Materiały źródłowe

• #1 The Epidemiology of Penile Cancer – Urologic Cancers – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK585980/

  Penile cancer is an uncommon type of malignancy. In 2020, globally, 36068 new cases were diagnosed according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The majority (over 95%) of penile cancers are squamous cell carcinoma. Penile cancer generally affects men from low socio-economic groups with poor hygienic standards. The highest figures have been recorded in countries such as South America, Africa, and India. Human papilloma virus (HPV16-18) infection, phimosis, and smoking have been found to be the strongest risk factors for penile cancer, and they can significantly increase its incidence. […] Several risk factors, such as Phimosis, human papilloma virus (HPV), smoking, and low social economic status have been found to associated to penile cancer. […] Phimosis is strongly correlated to penile cancer and should not be considered a mere physiologic after the age of 6 years. According to the available literature, Phimosis is among the strongest risk factors for penile cancer.

• #1 Risk Factors for Penile Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/penile-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is an important risk factor for penile cancer. In fact, HPV is found in about half of all penile cancers. […] Men who are not circumcised may be more likely to get and stay infected with HPV. […] Men who were circumcised as children may have a much lower chance of getting penile cancer than those who were not. […] Penile cancer is more common in men with phimosis. […] Men who smoke and/or use other forms of tobacco are more likely to develop penile cancer. […] Men who have had PUVA therapy have been found to have a higher rate of penile cancer. […] The risk of penile cancer goes up with age. […] Men with AIDS have a higher risk of penile cancer.

• #1 Symptoms and Causes of Penile Cancer – ROC Clinic

  https://rocclinic.com/en/penile-cancer/symptoms-and-causes/

  Most cases of penile cancer are initially detected as a color change in the skin of the penis. […] The causes of penile cancer are unknown. However, there are some risk factors that may lead to its occurrence: […] Lack of hygiene. […] Phimosis: is the narrowing of the foreskin opening. When it is not possible to retract the foreskin, an accumulation of body oils, bacteria and smegma can occur. […] Smoking. […] Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. People with HPV infection are at increased risk for penile cancer. Types 16, 18, 31 and 33 are the most common types found in this type of cancer. Having had condylomas – also known as genital warts – increases the risk. […] Lichen sclerosus is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of atrophic white papules (granules) or plaques, mainly affecting the anogenital area. […] Some dermatological treatments against penile lesions. […] Multiple sexual partners.

• #1 What Causes Penile Cancer? | Causes of Penile Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/penile-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html

  The exact cause of most penile cancers is not known. But scientists have found that it’s linked with a number of other conditions. Research is being done around the world to learn more about how these risk factors might cause cells of the penis to become cancer. […] Two proteins (E6 and E7) made by high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) can block the way tumor suppressor gene products work in cells. This allows the cells to start growing out of control, which might make them more likely to become cancer. […] Tobacco use has been linked to penile cancer. It creates cancer-causing chemicals that spread throughout the body and can damage the DNA inside cells, such as the cells of the penis. DNA is the chemical in our cells that makes up our genes. (Genes control how our cells grow and divide.) When DNA damage affects the genes that control cell growth, it can lead to cancer.

• #1 HPV and Penile Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Insights

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/13/9/809

  Tobacco use, including smoking, has been determined as an additional risk factor for penile cancer. Smoking has a dose–response relationship, where smokers consuming more than 10 cigarettes a day had a significantly higher risk for PC compared to those consuming 1–10 cigarettes a day. Tobacco carcinogens collect in the smegma secretions of the penis, creating a microenvironment for carcinogens to induce increased DNA damage per mutagenic event. Furthermore, current smokers have an increased risk for HPV (OR = 1.19) and oncogenic HPV (OR = 1.24), eliciting a compounded effect on the risk of penile cancer by simultaneously elevating the incidence of HPV. […] The pathophysiology of HPV-associated penile cancer is better understood than that of HPV-independent penile cancer. HR-HPV 16 binds to Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans (HSPGs) and undergoes conformation changes to initiate early virus–host cell interactions. The virus also interacts with α6-integrins to evoke intracellular signaling cascades that allow for early viral genome amplification. With constant exposure to HPV, the penile tissue cells will integrate the HPV genome into the host cell genome, leading to an overexpression of HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7.

• #1 HPV and Penile Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Insights

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/13/9/809

  The HPV genome typically persists as extrachromosomal DNA in host cells. Over time, in some cases, the HPV genome integrates into host cells to influence the host cell genome, manipulate cellular functions, and contribute to a tumorigenic transformation. However, integration is associated primarily with high-risk serotypes and is not necessary for carcinogenesis, as HPV-associated cancers may occur when the genome remains episomal. […] HPV vaccination is primarily used to prevent cervical cancer but has the potential to alleviate HPV-induced carcinogenesis in other cancers as well. Both LR and HR-HPV have been associated with penile cancer; however, HR-HPV has a greater prevalence. HPV 16 is the most prevalent serotype, accounting for 46% to 62.5% of HPV-associated penile cancers. Therefore, the administration of the HPV vaccine in males can reduce the onset of penile cancer.

• #1 Penile Cancer and Penile Intraepithelial Neoplasia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499930/

  Penile cancer is an uncommon malignancy, but when diagnosed, it is psychologically devastating to the patient and can pose a challenge to clinicians. […] Risk factors for the development of penile cancer include phimosis, uncircumcised state, poor genital hygiene, human papillomavirus infection, and smoking. […] The incidence of penile cancer varies and is related to several factors. Clinicians have identified risk factors, including a history of phimosis, balanitis, chronic inflammation, penile trauma, lack of neonatal circumcision, tobacco use, balanitis xerotica obliterans, poor genital hygiene, and a history of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), especially human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and human papillomavirus (HPV). […] Neonatal circumcision has been correlated with much lower rates of penile cancer.

• #1 Penile Cancer – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/cancers-of-the-kidney-and-genitourinary-tract/penile-cancer

  The cause of penile cancer may be long-standing irritation, usually under the foreskin. Other risk factors include having a sexually transmitted infection (particularly human papillomavirus infection or HIV), having balanitis, being uncircumcised, having poor hygiene, and using tobacco. […] Strategies to prevent penile cancer include circumcision in early life, improved long-term hygiene in uncircumcised men, and vaccination against the most common cancer-causing strains of human papillomavirus in adolescents.

• #1 Etiology of Penile Cancer | CoLab

  https://colab.ws/articles/10.1007%2F978-3-319-33220-8_2

  The etiology of penile cancer is still not fully understood. Currently two distinct pathways have been identified; one related to high risk human papilloma virus (hrHPV), the other to irritation and inflammation of the prepuce, for example secondary to lichen sclerosus (LS). […] Of the HPV subtypes, mainly high risk HPV (hrHPV) 16 and 18 have been detected in penile carcinomas and penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN). Generally it is mainly undifferentiated PeIN and basaloid, warty (condylomatous) and mixed warty-basaloid histological subtypes of cancer correlate with HPV-positivity. […] The eventual development of phimosis partially accounts for the relationship with penile cancer as well as the hypothesized immunologic deregulation of chronic inflammatory sites. Other risk factors contribute to either or both of these two pathways. For example, the protective effect of circumcision is explained by a reduction in the surface area susceptible to HPV infection, prevention of phimosis and the development of a keratinized surface replacing the normal mucosa (eukeratinisation). It also effectuates better genital hygiene, less smegma retention, and hence, less chronic irritation and/or inflammation.

• #1 The Epidemiology of Penile Cancer – Urologic Cancers – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK585980/

  There is a rich documentation available about penile cancer and HPV. According to De Martel, of the 26000 cases of penile cancer recorded by GLOBOCAN in 2012, 13000 cases (50%) were attributable to HPV. Of these, 9100 cases (73%) were caused by the HPV 16/18 strains. […] Smoking is a direct, independent, dose-related risk factor for penile cancer; multiple studies have shown an association between tobacco smoking and penile cancer. […] It has been demonstrated in multiple studies that penile cancer generally affects patients belonging to low socio-economic groups. […] Multiple risks factors have been identified with HPV infection as strongest factor. It is believed that over 50% of the penile cancer are attributable to HPV, and of these, 73% caused by the HPV 16/18 strains. Phimosis and smoking increase the risk of penile cancer 11.4 and 2.4 times, respectively.

• #1 Penile Cancer: Symptoms & Causes | NewYork-Presbyterian

  https://www.nyp.org/cancer/urologic-cancer/penile-cancer

  Age 60 years or older – The risk of penile cancer increases with age […] Smoking/tobacco use – Smoking or using tobacco products introduces harmful chemicals and substances into the body […] HIV or AIDS – People with HIV or AIDS have a greater risk of developing penile cancer due to weakened immune systems […] Being uncircumcised – Uncircumcised individuals can have a buildup of smegma, a substance made of dead cells and oily secretions from the skin. If not cleaned regularly or properly, this buildup can cause inflammation and irritation, increasing the risk of developing penile cancer. […] Having phimosis – Phimosis is a condition that involves the tightening of the foreskin in men who are not circumcised. This can lead to an increased risk of penile cancer due to irritation, inflammation, and difficulty keeping the area clean. […] Psoriasis treatment – Psoriasis is sometimes treated with a combination of drugs called psoralens and ultraviolet light. This particular treatment has been found to increase the risk of an individual developing penile cancer.

• #1 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center

  https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=34&contentid=18963-1

  Risk factors for penile cancer include: […] Tobacco use. People who smoke or use other forms of tobacco are at higher risk for penile cancer than those who don’t. Cancer-causing chemicals in tobacco may harm the DNA in cells in the penis. This may lead to penile cancer. […] Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Certain types of HPV have been linked to penile cancer. In fact, HPV is found in about half of all penile cancers. […] Age. The risk of penile cancer goes up with age. It’s most common in people older than 50. […] Not being circumcised. Circumcision removes part or all of the foreskin on the penis. This can be done at birth or later on in life. Researchers say that circumcision may protect against cancer of the penis by making it easier to keep the penis clean. This seems to lower penile cancer risk if done as a newborn. It does not lower the risk if done as an adult.

• #1 Penile cancer | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-adults/penile-cancer/

  Over the last 30 years, the number of penile cancer cases has increased by more than 20%, possibly due to changes in sexual practices. […] The cause of penile cancer isnt known, but certain risk factors can increase your chances of getting it. […] Men who carry the human papilloma virus (HPV) have an increased risk of developing penile cancer, which is the virus that causes genital warts. […] Age is also a risk factor for cancer of the penis. The condition rarely affects men and anyone with a penis under 40 years of age. It most commonly occurs in men and anyone with a penis aged over 60. […] Smoking is the most significant lifestyle factor associated with penile cancer. Chemicals found in cigarettes can damage cells in the penis, which increases your risk of getting the condition.

• #1 Penile Cancer: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6181-penile-cancer

  Penile cancer develops when healthy cells in your penis change and grow out of control. […] Cancer happens when healthy cells change and multiply out of control. But researchers dont know what causes that change to begin with. […] While researchers havent found causes, theyve identified risk factors. […] A risk factor doesnt cause penile cancer, but it may increase the possibility. Penile cancer risk factors are: Being 55 or over. About 80% of penile cancer diagnoses in the U.S. occur within this age range. Being uncircumcised. Circumcision removes the foreskin of your penis, exposing the head. Many risk factors related to penile cancer are likely related to having a foreskin. HPV (human papillomavirus). Many of the same high-risk strains of HPV that cause cervical cancer have been found in men with penile cancer. HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). Researchers arent sure why, but penile cancer is more common in men with HIV. Lichen sclerosus (LS). This is an inflammatory disorder that may cause the head of your penis or your foreskin to feel painful, irritated or itchy. Phimosis. This condition causes your foreskin to become so tight that you cant retract it (pull it back) to access the head of your penis. Poor hygiene. Not washing your penis frequently or thoroughly enough may increase your risk of smegma. The resulting irritation and inflammation may increase your cancer risk. PUVA treatment. PUVA stands for psoralen and ultraviolet A photochemotherapy. Its a type of treatment for psoriasis that uses radiation. Tobacco use. Smoking cigarettes, chewing tobacco or using snuff can slow your bodys ability to fight infection, raising your cancer risk. Tobacco may also damage cells, causing changes that lead to cancer.

• #1 Penile Cancer: Symptoms, Signs and Causes

  https://www.hcgoncology.com/types-of-cancers/penile-cancer-symptoms-and-causes/

  Penile cancer can occur at any age; however, its risk increases with age. Individuals aged 60 and above are at a higher risk of developing penile carcinoma. The cumulative effects of environmental exposure or lifestyle choices over time make increasing age one of the possible penile cancer causes. […] Having HIV/AIDS can increase ones risk of developing penile cancer. HIV/AIDS weakens the immune system, which plays a pivotal role in fighting off early-stage cancers. Also, having a weakened immune system makes one more susceptible to other infections, such as HPV infection, which is also one of the possible penile cancer causes. […] Human papillomavirus, or HPV, infection is a sexually transmitted infection that is found to increase the risk of penile cancer. HPV types 16 and 18 are linked to penile cancer development in men.

• #1 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center

  https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=34&contentid=18963-1

  Phimosis and smegma. A person who is not circumcised may have foreskin on the penis that is difficult to retract or is constricted (called phimosis). This can make it very difficult to clean the penis. This, in turn, can cause a buildup of dead cells and skin (called smegma) under the foreskin and around the glans. This buildup can cause inflammation that may increase the risk for penile cancer. […] AIDS. People who have AIDS may be at higher risk for penile cancer. This may be because AIDS causes a weakened immune system. […] Ultraviolet light treatment for psoriasis. People who have had PUVA therapy for psoriasis may have a slightly higher risk for penile cancer. PUVA treatments use psoralen medicine followed by ultraviolet light exposure. Today, people who are treated with PUVA have their genitals covered during treatment.

• #1 Understanding Penile Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Medanta

  https://www.medanta.org/patient-education-blog/preventing-penile-cancer-education-vaccination-and-safe-practices

  Many of the same high-risk strains of the HPV that cause cervical cancer have been found in people with penile cancer. The HPV associated with cervical and penile cancer is a sexually transmitted virus. Although HPV is present in nearly all instances of cervical cancer, its present about half the time in people with penile cancer. Still, HPV infection is a significant risk factor for penile cancer. […] Penile cancer is more common in people with human immunodeficiency virus. Its possible that the same sexual behaviours that increase a persons risk of HPV (for example, unprotected sex, multiple partners, etc.) also increase the risk of HIV infection. Its possible, too, that HIV infection alone increases cancer risk. Research is ongoing. […] Smoking cigarettes and chewing tobacco increases penile cancer risk. Tobacco may slow bodys ability to fight infection, raising risk. Tobacco use may damage cells, causing changes that lead to cancer.

• #1 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology

  https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html

  Penile cancer is a rare neoplasm representing less than 1% of all malignancies in the USA and Europe but is a significant public health hazard in the developing world. […] Many risk factors have been identified for penile cancer including phimosis, lack of circumcision, obesity, lichen sclerosis, chronic inflammation, smoking, UVA phototherapy, socioeconomic status, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and immune compromised states. […] The lack of circumcision is a well-accepted risk factor for penile cancer. […] The protective effect of circumcision was first reported in 1932 in a large cohort study of penile cancer patients that revealed a stark demographic anomaly, as there were zero cases in the Jewish patients. […] A history of posthitis and balanitis respectively has been reported in 45% of penile cancer patients compared to 8% of controls.

• #1 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology

  https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html

  Chronic inflammation is a proposed mechanism for carcinogenesis in multiple types of malignancies. […] A meta-analysis of 443 cases found a OR of 3.82 for developing penile cancer associated with balanitis. […] Lichen sclerosis, a chronic inflammatory condition, as well as a progressive variant known as balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), have also been implicated in development of malignancy. […] The immune system has a significant influence on the risk for contracting HPV as well as its infectious course and clearance, which affects the development of some premalignant lesions. […] Smoking has been implicated as a risk factor for multiple malignancy sites and penile cancer is no exception. […] There has been a great deal of emphasis on HPVs potential for carcinogenesis in the past few years. […] A recent systemic review estimates that HPV is found in 48% of penile cancer specimens.

• #1 Understanding Penile Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Medanta

  https://www.medanta.org/patient-education-blog/preventing-penile-cancer-education-vaccination-and-safe-practices

  Lichen sclerosis (LS) is an inflammatory disorder that may cause the head of penis or foreskin to feel painful, irritated or itchy. LS increases risk of penile cancer. Lichen sclerosus may also increase risk of HPV infection. […] Not washing penis frequently or thoroughly may increase risk of smegma. Smegma is a build-up of fluids body secretes naturally. If youre uncircumcised, smegma can collect beneath foreskin and become thick and smelly. Smegma leads to irritation and inflammation that may increase cancer risk.

• #1 Penile Cancer and Penile Intraepithelial Neoplasia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499930/

  Population-based studies support that neonatal circumcision can be an effective prophylactic measure against penile cancer. […] STIs are also noted to be a risk factor for the development of penile cancer, particularly HIV and HPV. […] The percent of penile cancers related to HPV is about 60% (range: 45% to 80%), with a strong correlation to HPV types 6, 18, and particularly 16. […] Overall, the strongest risk factors for penile cancer are high-risk HPV infection, phimosis, and smoking. […] An immunocompromised state also increases the risk. […] The long-term risk of penile cancer in patients treated with PUVA, even with shielding of the genitals, is almost 100 times higher than in the general population and appears to be dose-related.

• #1 Penile Cancer: Identifying Causes, Risks, Signs & Symptoms | Max Hospital

  https://www.maxhealthcare.in/blogs/penile-cancer-causes-signs-and-symptoms

  The exact cause of penile cancer is not fully understood, but there are several risk factors that are associated with its development, such as: […] A significant number of penile cancer cases are linked to HPV, a sexually transmitted infection that can cause changes in penile cells. […] Inadequate cleaning, especially in uncircumcised men, can lead to the accumulation of smegma, which can irritate the penis and increase cancer risk. […] Tobacco use is associated with an increased risk of many cancers, including penile cancer, due to the harmful chemicals in cigarettes. […] A condition where the foreskin cannot be fully retracted over the glans can lead to chronic inflammation and increase cancer risk. […] Penile cancer is more common in men over the age of 50. […] Previous UV light treatment for psoriasis may increase the risk.

• #1 Penile Cancer | HEAL Medical | Oncology

  https://www.heal-medical.com/en/our-services/penile-cancer/

  Penile cancer is a rare malignancy occurring in the tissues of the penis. More than 95% of penile cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, which usually develop on the foreskin or glans (head) of the penis but can also appear elsewhere along the penile shaft. […] The exact causes of penile cancer remain unclear, but it is strongly associated with: […] Infection with Human Papillomavirus (HPV), particularly HPV-16 and HPV-18. […] Chronic inflammation or recurrent infections of the foreskin (balanitis) or penis. […] Poor personal hygiene, especially in uncircumcised men with long-term accumulation of smegma. […] Smoking, which significantly increases cancer risk. […] Compromised immune system (e.g., HIV/AIDS patients, organ transplant recipients). […] Chronic irritation or repetitive injuries to penile skin. […] Practicing good personal hygiene, avoiding high-risk sexual behaviors, receiving HPV vaccination, and quitting smoking can significantly lower the risk.

• #1 10 Hidden Causes of Penile Cancer You Shouldn’t Ignore – RajnishHospitals

  https://rajnishhospital.com/blogs/10-hidden-causes-of-penile-cancer-you-shouldnt-ignore/

  Smoking and various tobacco forms are linked with increased cancer risks, including penile cancer. Cigarette smoke contains carcinogens that contribute to cellular damage, leading to cancers. […] Certain chronic conditions like buried penis and phimosis complicate personal hygiene, resulting in ongoing irritation. Skin diseases like psoriasis and others can lead to infections and prolonged inflammation, further increasing the cancer risk. […] Sexual behavior contributes immensely to penile cancer risk factors. High-risk practices, a greater number of partners, and early sexual activity amplify the likelihood of contracting HPV and other infections. […] Being proactive about hidden causes of penile cancer allows for timely intervention. Recognizing these less obvious risk factors empowers you to act on prevention strategies.

• #1 Profile of patients with penile cancer in the region with the highest worldwide incidence | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-59831-5

  The relationship between zoophilia and penile cancer was the subject of a recent study. The authors consider zoophilia a risk factor and demonstrate that men who practiced sex with animals are two times more likely to develop cancer of the penis. […] Phimosis, inflammatory conditions (balanitis and lichen sclerosus) and poor genital hygiene are relevant risk factors for cancer of the penis. The prevalence of phimosis in males in adulthood is over 3.4%. Between patients with cancer of the penis, this prevalence is over 25-75%, and its contribution can be attributed to the accumulation of smegma, higher incidence of HPV or as an isolated carcinogenic factor.

• #1 Penile Cancer: Symptoms, Signs and Causes

  https://www.hcgoncology.com/types-of-cancers/penile-cancer-symptoms-and-causes/

  Uncircumcised men have a slightly higher risk of developing penile cancer as compared to circumcised men. In uncircumcised men, a mixture of dead skin cells, bacteria, and oils, called smegma, accumulates under the foreskin. If left unmanaged, smegma accumulation may increase the risk of penile cancer on the foreskin. This can increase the risk of inflammation and HPV infection, which are risk factors for penile cancer. […] Certain premalignant conditions of the penis may also serve as possible penile cancer causes. Cutaneous horn, leukoplakia, penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN), balanitis xerotica obliterans, Buschke-Lownstein tumor, and lichen sclerosus et atrophicus are some of the important premalignant conditions that can lead to penile cancer, if left untreated. […] Excessive exposure to UV radiation, particularly from tanning beds, is found to increase the risk of skin cancer, which can progress into penile cancer over time.

• #1

  https://winshipcancer.emory.edu/cancer-types-and-treatments/penile-cancer/prevention.php

  Penile cancer is quite rare in the U.S., with about 2,000 new cases diagnosed each year. […] While researchers are still working to understand exactly what causes penile cancer, there is enough information available to make recommendations regarding penile cancer prevention. […] Its not exactly clear what causes penile cancer, although researchers are learning more about the cancer every day. As with other types of cancer, penile cancer develops when abnormal cells grow out of control. This is generally caused by changes to cell DNA, also called genetic mutations. The genetic mutations that lead to penile cancer do not appear to be inheritable, meaning they are not passed down from one generation to the next. Most patients with penile cancer have no family history of the disease. […] About 50% of penile cancers are HPV-positive, but it is unclear if this indicates a causal relationship or merely a correlation. […] People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are at increased risk for penile cancer. This is because their bodies are less likely to fight off HPV infection. […] The risk is highest in men who smoke and have HPV.

• #1 Penile Cancer Treatment – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/penile/patient/penile-treatment-pdq

  Penile cancer is a type of cancer that forms in the tissues of the penis. […] Human papillomavirus infection may increase the risk of developing penile cancer. […] Penile cancer is caused by certain changes to the penile cells function, especially how they grow and divide into new cells. There are many risk factors for penile cancer, but many do not directly cause cancer. Instead, they increase the chance of DNA damage in cells that may lead to penile cancer. […] A risk factor is anything that increases the chance of getting a disease. Some risk factors for penile cancer, such as tobacco use, can be changed. However, risk factors also include things you cannot change, like getting older and your health history. […] Risk factors for penile cancer include: being uncircumcised. Circumcision may help prevent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). […] Men who were not circumcised at birth may have a higher risk of developing penile cancer. […] Having one or more of these risk factors does not mean that you will get penile cancer. Many people with risk factors never develop penile cancer, while others with no known risk factors do.

• #1 Penile Cancer | UCSF Department of Urology

  https://urology.ucsf.edu/patient-care/cancer/penile-cancer

  Cancer of the penis is rare with an annual incidence of about 1 in 100, 000 in the United States. Causes of penile cancer include poor hygiene, inflammation of the penis or foreskin, and infection with Human Papilloma Virus. […] Circumcision appears to provide protection against penile cancer if preformed in infancy or early childhood, but not when it is preformed as an adult. […] Penile cancer most often spreads to the nodal tissue in the groin and then pelvis before spreading elsewhere.

• #1 Penile Cancer Prevention: 5 Tips You Should Know

  https://www.healthline.com/health/penile-cancer-prevention

  Tobacco use can increase your risk of developing several kinds of cancer, including penile cancer. […] As mentioned, STIs particularly HPV and HIV are associated with an increased risk of penile cancer. […] You’re most at risk of developing penile cancer if you have a history of HPV or HIV. […] Certain lifestyle changes can lower your risk of developing penile cancer.

• #1 Penile cancer ▷ causes, symptoms & specialists

  https://www.primomedico.com/en/treatment/penile-cancer/

  Body hygiene assumes an major role in the pathogenesis of penile cancer, as previously mentioned. That means regular and thorough genital washing is a powerful way to prevent the disease. Circumcised men have a significantly lower risk of developing penile cancer than non-circumcised men. HPV vaccination is an effective way to prevent infection with the virus. Although this vaccination is recommended more often for women and girls for prevention of cervical cancer, men and boys are also recommended to receive it. Use of condoms during sexual intercourse is also advised, because they can also prevent infection with HPV. Regular self-examination of the penis region should also help to recognize skin changes and hardening early on, allowing for rapid medical treatment.

• #1 Penile Cancer – Causes & Symptoms

  https://www.instituteofurology.in/penile-cancer-causes-symptoms/

  Certain genetic factors may contribute to an increased risk of developing penile cancer. Family history of the disease or specific genetic mutations can play a role in the susceptibility to penile cancer. […] It is important to note that having one or more of these risk factors does not necessarily mean that an individual will develop penile cancer. However, understanding these risk factors can help individuals make informed decisions regarding their lifestyle choices and seek appropriate preventive measures. […] Reducing the risk of penile cancer can be achieved by practicing safe sex, including consistent condom use, getting vaccinated against HPV, maintaining good genital hygiene, quitting smoking and tobacco use, and seeking regular medical check-ups to monitor any potential changes or symptoms. By addressing these risk factors, individuals can take proactive steps to minimize their chances of developing penile cancer.

• #2 Penile cancer – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_cancer

  Penile cancer, or penile carcinoma, is a cancer that develops in the skin or tissues of the penis. Symptoms may include abnormal growth, an ulcer or sore on the skin of the penis, and bleeding or foul smelling discharge. […] Risk factors include phimosis (inability to retract foreskin of the penis), chronic inflammation, smoking, HPV infection, condylomata acuminate, having multiple sexual partners, and early age of sexual intercourse. […] HPV is a risk factor in the development of penile cancer. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), HPV is responsible for about 800 (about 40%) of 1,570 cases of penile cancer diagnosed annually in the United States. […] Poor hygiene can increase a man’s risk of penile cancer. […] Smegma, a whitish substance that can accumulate beneath the foreskin, is associated with greater risk of penile cancer.

• #2 The Epidemiology of Penile Cancer – Urologic Cancers – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK585980/

  There is a rich documentation available about penile cancer and HPV. According to De Martel, of the 26000 cases of penile cancer recorded by GLOBOCAN in 2012, 13000 cases (50%) were attributable to HPV. Of these, 9100 cases (73%) were caused by the HPV 16/18 strains. […] Smoking is a direct, independent, dose-related risk factor for penile cancer; multiple studies have shown an association between tobacco smoking and penile cancer. […] It has been demonstrated in multiple studies that penile cancer generally affects patients belonging to low socio-economic groups. […] Multiple risks factors have been identified with HPV infection as strongest factor. It is believed that over 50% of the penile cancer are attributable to HPV, and of these, 73% caused by the HPV 16/18 strains. Phimosis and smoking increase the risk of penile cancer 11.4 and 2.4 times, respectively.

• #2 Risk Factors for Penile Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/penile-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is an important risk factor for penile cancer. In fact, HPV is found in about half of all penile cancers. […] Men who are not circumcised may be more likely to get and stay infected with HPV. […] Men who were circumcised as children may have a much lower chance of getting penile cancer than those who were not. […] Penile cancer is more common in men with phimosis. […] Men who smoke and/or use other forms of tobacco are more likely to develop penile cancer. […] Men who have had PUVA therapy have been found to have a higher rate of penile cancer. […] The risk of penile cancer goes up with age. […] Men with AIDS have a higher risk of penile cancer.

• #2 Etiology of Penile Cancer | CoLab

  https://colab.ws/articles/10.1007%2F978-3-319-33220-8_2

  The etiology of penile cancer is still not fully understood. Currently two distinct pathways have been identified; one related to high risk human papilloma virus (hrHPV), the other to irritation and inflammation of the prepuce, for example secondary to lichen sclerosus (LS). […] Of the HPV subtypes, mainly high risk HPV (hrHPV) 16 and 18 have been detected in penile carcinomas and penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN). Generally it is mainly undifferentiated PeIN and basaloid, warty (condylomatous) and mixed warty-basaloid histological subtypes of cancer correlate with HPV-positivity. […] The eventual development of phimosis partially accounts for the relationship with penile cancer as well as the hypothesized immunologic deregulation of chronic inflammatory sites. Other risk factors contribute to either or both of these two pathways. For example, the protective effect of circumcision is explained by a reduction in the surface area susceptible to HPV infection, prevention of phimosis and the development of a keratinized surface replacing the normal mucosa (eukeratinisation). It also effectuates better genital hygiene, less smegma retention, and hence, less chronic irritation and/or inflammation.

• #2 Causes of Penile Cancer – Checkyourtackle

  https://www.checkyourtackle.com/causes-of-penile-cancer/

  The exact cause of penile cancer is not known but there are several risk factors. […] Men with human papilloma virus have an increased risk of developing cancer of the penis. […] HPV also increases the risk of cervical, anal, vulva and vaginal cancers. […] The main types of HPV found in men with penile cancer are HPV 16 and 18, although other types may also be related too. […] It is rare for men below the age of 40 to get penile cancer. Most cases are in men aged over 60. […] Men who smoke may be more likely to develop cancer of the penis. […] If you have a weakened immune system, you have an increased risk of penile cancer (and other cancers). […] The age you are circumcised appears to affect the risk of penile cancer. […] Men who are circumcised as babies appear to be less likely to develop penile cancer. […] Men with phimosis have a risk of penile cancer that is 5 to 11 times higher than other men. […] Men who have had PUVA appear to have an increased risk of penile cancer.

• #2 Profile of patients with penile cancer in the region with the highest worldwide incidence | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-59831-5

  The relationship between zoophilia and penile cancer was the subject of a recent study. The authors consider zoophilia a risk factor and demonstrate that men who practiced sex with animals are two times more likely to develop cancer of the penis. […] Phimosis, inflammatory conditions (balanitis and lichen sclerosus) and poor genital hygiene are relevant risk factors for cancer of the penis. The prevalence of phimosis in males in adulthood is over 3.4%. Between patients with cancer of the penis, this prevalence is over 25-75%, and its contribution can be attributed to the accumulation of smegma, higher incidence of HPV or as an isolated carcinogenic factor.

• #2 Risks for penile cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/penile/risks

  Having a buildup of smegma can cause chronic irritation and inflammation of the penis, which increases your risk for penile cancer. […] Having a weak immune system (immunosuppression) increases your risk for penile cancer. […] Smoking tobacco has been linked with penile cancer, but more research is needed to know for sure that it is a risk.

• #2 Penile Cancer: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6181-penile-cancer

  Penile cancer develops when healthy cells in your penis change and grow out of control. […] Cancer happens when healthy cells change and multiply out of control. But researchers dont know what causes that change to begin with. […] While researchers havent found causes, theyve identified risk factors. […] A risk factor doesnt cause penile cancer, but it may increase the possibility. Penile cancer risk factors are: Being 55 or over. About 80% of penile cancer diagnoses in the U.S. occur within this age range. Being uncircumcised. Circumcision removes the foreskin of your penis, exposing the head. Many risk factors related to penile cancer are likely related to having a foreskin. HPV (human papillomavirus). Many of the same high-risk strains of HPV that cause cervical cancer have been found in men with penile cancer. HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). Researchers arent sure why, but penile cancer is more common in men with HIV. Lichen sclerosus (LS). This is an inflammatory disorder that may cause the head of your penis or your foreskin to feel painful, irritated or itchy. Phimosis. This condition causes your foreskin to become so tight that you cant retract it (pull it back) to access the head of your penis. Poor hygiene. Not washing your penis frequently or thoroughly enough may increase your risk of smegma. The resulting irritation and inflammation may increase your cancer risk. PUVA treatment. PUVA stands for psoralen and ultraviolet A photochemotherapy. Its a type of treatment for psoriasis that uses radiation. Tobacco use. Smoking cigarettes, chewing tobacco or using snuff can slow your bodys ability to fight infection, raising your cancer risk. Tobacco may also damage cells, causing changes that lead to cancer.

• #2 HPV and Penile Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Insights

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/13/9/809

  Tobacco use, including smoking, has been determined as an additional risk factor for penile cancer. Smoking has a dose–response relationship, where smokers consuming more than 10 cigarettes a day had a significantly higher risk for PC compared to those consuming 1–10 cigarettes a day. Tobacco carcinogens collect in the smegma secretions of the penis, creating a microenvironment for carcinogens to induce increased DNA damage per mutagenic event. Furthermore, current smokers have an increased risk for HPV (OR = 1.19) and oncogenic HPV (OR = 1.24), eliciting a compounded effect on the risk of penile cancer by simultaneously elevating the incidence of HPV. […] The pathophysiology of HPV-associated penile cancer is better understood than that of HPV-independent penile cancer. HR-HPV 16 binds to Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans (HSPGs) and undergoes conformation changes to initiate early virus–host cell interactions. The virus also interacts with α6-integrins to evoke intracellular signaling cascades that allow for early viral genome amplification. With constant exposure to HPV, the penile tissue cells will integrate the HPV genome into the host cell genome, leading to an overexpression of HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7.

• #2 Penile cancer | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-adults/penile-cancer/

  Over the last 30 years, the number of penile cancer cases has increased by more than 20%, possibly due to changes in sexual practices. […] The cause of penile cancer isnt known, but certain risk factors can increase your chances of getting it. […] Men who carry the human papilloma virus (HPV) have an increased risk of developing penile cancer, which is the virus that causes genital warts. […] Age is also a risk factor for cancer of the penis. The condition rarely affects men and anyone with a penis under 40 years of age. It most commonly occurs in men and anyone with a penis aged over 60. […] Smoking is the most significant lifestyle factor associated with penile cancer. Chemicals found in cigarettes can damage cells in the penis, which increases your risk of getting the condition.

• #2 Penile Cancer: Symptoms, Signs and Causes

  https://www.hcgoncology.com/types-of-cancers/penile-cancer-symptoms-and-causes/

  Penile cancer can occur at any age; however, its risk increases with age. Individuals aged 60 and above are at a higher risk of developing penile carcinoma. The cumulative effects of environmental exposure or lifestyle choices over time make increasing age one of the possible penile cancer causes. […] Having HIV/AIDS can increase ones risk of developing penile cancer. HIV/AIDS weakens the immune system, which plays a pivotal role in fighting off early-stage cancers. Also, having a weakened immune system makes one more susceptible to other infections, such as HPV infection, which is also one of the possible penile cancer causes. […] Human papillomavirus, or HPV, infection is a sexually transmitted infection that is found to increase the risk of penile cancer. HPV types 16 and 18 are linked to penile cancer development in men.

• #2 Penile cancer | Cancer Council

  https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/rare-cancers/penile-cancer

  Penile cancer is a rare type of cancer and occurs on the foreskin, the glans (head) of the penis, or on the skin of the penile shaft. It occurs mostly in uncircumcised men (men who still have foreskin around the head of the penis). […] The cause of penile cancer is not known in most cases. However, there are several risk factors: human papillomavirus (HPV), not being circumcised, smoking tobacco, increasing age, certain skin conditions such as psoriasis, HIV/AIDS, premalignant lesions/conditions, exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. […] There is no definite way to prevent penile cancer but there are some risk factors that you can avoid such as quitting smoking and avoiding exposure to UV radiation. Being vaccinated against HPV will also reduce your risk of penile cancer.

• #2 Understanding Penile Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Medanta

  https://www.medanta.org/patient-education-blog/preventing-penile-cancer-education-vaccination-and-safe-practices

  Lichen sclerosis (LS) is an inflammatory disorder that may cause the head of penis or foreskin to feel painful, irritated or itchy. LS increases risk of penile cancer. Lichen sclerosus may also increase risk of HPV infection. […] Not washing penis frequently or thoroughly may increase risk of smegma. Smegma is a build-up of fluids body secretes naturally. If youre uncircumcised, smegma can collect beneath foreskin and become thick and smelly. Smegma leads to irritation and inflammation that may increase cancer risk.

• #2 Penile Cancer: Identifying Causes, Risks, Signs & Symptoms | Max Hospital

  https://www.maxhealthcare.in/blogs/penile-cancer-causes-signs-and-symptoms

  Men with a weakened immune system, such as those with HIV/AIDS or those taking immunosuppressive drugs, are at higher risk. […] Conditions like penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN) can increase the risk of developing penile cancer. […] Having multiple sexual partners can increase the likelihood of contracting HPV, which is a risk factor for penile cancer. […] Men who are not circumcised have a higher risk, possibly due to difficulties in maintaining proper hygiene.

• #2 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology

  https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html

  Penile cancer is a rare neoplasm representing less than 1% of all malignancies in the USA and Europe but is a significant public health hazard in the developing world. […] Many risk factors have been identified for penile cancer including phimosis, lack of circumcision, obesity, lichen sclerosis, chronic inflammation, smoking, UVA phototherapy, socioeconomic status, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and immune compromised states. […] The lack of circumcision is a well-accepted risk factor for penile cancer. […] The protective effect of circumcision was first reported in 1932 in a large cohort study of penile cancer patients that revealed a stark demographic anomaly, as there were zero cases in the Jewish patients. […] A history of posthitis and balanitis respectively has been reported in 45% of penile cancer patients compared to 8% of controls.

• #2 10 Hidden Causes of Penile Cancer You Shouldn’t Ignore – RajnishHospitals

  https://rajnishhospital.com/blogs/10-hidden-causes-of-penile-cancer-you-shouldnt-ignore/

  Smoking and various tobacco forms are linked with increased cancer risks, including penile cancer. Cigarette smoke contains carcinogens that contribute to cellular damage, leading to cancers. […] Certain chronic conditions like buried penis and phimosis complicate personal hygiene, resulting in ongoing irritation. Skin diseases like psoriasis and others can lead to infections and prolonged inflammation, further increasing the cancer risk. […] Sexual behavior contributes immensely to penile cancer risk factors. High-risk practices, a greater number of partners, and early sexual activity amplify the likelihood of contracting HPV and other infections. […] Being proactive about hidden causes of penile cancer allows for timely intervention. Recognizing these less obvious risk factors empowers you to act on prevention strategies.

• #2 Penile Cancer Treatment – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/penile/patient/penile-treatment-pdq

  Penile cancer is a type of cancer that forms in the tissues of the penis. […] Human papillomavirus infection may increase the risk of developing penile cancer. […] Penile cancer is caused by certain changes to the penile cells function, especially how they grow and divide into new cells. There are many risk factors for penile cancer, but many do not directly cause cancer. Instead, they increase the chance of DNA damage in cells that may lead to penile cancer. […] A risk factor is anything that increases the chance of getting a disease. Some risk factors for penile cancer, such as tobacco use, can be changed. However, risk factors also include things you cannot change, like getting older and your health history. […] Risk factors for penile cancer include: being uncircumcised. Circumcision may help prevent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). […] Men who were not circumcised at birth may have a higher risk of developing penile cancer. […] Having one or more of these risk factors does not mean that you will get penile cancer. Many people with risk factors never develop penile cancer, while others with no known risk factors do.

• #2

  https://winshipcancer.emory.edu/cancer-types-and-treatments/penile-cancer/prevention.php

  Penile cancer is quite rare in the U.S., with about 2,000 new cases diagnosed each year. […] While researchers are still working to understand exactly what causes penile cancer, there is enough information available to make recommendations regarding penile cancer prevention. […] Its not exactly clear what causes penile cancer, although researchers are learning more about the cancer every day. As with other types of cancer, penile cancer develops when abnormal cells grow out of control. This is generally caused by changes to cell DNA, also called genetic mutations. The genetic mutations that lead to penile cancer do not appear to be inheritable, meaning they are not passed down from one generation to the next. Most patients with penile cancer have no family history of the disease. […] About 50% of penile cancers are HPV-positive, but it is unclear if this indicates a causal relationship or merely a correlation. […] People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are at increased risk for penile cancer. This is because their bodies are less likely to fight off HPV infection. […] The risk is highest in men who smoke and have HPV.

• #2 Penile Cancer – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/cancers-of-the-kidney-and-genitourinary-tract/penile-cancer

  The cause of penile cancer may be long-standing irritation, usually under the foreskin. Other risk factors include having a sexually transmitted infection (particularly human papillomavirus infection or HIV), having balanitis, being uncircumcised, having poor hygiene, and using tobacco. […] Strategies to prevent penile cancer include circumcision in early life, improved long-term hygiene in uncircumcised men, and vaccination against the most common cancer-causing strains of human papillomavirus in adolescents.

• #2 HPV and Penile Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Insights

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/13/9/809

  The HPV genome typically persists as extrachromosomal DNA in host cells. Over time, in some cases, the HPV genome integrates into host cells to influence the host cell genome, manipulate cellular functions, and contribute to a tumorigenic transformation. However, integration is associated primarily with high-risk serotypes and is not necessary for carcinogenesis, as HPV-associated cancers may occur when the genome remains episomal. […] HPV vaccination is primarily used to prevent cervical cancer but has the potential to alleviate HPV-induced carcinogenesis in other cancers as well. Both LR and HR-HPV have been associated with penile cancer; however, HR-HPV has a greater prevalence. HPV 16 is the most prevalent serotype, accounting for 46% to 62.5% of HPV-associated penile cancers. Therefore, the administration of the HPV vaccine in males can reduce the onset of penile cancer.

• #3 Etiology of Penile Cancer | CoLab

  https://colab.ws/articles/10.1007%2F978-3-319-33220-8_2

  The etiology of penile cancer is still not fully understood. Currently two distinct pathways have been identified; one related to high risk human papilloma virus (hrHPV), the other to irritation and inflammation of the prepuce, for example secondary to lichen sclerosus (LS). […] Of the HPV subtypes, mainly high risk HPV (hrHPV) 16 and 18 have been detected in penile carcinomas and penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN). Generally it is mainly undifferentiated PeIN and basaloid, warty (condylomatous) and mixed warty-basaloid histological subtypes of cancer correlate with HPV-positivity. […] The eventual development of phimosis partially accounts for the relationship with penile cancer as well as the hypothesized immunologic deregulation of chronic inflammatory sites. Other risk factors contribute to either or both of these two pathways. For example, the protective effect of circumcision is explained by a reduction in the surface area susceptible to HPV infection, prevention of phimosis and the development of a keratinized surface replacing the normal mucosa (eukeratinisation). It also effectuates better genital hygiene, less smegma retention, and hence, less chronic irritation and/or inflammation.

• #3 Penile Cancer: What Every Man Should Know – Broward Urology Center

  https://www.browardurologycenter.com/patient-education/penile-cancer-what-every-man-should-know/

  Not being circumcised might increase a man’s chances of getting penile cancer. Circumcision is a procedure that removes all or part of the foreskin, and it’s usually done when a boy is just a baby. Some experts think that getting circumcised as an infant can help prevent penile cancer later in life. […] Phimosis is when the foreskin of the penis cannot be fully retracted, which can create an environment that leads to penile cancer if hygiene is poor. These conditions can lead to the accumulation of smegma. This substance can irritate and inflame the penile tissues, increasing cancer risk. […] Smoking or other tobacco use is another well-established risk factor for penile cancer. Research shows that smokers are three to four and a half times more likely to develop this cancer compared to non-smokers.

• #3 Penile Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/penile-cancer-5113785

  Lack of circumcision: The inability to properly retract the foreskin (phimosis) can lead to a persistent inflammatory response and increase the risk of penile cancer by anywhere from 25% to 60%. […] Cigarette smoking: Smoking independently increases the risk of invasive penile cancer by 450%. Persistent inflammation triggered by smoking is believed to be the cause, the risk of which increases in tandem with the number of pack-years you have smoked. […] Older age: Penile cancer is rarely seen in people under 55.

• #3 Understanding Penile Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Medanta

  https://www.medanta.org/patient-education-blog/preventing-penile-cancer-education-vaccination-and-safe-practices

  Many of the same high-risk strains of the HPV that cause cervical cancer have been found in people with penile cancer. The HPV associated with cervical and penile cancer is a sexually transmitted virus. Although HPV is present in nearly all instances of cervical cancer, its present about half the time in people with penile cancer. Still, HPV infection is a significant risk factor for penile cancer. […] Penile cancer is more common in people with human immunodeficiency virus. Its possible that the same sexual behaviours that increase a persons risk of HPV (for example, unprotected sex, multiple partners, etc.) also increase the risk of HIV infection. Its possible, too, that HIV infection alone increases cancer risk. Research is ongoing. […] Smoking cigarettes and chewing tobacco increases penile cancer risk. Tobacco may slow bodys ability to fight infection, raising risk. Tobacco use may damage cells, causing changes that lead to cancer.

• #3 Penile Cancer: Symptoms, Signs and Causes

  https://www.hcgoncology.com/types-of-cancers/penile-cancer-symptoms-and-causes/

  Uncircumcised men have a slightly higher risk of developing penile cancer as compared to circumcised men. In uncircumcised men, a mixture of dead skin cells, bacteria, and oils, called smegma, accumulates under the foreskin. If left unmanaged, smegma accumulation may increase the risk of penile cancer on the foreskin. This can increase the risk of inflammation and HPV infection, which are risk factors for penile cancer. […] Certain premalignant conditions of the penis may also serve as possible penile cancer causes. Cutaneous horn, leukoplakia, penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN), balanitis xerotica obliterans, Buschke-Lownstein tumor, and lichen sclerosus et atrophicus are some of the important premalignant conditions that can lead to penile cancer, if left untreated. […] Excessive exposure to UV radiation, particularly from tanning beds, is found to increase the risk of skin cancer, which can progress into penile cancer over time.

• #3 10 Hidden Causes of Penile Cancer You Shouldn’t Ignore – RajnishHospitals

  https://rajnishhospital.com/blogs/10-hidden-causes-of-penile-cancer-you-shouldnt-ignore/

  Smoking and various tobacco forms are linked with increased cancer risks, including penile cancer. Cigarette smoke contains carcinogens that contribute to cellular damage, leading to cancers. […] Certain chronic conditions like buried penis and phimosis complicate personal hygiene, resulting in ongoing irritation. Skin diseases like psoriasis and others can lead to infections and prolonged inflammation, further increasing the cancer risk. […] Sexual behavior contributes immensely to penile cancer risk factors. High-risk practices, a greater number of partners, and early sexual activity amplify the likelihood of contracting HPV and other infections. […] Being proactive about hidden causes of penile cancer allows for timely intervention. Recognizing these less obvious risk factors empowers you to act on prevention strategies.

• #3

  https://winshipcancer.emory.edu/cancer-types-and-treatments/penile-cancer/prevention.php

  Penile cancer is quite rare in the U.S., with about 2,000 new cases diagnosed each year. […] While researchers are still working to understand exactly what causes penile cancer, there is enough information available to make recommendations regarding penile cancer prevention. […] Its not exactly clear what causes penile cancer, although researchers are learning more about the cancer every day. As with other types of cancer, penile cancer develops when abnormal cells grow out of control. This is generally caused by changes to cell DNA, also called genetic mutations. The genetic mutations that lead to penile cancer do not appear to be inheritable, meaning they are not passed down from one generation to the next. Most patients with penile cancer have no family history of the disease. […] About 50% of penile cancers are HPV-positive, but it is unclear if this indicates a causal relationship or merely a correlation. […] People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are at increased risk for penile cancer. This is because their bodies are less likely to fight off HPV infection. […] The risk is highest in men who smoke and have HPV.

• #3 HPV and Penile Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Insights

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/13/9/809

  The HPV genome typically persists as extrachromosomal DNA in host cells. Over time, in some cases, the HPV genome integrates into host cells to influence the host cell genome, manipulate cellular functions, and contribute to a tumorigenic transformation. However, integration is associated primarily with high-risk serotypes and is not necessary for carcinogenesis, as HPV-associated cancers may occur when the genome remains episomal. […] HPV vaccination is primarily used to prevent cervical cancer but has the potential to alleviate HPV-induced carcinogenesis in other cancers as well. Both LR and HR-HPV have been associated with penile cancer; however, HR-HPV has a greater prevalence. HPV 16 is the most prevalent serotype, accounting for 46% to 62.5% of HPV-associated penile cancers. Therefore, the administration of the HPV vaccine in males can reduce the onset of penile cancer.

• #3 Penile Cancer – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/cancers-of-the-kidney-and-genitourinary-tract/penile-cancer

  The cause of penile cancer may be long-standing irritation, usually under the foreskin. Other risk factors include having a sexually transmitted infection (particularly human papillomavirus infection or HIV), having balanitis, being uncircumcised, having poor hygiene, and using tobacco. […] Strategies to prevent penile cancer include circumcision in early life, improved long-term hygiene in uncircumcised men, and vaccination against the most common cancer-causing strains of human papillomavirus in adolescents.

• #3 Penile Cancer Prevention: 5 Tips You Should Know

  https://www.healthline.com/health/penile-cancer-prevention

  Tobacco use can increase your risk of developing several kinds of cancer, including penile cancer. […] As mentioned, STIs particularly HPV and HIV are associated with an increased risk of penile cancer. […] You’re most at risk of developing penile cancer if you have a history of HPV or HIV. […] Certain lifestyle changes can lower your risk of developing penile cancer.

• #4 Etiology of Penile Cancer | CoLab

  https://colab.ws/articles/10.1007%2F978-3-319-33220-8_2

  The etiology of penile cancer is still not fully understood. Currently two distinct pathways have been identified; one related to high risk human papilloma virus (hrHPV), the other to irritation and inflammation of the prepuce, for example secondary to lichen sclerosus (LS). […] Of the HPV subtypes, mainly high risk HPV (hrHPV) 16 and 18 have been detected in penile carcinomas and penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN). Generally it is mainly undifferentiated PeIN and basaloid, warty (condylomatous) and mixed warty-basaloid histological subtypes of cancer correlate with HPV-positivity. […] The eventual development of phimosis partially accounts for the relationship with penile cancer as well as the hypothesized immunologic deregulation of chronic inflammatory sites. Other risk factors contribute to either or both of these two pathways. For example, the protective effect of circumcision is explained by a reduction in the surface area susceptible to HPV infection, prevention of phimosis and the development of a keratinized surface replacing the normal mucosa (eukeratinisation). It also effectuates better genital hygiene, less smegma retention, and hence, less chronic irritation and/or inflammation.

• #4 HPV and Penile Cancer: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Insights

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/13/9/809

  Tobacco use, including smoking, has been determined as an additional risk factor for penile cancer. Smoking has a dose–response relationship, where smokers consuming more than 10 cigarettes a day had a significantly higher risk for PC compared to those consuming 1–10 cigarettes a day. Tobacco carcinogens collect in the smegma secretions of the penis, creating a microenvironment for carcinogens to induce increased DNA damage per mutagenic event. Furthermore, current smokers have an increased risk for HPV (OR = 1.19) and oncogenic HPV (OR = 1.24), eliciting a compounded effect on the risk of penile cancer by simultaneously elevating the incidence of HPV. […] The pathophysiology of HPV-associated penile cancer is better understood than that of HPV-independent penile cancer. HR-HPV 16 binds to Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans (HSPGs) and undergoes conformation changes to initiate early virus–host cell interactions. The virus also interacts with α6-integrins to evoke intracellular signaling cascades that allow for early viral genome amplification. With constant exposure to HPV, the penile tissue cells will integrate the HPV genome into the host cell genome, leading to an overexpression of HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7.

• #4 10 Hidden Causes of Penile Cancer You Shouldn’t Ignore – RajnishHospitals

  https://rajnishhospital.com/blogs/10-hidden-causes-of-penile-cancer-you-shouldnt-ignore/

  Smoking and various tobacco forms are linked with increased cancer risks, including penile cancer. Cigarette smoke contains carcinogens that contribute to cellular damage, leading to cancers. […] Certain chronic conditions like buried penis and phimosis complicate personal hygiene, resulting in ongoing irritation. Skin diseases like psoriasis and others can lead to infections and prolonged inflammation, further increasing the cancer risk. […] Sexual behavior contributes immensely to penile cancer risk factors. High-risk practices, a greater number of partners, and early sexual activity amplify the likelihood of contracting HPV and other infections. […] Being proactive about hidden causes of penile cancer allows for timely intervention. Recognizing these less obvious risk factors empowers you to act on prevention strategies.

• #4 Penile cancer ▷ causes, symptoms & specialists

  https://www.primomedico.com/en/treatment/penile-cancer/

  Body hygiene assumes an major role in the pathogenesis of penile cancer, as previously mentioned. That means regular and thorough genital washing is a powerful way to prevent the disease. Circumcised men have a significantly lower risk of developing penile cancer than non-circumcised men. HPV vaccination is an effective way to prevent infection with the virus. Although this vaccination is recommended more often for women and girls for prevention of cervical cancer, men and boys are also recommended to receive it. Use of condoms during sexual intercourse is also advised, because they can also prevent infection with HPV. Regular self-examination of the penis region should also help to recognize skin changes and hardening early on, allowing for rapid medical treatment.

• #5 Etiology of Penile Cancer | CoLab

  https://colab.ws/articles/10.1007%2F978-3-319-33220-8_2

  The etiology of penile cancer is still not fully understood. Currently two distinct pathways have been identified; one related to high risk human papilloma virus (hrHPV), the other to irritation and inflammation of the prepuce, for example secondary to lichen sclerosus (LS). […] Of the HPV subtypes, mainly high risk HPV (hrHPV) 16 and 18 have been detected in penile carcinomas and penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN). Generally it is mainly undifferentiated PeIN and basaloid, warty (condylomatous) and mixed warty-basaloid histological subtypes of cancer correlate with HPV-positivity. […] The eventual development of phimosis partially accounts for the relationship with penile cancer as well as the hypothesized immunologic deregulation of chronic inflammatory sites. Other risk factors contribute to either or both of these two pathways. For example, the protective effect of circumcision is explained by a reduction in the surface area susceptible to HPV infection, prevention of phimosis and the development of a keratinized surface replacing the normal mucosa (eukeratinisation). It also effectuates better genital hygiene, less smegma retention, and hence, less chronic irritation and/or inflammation.

• #5 Penile Cancer – Causes & Symptoms

  https://www.instituteofurology.in/penile-cancer-causes-symptoms/

  Certain genetic factors may contribute to an increased risk of developing penile cancer. Family history of the disease or specific genetic mutations can play a role in the susceptibility to penile cancer. […] It is important to note that having one or more of these risk factors does not necessarily mean that an individual will develop penile cancer. However, understanding these risk factors can help individuals make informed decisions regarding their lifestyle choices and seek appropriate preventive measures. […] Reducing the risk of penile cancer can be achieved by practicing safe sex, including consistent condom use, getting vaccinated against HPV, maintaining good genital hygiene, quitting smoking and tobacco use, and seeking regular medical check-ups to monitor any potential changes or symptoms. By addressing these risk factors, individuals can take proactive steps to minimize their chances of developing penile cancer.

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