. Transmission can occur during pregnancy or delivery from an HBV-positive mother to her baby, through sexual contact with an infected partner, and via injection drug use that involves sharing needles, syringes, or drug-preparation equipment. In the United States, there are approximately 60,000 new cases of HBV diagnosed annually, contributing to an already substantial chronic HBV population of over 2 million. The severity of the disease is further underscored by the fact that it causes 5,000 deaths annually, emphasizing the critical need for comprehensive prevention and healthcare strategies to address this significant health challenge. Chronic HBV disproportionately impacts U.S. residents born outside the country.