Rak prącia
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Rak prącia, stanowiący mniej niż 1% wszystkich nowotworów złośliwych u mężczyzn w krajach rozwiniętych, charakteryzuje się dwoma głównymi ścieżkami etiopatogenetycznymi: związanym z zakażeniem HPV (głównie typy 16 i 18) oraz niezależnym od HPV. Rak związany z HPV występuje częściej u młodszych mężczyzn z licznymi partnerami seksualnymi i historią palenia, podczas gdy rak niezależny od HPV dotyczy starszych pacjentów i jest powiązany z czynnikami takimi jak stulejka, przewlekłe zapalenia i zła higiena. Zmiany prekursorowe rozwijają się od hiperplazji płaskonabłonkowej do śródnabłonkowej neoplazji wysokiego stopnia i inwazyjnego raka. Na poziomie molekularnym dominują mutacje w genach TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH-1 i PIK3CA, a także amplifikacje MYC i EGFR. HPV wywiera efekt onkogenny przez onkoproteiny E6 i E7, które inaktywują p53 i pRb, co prowadzi do niekontrolowanej proliferacji komórek. W raku niezależnym od HPV obserwuje się hipermetylację promotora p16INK4a, mutacje p53 i nadekspresję MDM2, co koreluje z gorszym rokowaniem.

Patogeneza Raka Prącia

Rak prącia (Rak penisa) jest rzadkim, ale agresywnym nowotworem z wysoką śmiertelnością i chorobowością, który stanowi mniej niż 1% wszystkich nowotworów złośliwych u mężczyzn w krajach rozwiniętych, jednak jest znaczącym problemem zdrowia publicznego w krajach rozwijających się12. Rozumienie patogenezy raka prącia jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii profilaktyki, wczesnego wykrywania i leczenia. Przede wszystkim w raku prącia opisano dwie różne ścieżki etiopatogenetyczne: jedną związaną z zakażeniem wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV) oraz drugą niezależną od tego zakażenia34.

Dualna patogeneza raka prącia

Rak prącia może rozwijać się na dwa główne sposoby, które różnią się pod względem mechanizmów molekularnych i czynników ryzyka5:

1. Patogeneza związana z HPV – Rak prącia związany z HPV występuje częściej u stosunkowo młodych mężczyzn, którzy zgłaszają dużą liczbę partnerów seksualnych i historię palenia tytoniu6. W przypadkach raków związanych z HPV, zakażenie przewlekłe wysokoonkogennymi typami wirusa (głównie HPV-16, HPV-18) prowadzi do rozwoju nowotworu poprzez mechanizm podobny do obserwowanego w raku szyjki macicy7. HPV wykrywa się w 30-50% raków prącia, a liczba ta jest jeszcze większa w przypadku guzów brodawkowatych i raka in situ8.

2. Patogeneza niezależna od HPV – Rak prącia niezależny od HPV przeważa w krajach o wysokich dochodach i dotyczy głównie starszych mężczyzn. Etiopatogeneza niezależnego od HPV raka prącia jest mniej dobrze poznana, jednak czynniki takie jak stulejka, przewlekłe stany zapalne, zła higiena osobista i urazy wydają się być czynnikami powiązanymi9. Zarówno rak prącia niezależny od HPV, jak i jego prekursor, dysplastyczna śródnabłonkowa neoplazja prącia (dPEIN), są prawie zawsze negatywne dla p16 i często wykazują nadekspresję p53 w badaniach immunohistochemicznych10.

Zmiany przedrakowe w raku prącia

Rak prącia rozwija się z lezji prekursorowych, które zazwyczaj postępują od zmian niskiego do wysokiego stopnia11. Dla raków prącia związanych z HPV sekwencja jest następująca:

Jednak w niektórych przypadkach zmiany niedysplastyczne lub łagodnie dysplastyczne mogą bezpośrednio przekształcić się w raka, na przykład płaskie zmiany prącia (FPL) i kłykciny kończyste16. W przypadku raków niezależnych od HPV najczęstszą zmianą prekursorową jest liszaj twardzinowy (LS)17.

Erytroplazja Queyrata i choroba Bowena to formy śródnabłonkowej neoplazji płaskonabłonkowej z wysokim wskaźnikiem progresji do inwazyjnego raka płaskonabłonkowego, szacowanym na 10-33%18.

Mechanizmy molekularne w patogenezie raka prącia

Rozwój raka prącia na poziomie molekularnym wiąże się z wieloma zmianami genetycznymi i epigenetycznymi, które prowadzą do zaburzenia ścieżek sygnałowych kontrolujących podział komórki, apoptozę i inwazję19.

Zmiany genetyczne w raku prącia

W raku prącia najczęściej raportowane mutacje dotyczą genów2021:

  • TP53 – gen supresorowy, którego produkt białkowy p53 reguluje cykl komórkowy i apoptozę
  • CDKN2A – koduje białko p16INK4a, które hamuje cykl komórkowy
  • FAT1 – supresor nowotworowy zaangażowany w adhezję komórkową
  • NOTCH-1 – receptor zaangażowany w różnicowanie i proliferację komórek
  • PIK3CA – komponent szlaku PI3K/AKT/mTOR, ważny w proliferacji i przeżyciu komórek

Zmiany numeryczne obejmują zwiększoną liczbę kopii genów MYC i EGFR, a także amplifikacje w miejscach integracji HPV22. Profil genomowy raka prącia zwykle zawiera zmiany numeryczne w genach MYC, EGFR i CCND123.

W raku prącia obserwuje się również utratę heterozygotyczności (LOH) w pobliżu genów supresorowych guza (2q, 6p, 8q, 9p, 12q, 17p13), która występuje jeszcze częściej w przerzutach do węzłów chłonnych24.

Szlaki sygnałowe w patogenezie raka prącia

W raku prącia najczęściej zaburzone są następujące szlaki sygnałowe2526:

  • Szlak Notch – najczęściej zaangażowany szlak sygnałowy w badaniach eksplorujących cały eksom
  • Szlak RTK-RAS – kluczowy w regulacji proliferacji komórkowej
  • Szlak Hippo – zaangażowany w kontrolę rozmiaru narządów i supresor nowotworowy

Najczęstsze zaburzone szlaki, zarówno w kancerogenezie prącia zależnej od HPV, jak i niezależnej od HPV, obejmują szlaki p14ARF/MDM2/p53 i/lub p16INK4a/cyklina D/Rb27.

Mechanizmy związane z HPV

HPV wywiera swój efekt onkogenny poprzez ekspresję onkoprotein E6 i E7, które wiążą się i inaktywują produkty genów supresorowych guza p53 i Rb2829:

Onkoproteina E6 celuje w p53, prowadząc do jego degradacji, co uniemożliwia naprawę DNA i wejście komórki na drogę apoptozy30.

Onkoproteina E7 wiąże się z białkiem retinoblastoma (pRb), prowadząc do zaburzenia cyklu komórkowego i niekontrolowanej proliferacji31.

Integracja HPV-16 w raku prącia zachodzi w locus chromosomalnym 8q21.3 (gen FAM92A1) i w locus 16p13.3 (gen TRAP1). Ta integracja HPV oznacza punkt końcowy w klonalnej selekcji komórek, czego wynikiem są zmienione geny funkcjonalne, co pozwala na niekontrolowany wzrost i odróżnicowanie, które mogą przekształcić się w inwazyjnego raka32.

Wpływ HPV na nabłonek płaskonabłonkowy może przebiegać na dwa sposoby: jako zakażenie wirusowe lub jako wirusowa przedrakowa zmiana. Zakażenie HPV jest w dużej mierze przejściowe i występuje, gdy nabłonek płaskonabłonkowy wspiera produkcję wirionów i rozwija się w morfologiczną zmianę niskiego stopnia (np. kłykciny i łagodną dysplazję). Natomiast przedrakowa zmiana związana z HPV (np. PeIN związana z HPV) występuje, gdy genom wirusa integruje się z genomem gospodarza, prowadząc do indukowanej wirusem nadekspresji onkogenów, które napędzają proliferację komórek, co może rozwinąć się w transformację nowotworową33.

Mechanizmy niezależne od HPV

W rakach prącia niezależnych od HPV obserwuje się następujące zmiany3435:

  • Wyciszenie genu p16INK4a przez hipermetylację promotora
  • Mutacje somatyczne genu p53
  • Nadekspresja MDM2
  • Mutacja p14ARF

Z molekularnego punktu widzenia, raki prącia negatywne pod względem HPV są zazwyczaj związane z mutacjami p53, co samo w sobie zostało zidentyfikowane jako negatywny czynnik prognostyczny36. Mutacje p53 ostatecznie prowadzą do niezahamowanej proliferacji komórek i transformacji nowotworowej37.

Ścieżki zaangażowane w raka prącia związanego z HPV są takie same jak te, które są zmienione w raku prącia niepowodowanym przez zakażenie HPV, z udziałem następujących mechanizmów: wyciszenie genów supresorowych guza, hipermetylacja genów promotorowych i nadekspresja onkogenów38.

Mechanizmy progresji i przerzutowania raka prącia

Mechanizmy molekularne zaangażowane w bardziej zaawansowanego raka prącia są prawdopodobnie takie same w obu typach guzów (HPV-dodatnich lub HPV-ujemnych)39.

Mechanizmy inwazji i przerzutowania

W raku prącia zidentyfikowano również zmiany w ekspresji genów ras i myc, E-kadheryny, metaloproteinaz macierzy (MMP) 2 i MMP-9, cyklooksygenazy i syntazy prostaglandyny E2. Są to prawdopodobnie późne zdarzenia i dlatego byłyby zaangażowane w mechanizmy progresji choroby, takie jak angiogeneza, inwazja i przerzuty. Niektóre z powyższych czynników uważa się za czynniki predykcyjne przerzutów do węzłów chłonnych4041.

Przerzuty raka prącia najczęściej rozwijają się poprzez drogę limfatyczną. Limfatyki napletka łączą się z limfatykami trzonu prącia. Te odprowadzają do powierzchownych węzłów pachwinowych. Ze względu na krzyżowanie się limfatyków, komórki nowotworowe mają dostęp do węzłów chłonnych w obu obszarach pachwinowych42.

Powięź Bucka, która otacza ciała jamiste, działa jako tymczasowa bariera. W końcu rak penetruje powięź Bucka i błonę białawą, gdzie ma dostęp do unaczynienia i z którego możliwe jest rozprzestrzenianie się ogólnoustrojowe43.

Mikrośrodowisko immunologiczne raka prącia

Różnorodne komórki immunologiczne, takie jak limfocyty T cytotoksyczne (CTL), makrofagi związane z guzem i komórki supresorowe pochodzenia szpikowego, wykazują zdolność infiltracji guzów raka prącia, przy czym wykazano odrębne krajobrazy immunologiczne w guzach HPV-dodatnich w porównaniu z guzami HPV-ujemnymi44.

Pejzaż immunologiczny raka prącia definiują unikalne wzorce infiltracji komórek immunologicznych, które służą również jako wskaźniki prognostyczne przerzutów i przeżycia45. Status zakażenia wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV) może być wykorzystany do stratyfikacji pacjentów na dwie grupy o różnym mikrośrodowisku immunologicznym guza (TIME) w oparciu o kluczowe markery, takie jak ligand programowanej śmierci 1 (PD-L1)46.

Czynniki ryzyka w patogenezie raka prącia

Dokładna kancerogeneza raka prącia jest nadal słabo poznana, ale zidentyfikowano kilka czynników ryzyka47. Staje się oczywiste, że predyspozycje genetyczne, zakażenie wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV), praktyki higieniczne, czynniki związane ze stylem życia i uwarunkowania społeczno-ekonomiczne wspólnie przyczyniają się do złożonej etiologii tej choroby48.

Infekcja HPV

Zakażenie HPV może zwiększać ryzyko rozwoju raka prącia49. Meta-analiza wykazała, że zbiorcza częstość wykrywania DNA HPV wśród przypadków raka prącia wynosiła 50,8%. HPV-16, HPV-6 i HPV-18 są najczęściej występującymi typami50.

W typach związanych z HPV, guzy o morfologii podstawnej i/lub brodawkowatej wykazują HPV częściej51.

Brak obrzezania i stulejka

Brak obrzezania jest dobrze przyjętym czynnikiem ryzyka raka prącia52. Obrzezanie noworodków jest uznawane za silnie ochronne przed rakiem prącia53. Proponowane czynniki etiologiczne związane z nienaruszonym napletkiem to smegma i stulejka54.

Stulejka, czyli niemożność cofnięcia napletka nad żołędź, została stwierdzona u 25-60% pacjentów z rakiem prącia55. Jest ona związana ze zwiększoną częstością infekcji, a także zmianami dysplastycznymi worka napletkowego56.

Mechanizmy ochronne obrzezania są uważane za związane z poprawą higieny, zmniejszonym ryzykiem przenoszenia HPV i HIV, a także zmniejszonym przewlekłym zapaleniem i zapaleniem żołędzi57.

Przewlekłe zapalenie i higiena

Przewlekłe zapalenie jest proponowanym mechanizmem kancerogenezy w wielu rodzajach nowotworów złośliwych58. Historia zapalenia żołędzi i napletka została zgłoszona odpowiednio u 45% pacjentów z rakiem prącia w porównaniu do 8% w grupie kontrolnej59.

Liszaj twardzinowy, przewlekła choroba zapalna, a także postępujący wariant znany jako balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), również zostały powiązane z rozwojem nowotworów złośliwych60.

Smegma, produkt złuszczających się komórek nabłonkowych i produktów ubocznych bakterii, znajduje się między żołędziem a napletkiem. Przewlekłe zapalenie wywołane przez smegmę może predysponować do rozwoju stulejki, a także raka płaskonabłonkowego61.

Inne czynniki ryzyka

Inne czynniki ryzyka związane z rakiem prącia obejmują626364:

  • Palenie tytoniu – zaangażowane jako czynnik ryzyka dla wielu miejsc nowotworzenia, a rak prącia nie jest wyjątkiem
  • Terapia fotochemiczna PUVA (Psoralen UV-A) – skuteczne i szeroko stosowane leczenie przewlekłej łuszczycy plackowatej
  • Otyłość – dobrze rozpoznany czynnik ryzyka nowotworów złośliwych ogólnie
  • Status społeczno-ekonomiczny – nierówności społeczno-ekonomiczne są powiązane ze zwiększoną zapadalnością na nowotwory złośliwe ogólnie
  • Zakażenie HIV – związane ze zwiększonym ryzykiem raka prącia
  • Uraz prącia – czynnik ryzyka wymieniony w wielu badaniach

Implikacje kliniczne i terapeutyczne

Rozumienie mechanizmów molekularnych i dróg patogenezy raka prącia ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania ukierunkowanych strategii terapeutycznych i poprawy wyników klinicznych65.

Znaczenie prognostyczne alteracji molekularnych

Rola prognostyczna większości alteracji molekularnych w raku prącia pozostaje nieuchwytna6667. Wyniki badań wykazały również prognostyczną wartość komórek immunologicznych, takich jak makrofagi związane z guzem, markerów immunologicznych, takich jak ligand programowanej śmierci-1 (PD-L1), oraz statusu HPV w raku prącia68.

Chociaż rak prącia został podzielony na dwie różne ścieżki etiologiczne (związane z HPV i niezależne od HPV), ogólny profil mutacyjny raków prącia związanych z HPV nie różni się znacząco od guzów niezależnych od HPV w opublikowanych badaniach69.

Rola HPV jako czynnika prognostycznego w raku prącia pozostaje niejasna. Nie jest pewne, czy nowotwory związane z zakażeniem HPV mają lepsze profile przeżycia niż nowotwory bez zakażenia HPV70.

Potencjalne cele terapeutyczne

Niestety, geny najczęściej zmienione w raku prącia, w tym TP53, CDKN2A, PIK3CA, MYC i EGFR, okazały się trudne do ukierunkowania oddzielnie71. Rozwój ukierunkowanego leczenia jest utrudniony przez słabą znajomość krajobrazu molekularnego raka prącia72.

Terapie oparte na immunologii, w tym blokada punktów kontrolnych immunologicznych, adoptywne terapie komórkami T i ukierunkowane na HPV szczepionki terapeutyczne, są każda obiecującymi kandydatami do terapii, choć te zabiegi są w dużej mierze niezbadane w raku prącia; jednak są one obecnie oceniane prospektywnie73.

Podatność komórek supresorowych pochodzenia szpikowego (MDSCs) na hamowanie sygnałów indukcji (np. COX2-prostaglandyny) i sygnałów przeżycia (np. PI3K) stwarza możliwości blokowania tych komórek i stworzenia bardziej przyjaznego środowiska dla skuteczności immunoterapii74.

Ograniczenia i przyszłe kierunki badań

Istniejące badania są ograniczone pod względem wielkości próby, heterogeniczności socjodemograficznej i zmienności w metodologii sekwencjonowania DNA7576. Istnieje szczególna luka w wiedzy na temat charakterystyki profili molekularnych w odniesieniu do statusu HPV7778.

Dalsze badania powinny koncentrować się nie tylko na drogach patogenicznych zależnych od HPV, ale także na niezwiązanych z HPV czynnikach molekularnych i genetycznych, które odgrywają rolę w rozwoju raka prącia7980.

Potrzebne są duże, wieloośrodkowe badania, aby kontynuować ścieżkę molekularnej charakterystyki raka prącia81. Modele przedkliniczne, które poprawią zrozumienie środowiska immunologicznego guza i mechanizmów leżących u podstaw odpowiedzi na terapie oparte na immunologii, są potrzebne82.

Łączone ukierunkowanie na różne ścieżki może stanowić ważne podejście terapeutyczne w raku płaskonabłonkowym prącia83.

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  1. 16.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html
    Penile cancer is a rare neoplasm representing less than 1% of all malignancies in the USA and Europe but is a significant public health hazard in the developing world. […] Many risk factors have been identified for penile cancer including phimosis, lack of circumcision, obesity, lichen sclerosis, chronic inflammation, smoking, UVA phototherapy, socioeconomic status, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and immune compromised states. […] The lack of circumcision is a well-accepted risk factor for penile cancer. […] The protective mechanisms of circumcision are thought to be owed to improved hygiene, decreased risk of HPV and HIV transmission, as well as reduced chronic inflammation and balanitis. […] Phimosis is a pathologic inability to retract the foreskin and can be found in 25-75% of penile cancer patients.
  • #2 Penile Cancer: Case Report
    https://www.clinmedjournals.org/articles/iauc/international-archives-of-urology-and-complications-iauc-4-045.php?jid=iauc
    Penile cancer is the most rarely observed cancer among male urogenital system tumors and is observed at an annual rate of 1/100000. Penile cancer risk increases significantly with increasing age, poor hygiene, and the presence of a foreskin. The most frequently observed type is the squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Clinical examination of the inguinal lymph nodes is critical, as nodal involvement is a poor prognostic feature. Patients with T2 or higher-grade tumors and lymphovascular invasion are at high risk of nodal involvement and probably should have a lymph node dissection. Penile lesions are often infected and cause significant surrounding inflammation. Despite this, 50% of palpable nodes will be malignant. Complications are relatively common after an inguinal lymph node dissection (ILD) and proper meticulous surgical technique is important to decrease postoperative morbidity.
  • #3 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] Reported top-ranked mutations involve TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH-1 and PIK3CA. […] Numerical alterations involve gains in MYC and EGFR, as well as amplifications in HPV integration loci. […] Notch, RTK-RAS and Hippo pathways are frequently deregulated. […] Nevertheless, the relevance of the identified alterations, their role in signaling pathways or their association with HPV status remain elusive. […] Combined targeting of different pathways might represent a valid therapeutic approach in PSCC. […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection.
  • #4 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/1/251
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection. HPV-associated PSCC is more prevalent in relatively young males, who commonly refer to a high number of sexual partners and smoking history. […] HPV-independent PSCC is predominant in high-income countries and affects mainly older men. The etiopathogenesis of HPV-independent PSCC is less well understood; however, phimosis, chronic inflammation, poor personal hygiene and trauma seem to be associated factors. […] Somatic mutations in cancer-related genes TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH1 and PIK3CA are consistently identified in PSCC. Copy number alterations have also been reported in three of these genes (TP53, CDKN2A and PIK3CA), which speaks to the relevance of these genes in PSCC carcinogenesis.
  • #5 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection. HPV-associated PSCC is more prevalent in relatively young males, who commonly refer to a high number of sexual partners and smoking history. […] HPV-independent PSCC is predominant in high-income countries and affects mainly older men. The etiopathogenesis of HPV-independent PSCC is less well understood; however, phimosis, chronic inflammation, poor personal hygiene and trauma seem to be associated factors. […] Both HPV-independent PSCC and its precursor, dPEIN, are almost always negative for p16 and frequently show p53 overexpression by IHC.
  • #6 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/1/251
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection. HPV-associated PSCC is more prevalent in relatively young males, who commonly refer to a high number of sexual partners and smoking history. […] HPV-independent PSCC is predominant in high-income countries and affects mainly older men. The etiopathogenesis of HPV-independent PSCC is less well understood; however, phimosis, chronic inflammation, poor personal hygiene and trauma seem to be associated factors. […] Somatic mutations in cancer-related genes TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH1 and PIK3CA are consistently identified in PSCC. Copy number alterations have also been reported in three of these genes (TP53, CDKN2A and PIK3CA), which speaks to the relevance of these genes in PSCC carcinogenesis.
  • #7 Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas
    https://www.actasdermo.org/en-penile-squamous-cell-carcinoma-articulo-S1578219012001990
    Penile SCC caused by hrHPV infection arises from a precursor lesion produced by the virus via a carcinogenic pathway similar to that involved in cervical cancer. Nevertheless, tissue-specific and hormonal mechanisms also appear to exert an influence, as penile SCC and cervical cancer are caused by the same infectious agents but differ substantially in terms of incidence and age of onset. […] The initiating event is persistent infection of the squamous epithelium by hrHPV, followed by a series of epigenetic alterations that lead to the malignant transformation of the infected cell. hrHPV expresses the oncoproteins E6 and E7, which bind to and inactivate the tumor suppressor gene products p53 and pRb. E6 and E7 play a key role in inducing and maintaining the transformed phenotype of the infected cell. hrHPV types alter the p14arf/MDM2/p53 and p16INK4a/cyclinD/Rb pathways and interfere with the control of cell division and apoptosis. The functional inactivation of pRB by E7 leads to overexpression of p16INK4a due to the lack of negative feedback; accordingly, p16INK4a overexpression can be used as a marker of HPV infection.
  • #8 Penile Cancer
    https://www.urology-textbook.com/penile-cancer.html
    Carcinoma of the penis is most common squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and originates from the epithelium of the glans or inner prepuce. […] SCC of the penis has pathologic and clinical features in common with SCC of other sites such as the cervix, anus, and oropharynx. […] Circumcision performed after birth is an effective preventive measure against the development of penile carcinoma. […] Smegma retention and chronic balanitis is a risk factor for penile cancer. […] HPV is detectable in 30-50% of penile carcinomas, and the number is even more significant in warty tumors and CIS. […] HPV plays a less critical role in the development of penile carcinoma than in female cervical carcinoma. […] Smoking is a relevant risk factor for penile carcinoma: approximately fivefold relative risk (dose-dependent). […] Lichen sclerosus is a risk factor probably due to common risk factors.
  • #9 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    HPV-independent PSCC is predominant in high-income countries and affects mainly older men. […] The etiopathogenesis of HPV-independent PSCC is less well understood; however, phimosis, chronic inflammation, poor personal hygiene and trauma seem to be associated factors. […] Both HPV-independent PSCC and its precursor, dPEIN, are almost always negative for p16 and frequently show p53 overexpression by IHC. […] Patients with PSCC frequently develop early loco-regional and angiolymphatic spread and have a devastating prognosis. […] The management of advanced disease is hampered by partial and short-term response to chemotherapy. […] The development of novel biomarkers and therapeutic options is hampered by a limited knowledge of the genomic landscape of PSCC. […] The most frequent (but not the most studied) somatic mutations were identified in NBPF1 (13/24; 54%), followed by MLL3 (9/24; 37.5%).
  • #10 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection. HPV-associated PSCC is more prevalent in relatively young males, who commonly refer to a high number of sexual partners and smoking history. […] HPV-independent PSCC is predominant in high-income countries and affects mainly older men. The etiopathogenesis of HPV-independent PSCC is less well understood; however, phimosis, chronic inflammation, poor personal hygiene and trauma seem to be associated factors. […] Both HPV-independent PSCC and its precursor, dPEIN, are almost always negative for p16 and frequently show p53 overexpression by IHC.
  • #11 Penile cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_cancer
    Penile cancer arises from precursor lesions, which generally progress from low-grade to high-grade lesions. For HPV related penile cancers this sequence is as follows: Squamous hyperplasia; Low-grade penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN); High-grade PIN (carcinoma in situ Bowen’s disease, Erythroplasia of Queyrat and bowenoid papulosis (BP)); Invasive carcinoma of the penis. […] However, in some cases, non-dysplastic or mildly dysplastic lesions may progress directly into cancer. Examples include flat penile lesions (FPL) and condylomata acuminata. […] In HPV negative cancers, the most common precursor lesion is lichen sclerosus (LS).
  • #12 Penile cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_cancer
    Penile cancer arises from precursor lesions, which generally progress from low-grade to high-grade lesions. For HPV related penile cancers this sequence is as follows: Squamous hyperplasia; Low-grade penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN); High-grade PIN (carcinoma in situ Bowen’s disease, Erythroplasia of Queyrat and bowenoid papulosis (BP)); Invasive carcinoma of the penis. […] However, in some cases, non-dysplastic or mildly dysplastic lesions may progress directly into cancer. Examples include flat penile lesions (FPL) and condylomata acuminata. […] In HPV negative cancers, the most common precursor lesion is lichen sclerosus (LS).
  • #13 Penile cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_cancer
    Penile cancer arises from precursor lesions, which generally progress from low-grade to high-grade lesions. For HPV related penile cancers this sequence is as follows: Squamous hyperplasia; Low-grade penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN); High-grade PIN (carcinoma in situ Bowen’s disease, Erythroplasia of Queyrat and bowenoid papulosis (BP)); Invasive carcinoma of the penis. […] However, in some cases, non-dysplastic or mildly dysplastic lesions may progress directly into cancer. Examples include flat penile lesions (FPL) and condylomata acuminata. […] In HPV negative cancers, the most common precursor lesion is lichen sclerosus (LS).
  • #14 Penile cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_cancer
    Penile cancer arises from precursor lesions, which generally progress from low-grade to high-grade lesions. For HPV related penile cancers this sequence is as follows: Squamous hyperplasia; Low-grade penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN); High-grade PIN (carcinoma in situ Bowen’s disease, Erythroplasia of Queyrat and bowenoid papulosis (BP)); Invasive carcinoma of the penis. […] However, in some cases, non-dysplastic or mildly dysplastic lesions may progress directly into cancer. Examples include flat penile lesions (FPL) and condylomata acuminata. […] In HPV negative cancers, the most common precursor lesion is lichen sclerosus (LS).
  • #15 Penile cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_cancer
    Penile cancer arises from precursor lesions, which generally progress from low-grade to high-grade lesions. For HPV related penile cancers this sequence is as follows: Squamous hyperplasia; Low-grade penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN); High-grade PIN (carcinoma in situ Bowen’s disease, Erythroplasia of Queyrat and bowenoid papulosis (BP)); Invasive carcinoma of the penis. […] However, in some cases, non-dysplastic or mildly dysplastic lesions may progress directly into cancer. Examples include flat penile lesions (FPL) and condylomata acuminata. […] In HPV negative cancers, the most common precursor lesion is lichen sclerosus (LS).
  • #16 Penile cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_cancer
    Penile cancer arises from precursor lesions, which generally progress from low-grade to high-grade lesions. For HPV related penile cancers this sequence is as follows: Squamous hyperplasia; Low-grade penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN); High-grade PIN (carcinoma in situ Bowen’s disease, Erythroplasia of Queyrat and bowenoid papulosis (BP)); Invasive carcinoma of the penis. […] However, in some cases, non-dysplastic or mildly dysplastic lesions may progress directly into cancer. Examples include flat penile lesions (FPL) and condylomata acuminata. […] In HPV negative cancers, the most common precursor lesion is lichen sclerosus (LS).
  • #17 Penile cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penile_cancer
    Penile cancer arises from precursor lesions, which generally progress from low-grade to high-grade lesions. For HPV related penile cancers this sequence is as follows: Squamous hyperplasia; Low-grade penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN); High-grade PIN (carcinoma in situ Bowen’s disease, Erythroplasia of Queyrat and bowenoid papulosis (BP)); Invasive carcinoma of the penis. […] However, in some cases, non-dysplastic or mildly dysplastic lesions may progress directly into cancer. Examples include flat penile lesions (FPL) and condylomata acuminata. […] In HPV negative cancers, the most common precursor lesion is lichen sclerosus (LS).
  • #18 Understanding the Pathophysiology of Penile Cancer and Its Preneoplastic Lesions | Oncohema Key
    https://oncohemakey.com/understanding-the-pathophysiology-of-penile-cancer-and-its-preneoplastic-lesions/
    However, mutational effects on p53 itself ultimately lead to uninhibited cell proliferation and malignant transformation. […] Ongoing research continues to evaluate other possible HPV-negative etiologies on a molecular level. […] In fact, mouse studies have identified increased amounts of these molecules in tissue samples representing invasive SCC as well as lymph node metastases. […] The following section will focus on the pathophysiology of penile cancer and its preneoplastic lesions. […] Erythroplasia of Queyrat and Bowens disease both refer to forms of squamous intraepithelial neoplasia with a high rate of progression to invasive SCC. Progression rates to penile cancer are cited as high as 1033 %. […] Like most SCCs of the penis, HPV types 16 and 18 play an important role in the pathophysiology of CIS of the penis. […] Specific risk factors have been identified, and HPV has been proven to play a pivotal role in a significant subset of cases.
  • #19 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] The genomic profile of PSCC also typically contains numerical alterations in MYC, EGFR and CCND1. […] Although PSCC has been divided into two different etiologic pathways (HPV-associated and -independent), the overall mutational profile of HPV-associated PSCC is not considerably different from HPV-independent tumors in the published studies. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] Unfortunately, the genes most frequently altered in PSCC, including TP53, CDKN2A, PIK3CA, MYC, and EGFR, have proven to be challenging to target separately. […] Therefore, large multicenter studies are urgently needed to continue on the path of the molecular characterization of PSCC.
  • #20 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] Reported top-ranked mutations involve TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH-1 and PIK3CA. […] Numerical alterations involve gains in MYC and EGFR, as well as amplifications in HPV integration loci. […] Notch, RTK-RAS and Hippo pathways are frequently deregulated. […] Nevertheless, the relevance of the identified alterations, their role in signaling pathways or their association with HPV status remain elusive. […] Combined targeting of different pathways might represent a valid therapeutic approach in PSCC. […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection.
  • #21 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/1/251
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection. HPV-associated PSCC is more prevalent in relatively young males, who commonly refer to a high number of sexual partners and smoking history. […] HPV-independent PSCC is predominant in high-income countries and affects mainly older men. The etiopathogenesis of HPV-independent PSCC is less well understood; however, phimosis, chronic inflammation, poor personal hygiene and trauma seem to be associated factors. […] Somatic mutations in cancer-related genes TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH1 and PIK3CA are consistently identified in PSCC. Copy number alterations have also been reported in three of these genes (TP53, CDKN2A and PIK3CA), which speaks to the relevance of these genes in PSCC carcinogenesis.
  • #22 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] Reported top-ranked mutations involve TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH-1 and PIK3CA. […] Numerical alterations involve gains in MYC and EGFR, as well as amplifications in HPV integration loci. […] Notch, RTK-RAS and Hippo pathways are frequently deregulated. […] Nevertheless, the relevance of the identified alterations, their role in signaling pathways or their association with HPV status remain elusive. […] Combined targeting of different pathways might represent a valid therapeutic approach in PSCC. […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection.
  • #23 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] The genomic profile of PSCC also typically contains numerical alterations in MYC, EGFR and CCND1. […] Although PSCC has been divided into two different etiologic pathways (HPV-associated and -independent), the overall mutational profile of HPV-associated PSCC is not considerably different from HPV-independent tumors in the published studies. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] Unfortunately, the genes most frequently altered in PSCC, including TP53, CDKN2A, PIK3CA, MYC, and EGFR, have proven to be challenging to target separately. […] Therefore, large multicenter studies are urgently needed to continue on the path of the molecular characterization of PSCC.
  • #24 The Diagnosis and Treatment of Penile Cancer (28.09.2018)
    https://di.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article/200965
    Thus, epidemiologically confirmed risk factors include phimosis and chronic inflammation (balanoposthitis; hazard ratio [HR] 9.5; phimosis HR 3.5). […] Molecular biological changes may be relevant to prognosis. In penile cancer, loss of heterozygosity (LOH) adjacent to tumor suppressor genes (2q, 6p, 8q, 9p, 12q, 17p13) is commonly observed and occurs even more frequently in lymph nodes metastases. […] Inactivation of p16 and p53 is also effected by the HPV oncogenes E6 and E7. […] The most prevalent histologic type, accounting for about 70 to 75% of cases, is the common squamous cell carcinoma with or without keratinization. It is an aggressive tumor characterized by early metastatic spread. […] The second most common type, accounting for approximately 10% of cases, is the basaloid subtype which is very aggressive, as are the sarcomatoid and warty subtypes.
  • #25 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] Reported top-ranked mutations involve TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH-1 and PIK3CA. […] Numerical alterations involve gains in MYC and EGFR, as well as amplifications in HPV integration loci. […] Notch, RTK-RAS and Hippo pathways are frequently deregulated. […] Nevertheless, the relevance of the identified alterations, their role in signaling pathways or their association with HPV status remain elusive. […] Combined targeting of different pathways might represent a valid therapeutic approach in PSCC. […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection.
  • #26 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    The high numbers of MYC and EGFR variations in PSCC are in concordance with previous evidence reported in head and neck cancers squamous cell carcinoma, a similar tumor with dual pathogenesis. […] Notch represents the most involved signaling pathway in the studies exploring the whole exome. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] The existing studies are limited in sample size, sociodemographic heterogeneity and variability in DNA sequencing methodology. […] There is a particular gap of knowledge in the characterization of molecular profiles in relation to HPV status.
  • #27 KEGG DISEASE: Penile cancer
    https://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?ds:H00025
    Penile cancer is a disease with a high morbidity and mortality. Its prevalence is relatively rare in developed countries but more common in South America and East Africa. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the predominant tumor type in penile cancer, accounting for 95% of cases. Penile cancers are thought to arise from the progression of precursor lesions and can be subdivided into human papilloma virus (HPV) positive and HPV negative cases. Most common disrupted pathways, both in HPV-mediated and HPV-independent penile carcinogenesis, involve the p14ARF/MDM2/p53 and/or p16INK4a/cyclin D/Rb pathways. HPVs exert their oncogenic effect by expressing the oncoproteins E6 and E7, which bind to and inactivate the p53 and Rb tumor suppressor gene products, respectively. HPV independent mechanisms of pathway inactivation include silencing of the p16INK4a gene by promoter hypermethylation, somatic mutations of the p53 gene, over-expression of MDM2 and mutation of p14ARF. Several other molecular events include alterations in the activity and/or expression of ras and myc genes, cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX) pathway and prostaglandin E2 synthase. These alterations have been described in both HPV-positive and -negative penile cancers.
  • #28 KEGG DISEASE: Penile cancer
    https://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?ds:H00025
    Penile cancer is a disease with a high morbidity and mortality. Its prevalence is relatively rare in developed countries but more common in South America and East Africa. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the predominant tumor type in penile cancer, accounting for 95% of cases. Penile cancers are thought to arise from the progression of precursor lesions and can be subdivided into human papilloma virus (HPV) positive and HPV negative cases. Most common disrupted pathways, both in HPV-mediated and HPV-independent penile carcinogenesis, involve the p14ARF/MDM2/p53 and/or p16INK4a/cyclin D/Rb pathways. HPVs exert their oncogenic effect by expressing the oncoproteins E6 and E7, which bind to and inactivate the p53 and Rb tumor suppressor gene products, respectively. HPV independent mechanisms of pathway inactivation include silencing of the p16INK4a gene by promoter hypermethylation, somatic mutations of the p53 gene, over-expression of MDM2 and mutation of p14ARF. Several other molecular events include alterations in the activity and/or expression of ras and myc genes, cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX) pathway and prostaglandin E2 synthase. These alterations have been described in both HPV-positive and -negative penile cancers.
  • #29 Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas
    https://www.actasdermo.org/en-penile-squamous-cell-carcinoma-articulo-S1578219012001990
    Penile SCC caused by hrHPV infection arises from a precursor lesion produced by the virus via a carcinogenic pathway similar to that involved in cervical cancer. Nevertheless, tissue-specific and hormonal mechanisms also appear to exert an influence, as penile SCC and cervical cancer are caused by the same infectious agents but differ substantially in terms of incidence and age of onset. […] The initiating event is persistent infection of the squamous epithelium by hrHPV, followed by a series of epigenetic alterations that lead to the malignant transformation of the infected cell. hrHPV expresses the oncoproteins E6 and E7, which bind to and inactivate the tumor suppressor gene products p53 and pRb. E6 and E7 play a key role in inducing and maintaining the transformed phenotype of the infected cell. hrHPV types alter the p14arf/MDM2/p53 and p16INK4a/cyclinD/Rb pathways and interfere with the control of cell division and apoptosis. The functional inactivation of pRB by E7 leads to overexpression of p16INK4a due to the lack of negative feedback; accordingly, p16INK4a overexpression can be used as a marker of HPV infection.
  • #30 Penile Cancer | Concise Medical Knowledge
    https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/penile-cancer/
    Most cancers of the penis arise from the squamous epithelium. […] HPV-mediated penile carcinomas: Oncoproteins E6 and E7 produced by HPV can interfere with tumor suppressor gene function. […] Alterations of the RB1 and p53 genetic pathways and cell-cycle regulators p21 and p16 occur. […] Carcinoma in situ or penile intraepithelial neoplasia: Bowen disease and erythroplasia of Queyrat are 2 related entities that describe squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) in situ of the skin. […] Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is caused by malignant proliferation of atypical keratinocytes. […] The cancer presents as a firm, erythematous, keratotic plaque or papule. […] Common variant: Comprises up to of SCC cases. […] Typically invades the corpus spongiosum. […] Inguinal node metastases are present in 25%40% of cases.
  • #31 Penile Cancer | Concise Medical Knowledge
    https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/penile-cancer/
    Most cancers of the penis arise from the squamous epithelium. […] HPV-mediated penile carcinomas: Oncoproteins E6 and E7 produced by HPV can interfere with tumor suppressor gene function. […] Alterations of the RB1 and p53 genetic pathways and cell-cycle regulators p21 and p16 occur. […] Carcinoma in situ or penile intraepithelial neoplasia: Bowen disease and erythroplasia of Queyrat are 2 related entities that describe squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) in situ of the skin. […] Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is caused by malignant proliferation of atypical keratinocytes. […] The cancer presents as a firm, erythematous, keratotic plaque or papule. […] Common variant: Comprises up to of SCC cases. […] Typically invades the corpus spongiosum. […] Inguinal node metastases are present in 25%40% of cases.
  • #32 Relationship between human papillomavirus and penile cancer— implications for prevention and treatment – Kidd – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15824/html
    In HPV-16 mediated penile cancer, integration occurs at the chromosomal 8q21.3 locus (FAM92A1 gene) and at the 16p13.3 locus (TRAP1 gene). This HPV integration marks an end point in the clonal selection of cells, resulting in functional genes that are altered. This allows for uncontrolled growth and dedifferentiation which can progress into invasive cancer. […] The role of HPV as a prognostic factor in penile cancer remains unclear. It is uncertain whether cancers involving HPV infection have better survival profiles than cancers without HPV infection. […] HPV infection can result in two types of external genital lesions depending on how the virus affects the squamous epithelium. One type is condyloma acuminata (genital warts), which are low grade lesions resulting from the production of virus in the squamous epithelium due to a transient HPV viral infection. The other type of external genital lesions are undifferentiated PeIN, which are HPV viral-associated precancerous lesions, a result of viral genome integration into the host genome leading to overexpression of oncogene, driving cell proliferation leading to malignant transformation.
  • #33 Relationship between human papillomavirus and penile cancer— implications for prevention and treatment – Kidd – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15824/html
    Penile cancer is a rare disease in the United States, but rates are increasing, causing concern. Several risk factors have been associated with the disease, including human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. […] In particular, infection with human papillomavirus (HPV) has been linked to penile cancer carcinogenesis, although exact pathways have not been fully elucidated to date. Nonetheless, the pathogenesis of HPV infection provides an actionable target for newer therapeutic agents to treat this rare and disfiguring disease. […] HPV-mediated pathogenesis of human epithelial cells is a multistep process. Although the HPV-mediated pathogenesis of cervical squamous cell cancer is well understood, it is not as well understood in penile cancer. […] HPV affects the squamous epithelium in two ways, either as a viral infection or as a viral-associated precancerous lesion. A HPV viral infection is largely transient and occurs when the squamous epithelium supports virion production and develops into a morphologic low-grade lesion (e.g., condyloma and mild dysplasia). In contrast, an HPV viral-associated precancerous lesion (e.g., HPV-associated PeIN) occurs when the viral genome integrates into the host genome, leading to virally-induced overexpression of oncogenes that drive cell proliferation, which can develop into malignant transformation.
  • #34 KEGG DISEASE: Penile cancer
    https://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?ds:H00025
    Penile cancer is a disease with a high morbidity and mortality. Its prevalence is relatively rare in developed countries but more common in South America and East Africa. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the predominant tumor type in penile cancer, accounting for 95% of cases. Penile cancers are thought to arise from the progression of precursor lesions and can be subdivided into human papilloma virus (HPV) positive and HPV negative cases. Most common disrupted pathways, both in HPV-mediated and HPV-independent penile carcinogenesis, involve the p14ARF/MDM2/p53 and/or p16INK4a/cyclin D/Rb pathways. HPVs exert their oncogenic effect by expressing the oncoproteins E6 and E7, which bind to and inactivate the p53 and Rb tumor suppressor gene products, respectively. HPV independent mechanisms of pathway inactivation include silencing of the p16INK4a gene by promoter hypermethylation, somatic mutations of the p53 gene, over-expression of MDM2 and mutation of p14ARF. Several other molecular events include alterations in the activity and/or expression of ras and myc genes, cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX) pathway and prostaglandin E2 synthase. These alterations have been described in both HPV-positive and -negative penile cancers.
  • #35 Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas
    https://www.actasdermo.org/en-penile-squamous-cell-carcinoma-articulo-S1578219012001990
    The pathways involved in HPV-associated penile SCC are the same as those that are altered in penile SCC not caused by HPV infection, with the involvement of the following mechanisms: silencing of tumor suppressor genes, hypermethylation of promoter genes, and overexpression of oncogenes. […] The molecular mechanisms involved in more advanced penile SCC are probably the same in both types of tumors (HPV-positive or HPV-negative). Alterations in the expression of the ras and myc genes, E-cadherin, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and MMP-9, cyclooxygenase, and prostaglandin E2 synthase have also been identified in penile SCC. These are probably late events and would therefore be involved in disease progression mechanisms such as angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Some of the above factors are considered to be predictive factors of lymph node metastasis.
  • #36 Understanding the Pathophysiology of Penile Cancer and Its Preneoplastic Lesions | Oncohema Key
    https://oncohemakey.com/understanding-the-pathophysiology-of-penile-cancer-and-its-preneoplastic-lesions/
    Understanding the Pathophysiology of Penile Cancer and Its Preneoplastic Lesions […] The progression to malignancy requires a complex interplay between continued viral genome expression, packaging, and release to promote infection. Some theories suggest that the progression to malignancy occurs after uncontrolled cell proliferation, which ultimately leads to continued point mutations and ultimately carcinogenesis. However, this remains an area of debate and continued research. […] While non-HPV-related penile cancers may be managed in similar manners as their HPV counterparts, they indeed represent a separate entity in regard to pathophysiologic mechanisms. […] From a molecular standpoint, HPV-negative penile cancers are typically associated with p53 mutations, and this itself has been identified as being a negative prognostic factor.
  • #37 Understanding the Pathophysiology of Penile Cancer and Its Preneoplastic Lesions | Oncohema Key
    https://oncohemakey.com/understanding-the-pathophysiology-of-penile-cancer-and-its-preneoplastic-lesions/
    However, mutational effects on p53 itself ultimately lead to uninhibited cell proliferation and malignant transformation. […] Ongoing research continues to evaluate other possible HPV-negative etiologies on a molecular level. […] In fact, mouse studies have identified increased amounts of these molecules in tissue samples representing invasive SCC as well as lymph node metastases. […] The following section will focus on the pathophysiology of penile cancer and its preneoplastic lesions. […] Erythroplasia of Queyrat and Bowens disease both refer to forms of squamous intraepithelial neoplasia with a high rate of progression to invasive SCC. Progression rates to penile cancer are cited as high as 1033 %. […] Like most SCCs of the penis, HPV types 16 and 18 play an important role in the pathophysiology of CIS of the penis. […] Specific risk factors have been identified, and HPV has been proven to play a pivotal role in a significant subset of cases.
  • #38 Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas
    https://www.actasdermo.org/en-penile-squamous-cell-carcinoma-articulo-S1578219012001990
    The pathways involved in HPV-associated penile SCC are the same as those that are altered in penile SCC not caused by HPV infection, with the involvement of the following mechanisms: silencing of tumor suppressor genes, hypermethylation of promoter genes, and overexpression of oncogenes. […] The molecular mechanisms involved in more advanced penile SCC are probably the same in both types of tumors (HPV-positive or HPV-negative). Alterations in the expression of the ras and myc genes, E-cadherin, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and MMP-9, cyclooxygenase, and prostaglandin E2 synthase have also been identified in penile SCC. These are probably late events and would therefore be involved in disease progression mechanisms such as angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Some of the above factors are considered to be predictive factors of lymph node metastasis.
  • #39 Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas
    https://www.actasdermo.org/en-penile-squamous-cell-carcinoma-articulo-S1578219012001990
    The pathways involved in HPV-associated penile SCC are the same as those that are altered in penile SCC not caused by HPV infection, with the involvement of the following mechanisms: silencing of tumor suppressor genes, hypermethylation of promoter genes, and overexpression of oncogenes. […] The molecular mechanisms involved in more advanced penile SCC are probably the same in both types of tumors (HPV-positive or HPV-negative). Alterations in the expression of the ras and myc genes, E-cadherin, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and MMP-9, cyclooxygenase, and prostaglandin E2 synthase have also been identified in penile SCC. These are probably late events and would therefore be involved in disease progression mechanisms such as angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Some of the above factors are considered to be predictive factors of lymph node metastasis.
  • #40 Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas
    https://www.actasdermo.org/en-penile-squamous-cell-carcinoma-articulo-S1578219012001990
    The pathways involved in HPV-associated penile SCC are the same as those that are altered in penile SCC not caused by HPV infection, with the involvement of the following mechanisms: silencing of tumor suppressor genes, hypermethylation of promoter genes, and overexpression of oncogenes. […] The molecular mechanisms involved in more advanced penile SCC are probably the same in both types of tumors (HPV-positive or HPV-negative). Alterations in the expression of the ras and myc genes, E-cadherin, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and MMP-9, cyclooxygenase, and prostaglandin E2 synthase have also been identified in penile SCC. These are probably late events and would therefore be involved in disease progression mechanisms such as angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Some of the above factors are considered to be predictive factors of lymph node metastasis.
  • #41 Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas
    https://www.actasdermo.org/es-penile-squamous-cell-carcinoma-articulo-S1578219012001990
    Penile SCC caused by hrHPV infection arises from a precursor lesion produced by the virus via a carcinogenic pathway similar to that involved in cervical cancer. Nevertheless, tissue-specific and hormonal mechanisms also appear to exert an influence, as penile SCC and cervical cancer are caused by the same infectious agents but differ substantially in terms of incidence and age of onset. […] It seems clear that alterations in different molecular pathways are involved in the etiology and pathogenesis of penile SCC. While little is known about the impact and interrelationship of each of these pathways, it is generally accepted that a proportion of penile SCCs are caused by hrHPV infection while the rest are caused by HPV-independent molecular mechanisms. […] The molecular mechanisms involved in more advanced penile SCC are probably the same in both types of tumors (HPV-positive or HPV-negative). Alterations in the expression of the ras and myc genes, E-cadherin, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and MMP-9, cyclooxygenase, and prostaglandin E2 synthase have also been identified in penile SCC. These are probably late events and would therefore be involved in disease progression mechanisms such as angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Some of the above factors are considered to be predictive factors of lymph node metastasis.
  • #42 Penile Cancer: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/446554-overview
    The Buck fascia, which surrounds the corpora, acts as a temporary barrier. Eventually, the cancer penetrates the Buck fascia and the tunica albuginea, where the cancer has access to the vasculature and from which systemic spread is possible. […] Metastasis to the femoral and inguinal lymph nodes is the earliest path for tumor dissemination. The lymphatics of the prepuce join with those from the shaft. These drain into the superficial inguinal nodes. Because of lymphatic crossover, cancer cells have access to lymph nodes in both inguinal areas. […] Untreated metastatic enlargement of the regional nodes leads to skin necrosis, chronic infection, and, eventually, death from sepsis or hemorrhage secondary to erosion into the femoral vessels. Clinically apparent distant metastases to the lung, liver, bone, or brain are unusual until late in the disease course, often after the primary disease has been treated. Distant metastases are usually associated with regional node involvement.
  • #43 Penile Cancer: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/446554-overview
    The Buck fascia, which surrounds the corpora, acts as a temporary barrier. Eventually, the cancer penetrates the Buck fascia and the tunica albuginea, where the cancer has access to the vasculature and from which systemic spread is possible. […] Metastasis to the femoral and inguinal lymph nodes is the earliest path for tumor dissemination. The lymphatics of the prepuce join with those from the shaft. These drain into the superficial inguinal nodes. Because of lymphatic crossover, cancer cells have access to lymph nodes in both inguinal areas. […] Untreated metastatic enlargement of the regional nodes leads to skin necrosis, chronic infection, and, eventually, death from sepsis or hemorrhage secondary to erosion into the femoral vessels. Clinically apparent distant metastases to the lung, liver, bone, or brain are unusual until late in the disease course, often after the primary disease has been treated. Distant metastases are usually associated with regional node involvement.
  • #44 Immune-based therapies in penile cancer | Nature Reviews Urology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41585-022-00617-x
    Penile cancer is a rare genitourinary malignancy that is associated with poor outcomes and severely limited therapeutic options that are generally non-curative when used to treat localized disease with high-risk features or advanced disease. […] A diverse array of immune cells such as cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), tumour-associated macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells have been shown to infiltrate penile cancer tumours, with distinct immune landscapes being demonstrated in HPV-positive compared with HPV-negative tumours. […] Study results have also demonstrated the prognostic value of immune cells such as tumour-associated macrophages, immune markers such as programmed death ligand-1, and HPV-status in penile cancer. […] Current evidence regarding the safety and efficacy of immune-based therapies is limited in penile cancer, but a number of clinical and preclinical studies are ongoing to evaluate these therapies in this disease based on promising results from studies in other malignancies, including other squamous cell carcinomas.
  • #45 Immune-based therapies in penile cancer | Nature Reviews Urology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41585-022-00617-x
    The immune landscape of penile cancer is defined by unique patterns of immune cell infiltration that also serve as prognostic indicators of metastasis and survival. […] Human papilloma virus (HPV) infection status can be used to stratify patients into two groups with differing tumour immune microenvironments (TIMEs) based on key markers such as programmed death-ligand 1. […] Immune-based therapies including immune-checkpoint blockade, adoptive T cell therapies, and HPV-targeting therapeutic vaccines are each promising candidate therapies, although these treatments are largely unexplored in penile cancer; however, they are currently being evaluated prospectively. […] Preclinical models that will improve understanding of the TIME and the mechanisms underlying responses to immune-based therapies are needed. […] In this rare disease context, future preclinical and clinical work on immune-based therapies will benefit from the centralization of care and the pooling of collaborative scientific knowledge and resources.
  • #46 Immune-based therapies in penile cancer | Nature Reviews Urology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41585-022-00617-x
    The immune landscape of penile cancer is defined by unique patterns of immune cell infiltration that also serve as prognostic indicators of metastasis and survival. […] Human papilloma virus (HPV) infection status can be used to stratify patients into two groups with differing tumour immune microenvironments (TIMEs) based on key markers such as programmed death-ligand 1. […] Immune-based therapies including immune-checkpoint blockade, adoptive T cell therapies, and HPV-targeting therapeutic vaccines are each promising candidate therapies, although these treatments are largely unexplored in penile cancer; however, they are currently being evaluated prospectively. […] Preclinical models that will improve understanding of the TIME and the mechanisms underlying responses to immune-based therapies are needed. […] In this rare disease context, future preclinical and clinical work on immune-based therapies will benefit from the centralization of care and the pooling of collaborative scientific knowledge and resources.
  • #47 Exploring the Multifactorial Landscape of Penile Cancer: A Comprehensive Analysis of Risk Factors
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/16/1790
    Penile cancer, while rare, is a critical public health issue due to its profound impact on patients and the complexities of its management. […] Understanding the multifactorial nature of penile cancer is crucial for developing effective strategies for prevention, early detection, and treatment. Numerous risk factors contribute to the development of penile cancer, including HPV infection, poor hygiene, smoking, and other lifestyle factors. Genetic predisposition and socioeconomic status also play significant roles in the incidence and progression of this disease. […] The precise tumorigenesis of penile cancer is still poorly understood, but several risk factors have been identified. As we delve into the multifactorial landscape of penile cancer’s risk factors, it becomes apparent that genetic predisposition, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, hygiene practices, lifestyle factors, and socioeconomic determinants collectively contribute to the complex etiology of this disease.
  • #48 Exploring the Multifactorial Landscape of Penile Cancer: A Comprehensive Analysis of Risk Factors
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/16/1790
    Penile cancer, while rare, is a critical public health issue due to its profound impact on patients and the complexities of its management. […] Understanding the multifactorial nature of penile cancer is crucial for developing effective strategies for prevention, early detection, and treatment. Numerous risk factors contribute to the development of penile cancer, including HPV infection, poor hygiene, smoking, and other lifestyle factors. Genetic predisposition and socioeconomic status also play significant roles in the incidence and progression of this disease. […] The precise tumorigenesis of penile cancer is still poorly understood, but several risk factors have been identified. As we delve into the multifactorial landscape of penile cancer’s risk factors, it becomes apparent that genetic predisposition, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, hygiene practices, lifestyle factors, and socioeconomic determinants collectively contribute to the complex etiology of this disease.
  • #49 Penile Cancer Treatment – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/types/penile/patient/penile-treatment-pdq
    Human papillomavirus infection may increase the risk of developing penile cancer. […] Penile cancer is caused by certain changes to the penile cells function, especially how they grow and divide into new cells. There are many risk factors for penile cancer, but many do not directly cause cancer. Instead, they increase the chance of DNA damage in cells that may lead to penile cancer. […] Risk factors for penile cancer include: being uncircumcised. Circumcision may help prevent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). A circumcision is an operation in which the doctor removes part or all of the foreskin from the penis. Many boys are circumcised shortly after birth. Men who were not circumcised at birth may have a higher risk of developing penile cancer. […] Penile cancer can recur (come back) after it has been treated.
  • #50 JMIR Public Health and Surveillance – Global Pattern and Trends in Penile Cancer Incidence: Population-Based Study
    https://publichealth.jmir.org/2022/7/e34874
    Penile cancer is a relatively rare genital malignancy whose incidence and mortality are rising in many countries. […] The estimated age-standardized incidence of penile cancer worldwide was 0.80 per 100,000 person-years in 2018, and the incidence is predicted to increase by more than 56% by 2040, according to the Global Cancer Registries (GLOBOCAN) Cancer Tomorrow prediction tool. […] There are many causes of penile cancer. Factors that increase the risk include phimosis, poor personal hygiene, and persistent high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. […] A meta-analysis study reported that the pooled detection rate of HPV DNA among penile cancer cases was 50.8%. HPV-16, HPV-6, and HPV-18 are the most common types involved. […] Furthermore, lack of circumcision, tobacco use, ultraviolet A phototherapy, lichen sclerosis, penile trauma, and low socioeconomic status are also found to be associated with penile cancer.
  • #51 Carcinoma of the penis pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Carcinoma_of_the_penis_pathophysiology
    Non-HPV related penile squamous cell cancers include: SCC usual type/Not Otherwise Specified (NOS), Pseudohyperplastic carcinoma, Pseudoglandular carcinoma, Verrucous carcinoma, Carcinoma cuniculatum, Papillary carcinoma NOS, Adenosquamous carcinoma, Sarcomatoid carcinoma. […] Tumors with basal and/or warty morphology display HPV more frequently.
  • #52 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html
    Penile cancer is a rare neoplasm representing less than 1% of all malignancies in the USA and Europe but is a significant public health hazard in the developing world. […] Many risk factors have been identified for penile cancer including phimosis, lack of circumcision, obesity, lichen sclerosis, chronic inflammation, smoking, UVA phototherapy, socioeconomic status, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and immune compromised states. […] The lack of circumcision is a well-accepted risk factor for penile cancer. […] The protective mechanisms of circumcision are thought to be owed to improved hygiene, decreased risk of HPV and HIV transmission, as well as reduced chronic inflammation and balanitis. […] Phimosis is a pathologic inability to retract the foreskin and can be found in 25-75% of penile cancer patients.
  • #53 SciELO Brazil – Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery* Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery*
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/HYyVpXCBXLXHY6yJZcLDY5y/
    Penile SCC occurs almost exclusively in uncircumcised men. Neonatal circumcision is implicated as strongly protective against penile cancer. Proposed etiological factors associated with an intact foreskin are smegma and phimosis. Smegma is a product of desquamating epithelial cells and bacterial byproducts found between the glans penis and foreskin. Smegma-induced chronic inflammation may predispose to the development of phimosis as well as SCC. Phimosis, the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans, has been found in 25-60% of patients with penile cancer. It is associated with an increased incidence of infection as well as dysplastic changes of the preputial sac. Further, uncircumcised men have been found to be at an increased risk of HPV infection when compared to their circumcised counterparts. Additional risk factors associated with the development of penile SCC include smoking, HIV infection, poor genital hygiene, previous injury to the penis, chronic balanitis, lichen sclerosis et atrophicus, and psoralen plus ultraviolet A treatment to the area.
  • #54 SciELO Brazil – Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery* Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery*
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/HYyVpXCBXLXHY6yJZcLDY5y/
    Penile SCC occurs almost exclusively in uncircumcised men. Neonatal circumcision is implicated as strongly protective against penile cancer. Proposed etiological factors associated with an intact foreskin are smegma and phimosis. Smegma is a product of desquamating epithelial cells and bacterial byproducts found between the glans penis and foreskin. Smegma-induced chronic inflammation may predispose to the development of phimosis as well as SCC. Phimosis, the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans, has been found in 25-60% of patients with penile cancer. It is associated with an increased incidence of infection as well as dysplastic changes of the preputial sac. Further, uncircumcised men have been found to be at an increased risk of HPV infection when compared to their circumcised counterparts. Additional risk factors associated with the development of penile SCC include smoking, HIV infection, poor genital hygiene, previous injury to the penis, chronic balanitis, lichen sclerosis et atrophicus, and psoralen plus ultraviolet A treatment to the area.
  • #55 SciELO Brazil – Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery* Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery*
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/HYyVpXCBXLXHY6yJZcLDY5y/
    Penile SCC occurs almost exclusively in uncircumcised men. Neonatal circumcision is implicated as strongly protective against penile cancer. Proposed etiological factors associated with an intact foreskin are smegma and phimosis. Smegma is a product of desquamating epithelial cells and bacterial byproducts found between the glans penis and foreskin. Smegma-induced chronic inflammation may predispose to the development of phimosis as well as SCC. Phimosis, the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans, has been found in 25-60% of patients with penile cancer. It is associated with an increased incidence of infection as well as dysplastic changes of the preputial sac. Further, uncircumcised men have been found to be at an increased risk of HPV infection when compared to their circumcised counterparts. Additional risk factors associated with the development of penile SCC include smoking, HIV infection, poor genital hygiene, previous injury to the penis, chronic balanitis, lichen sclerosis et atrophicus, and psoralen plus ultraviolet A treatment to the area.
  • #56 SciELO Brazil – Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery* Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery*
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/HYyVpXCBXLXHY6yJZcLDY5y/
    Penile SCC occurs almost exclusively in uncircumcised men. Neonatal circumcision is implicated as strongly protective against penile cancer. Proposed etiological factors associated with an intact foreskin are smegma and phimosis. Smegma is a product of desquamating epithelial cells and bacterial byproducts found between the glans penis and foreskin. Smegma-induced chronic inflammation may predispose to the development of phimosis as well as SCC. Phimosis, the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans, has been found in 25-60% of patients with penile cancer. It is associated with an increased incidence of infection as well as dysplastic changes of the preputial sac. Further, uncircumcised men have been found to be at an increased risk of HPV infection when compared to their circumcised counterparts. Additional risk factors associated with the development of penile SCC include smoking, HIV infection, poor genital hygiene, previous injury to the penis, chronic balanitis, lichen sclerosis et atrophicus, and psoralen plus ultraviolet A treatment to the area.
  • #57 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html
    Penile cancer is a rare neoplasm representing less than 1% of all malignancies in the USA and Europe but is a significant public health hazard in the developing world. […] Many risk factors have been identified for penile cancer including phimosis, lack of circumcision, obesity, lichen sclerosis, chronic inflammation, smoking, UVA phototherapy, socioeconomic status, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and immune compromised states. […] The lack of circumcision is a well-accepted risk factor for penile cancer. […] The protective mechanisms of circumcision are thought to be owed to improved hygiene, decreased risk of HPV and HIV transmission, as well as reduced chronic inflammation and balanitis. […] Phimosis is a pathologic inability to retract the foreskin and can be found in 25-75% of penile cancer patients.
  • #58 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html
    Chronic inflammation is a proposed mechanism for carcinogenesis in multiple types of malignancies. […] A history of posthitis and balanitis respectively has been reported in 45% of penile cancer patients compared to 8% of controls. […] Lichen sclerosis, a chronic inflammatory condition, as well as a progressive variant known as balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), have also been implicated in development of malignancy. […] Obesity is a well-recognized risk factor for malignancies in general with a reported population attributable factor of 3.6% for all malignancies. […] Socioeconomic disparities are associated with increased cancer incidence in general. […] Premalignant lesions are benign entities that are thought to have the potential for malignant transformation. […] The immune system has a significant influence on the risk for contracting HPV as well as its infectious course and clearance, which affects the development of some premalignant lesions.
  • #59 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html
    Chronic inflammation is a proposed mechanism for carcinogenesis in multiple types of malignancies. […] A history of posthitis and balanitis respectively has been reported in 45% of penile cancer patients compared to 8% of controls. […] Lichen sclerosis, a chronic inflammatory condition, as well as a progressive variant known as balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), have also been implicated in development of malignancy. […] Obesity is a well-recognized risk factor for malignancies in general with a reported population attributable factor of 3.6% for all malignancies. […] Socioeconomic disparities are associated with increased cancer incidence in general. […] Premalignant lesions are benign entities that are thought to have the potential for malignant transformation. […] The immune system has a significant influence on the risk for contracting HPV as well as its infectious course and clearance, which affects the development of some premalignant lesions.
  • #60 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html
    Chronic inflammation is a proposed mechanism for carcinogenesis in multiple types of malignancies. […] A history of posthitis and balanitis respectively has been reported in 45% of penile cancer patients compared to 8% of controls. […] Lichen sclerosis, a chronic inflammatory condition, as well as a progressive variant known as balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), have also been implicated in development of malignancy. […] Obesity is a well-recognized risk factor for malignancies in general with a reported population attributable factor of 3.6% for all malignancies. […] Socioeconomic disparities are associated with increased cancer incidence in general. […] Premalignant lesions are benign entities that are thought to have the potential for malignant transformation. […] The immune system has a significant influence on the risk for contracting HPV as well as its infectious course and clearance, which affects the development of some premalignant lesions.
  • #61 SciELO Brazil – Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery* Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery*
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/HYyVpXCBXLXHY6yJZcLDY5y/
    Penile SCC occurs almost exclusively in uncircumcised men. Neonatal circumcision is implicated as strongly protective against penile cancer. Proposed etiological factors associated with an intact foreskin are smegma and phimosis. Smegma is a product of desquamating epithelial cells and bacterial byproducts found between the glans penis and foreskin. Smegma-induced chronic inflammation may predispose to the development of phimosis as well as SCC. Phimosis, the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans, has been found in 25-60% of patients with penile cancer. It is associated with an increased incidence of infection as well as dysplastic changes of the preputial sac. Further, uncircumcised men have been found to be at an increased risk of HPV infection when compared to their circumcised counterparts. Additional risk factors associated with the development of penile SCC include smoking, HIV infection, poor genital hygiene, previous injury to the penis, chronic balanitis, lichen sclerosis et atrophicus, and psoralen plus ultraviolet A treatment to the area.
  • #62 SciELO Brazil – Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery* Penile squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature and case report treated with Mohs micrographic surgery*
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abd/a/HYyVpXCBXLXHY6yJZcLDY5y/
    Penile SCC occurs almost exclusively in uncircumcised men. Neonatal circumcision is implicated as strongly protective against penile cancer. Proposed etiological factors associated with an intact foreskin are smegma and phimosis. Smegma is a product of desquamating epithelial cells and bacterial byproducts found between the glans penis and foreskin. Smegma-induced chronic inflammation may predispose to the development of phimosis as well as SCC. Phimosis, the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans, has been found in 25-60% of patients with penile cancer. It is associated with an increased incidence of infection as well as dysplastic changes of the preputial sac. Further, uncircumcised men have been found to be at an increased risk of HPV infection when compared to their circumcised counterparts. Additional risk factors associated with the development of penile SCC include smoking, HIV infection, poor genital hygiene, previous injury to the penis, chronic balanitis, lichen sclerosis et atrophicus, and psoralen plus ultraviolet A treatment to the area.
  • #63 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html
    Chronic inflammation is a proposed mechanism for carcinogenesis in multiple types of malignancies. […] A history of posthitis and balanitis respectively has been reported in 45% of penile cancer patients compared to 8% of controls. […] Lichen sclerosis, a chronic inflammatory condition, as well as a progressive variant known as balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), have also been implicated in development of malignancy. […] Obesity is a well-recognized risk factor for malignancies in general with a reported population attributable factor of 3.6% for all malignancies. […] Socioeconomic disparities are associated with increased cancer incidence in general. […] Premalignant lesions are benign entities that are thought to have the potential for malignant transformation. […] The immune system has a significant influence on the risk for contracting HPV as well as its infectious course and clearance, which affects the development of some premalignant lesions.
  • #64 Updates on the epidemiology and risk factors for penile cancer – Douglawi – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15046/html
    Smoking has been implicated as a risk factor for multiple malignancy sites and penile cancer is no exception. […] Psoralen UV-A phototherapy (PUVA) is an effective and widely used treatment for chronic plaque psoriasis. […] There has been a great deal of emphasis on HPV’s potential for carcinogenesis in the past few years.
  • #65 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] The genomic profile of PSCC also typically contains numerical alterations in MYC, EGFR and CCND1. […] Although PSCC has been divided into two different etiologic pathways (HPV-associated and -independent), the overall mutational profile of HPV-associated PSCC is not considerably different from HPV-independent tumors in the published studies. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] Unfortunately, the genes most frequently altered in PSCC, including TP53, CDKN2A, PIK3CA, MYC, and EGFR, have proven to be challenging to target separately. […] Therefore, large multicenter studies are urgently needed to continue on the path of the molecular characterization of PSCC.
  • #66 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    The high numbers of MYC and EGFR variations in PSCC are in concordance with previous evidence reported in head and neck cancers squamous cell carcinoma, a similar tumor with dual pathogenesis. […] Notch represents the most involved signaling pathway in the studies exploring the whole exome. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] The existing studies are limited in sample size, sociodemographic heterogeneity and variability in DNA sequencing methodology. […] There is a particular gap of knowledge in the characterization of molecular profiles in relation to HPV status.
  • #67 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/1/251
    Notch represents the most involved signaling pathway in the studies exploring the whole exome. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] The existing studies are limited in sample size, sociodemographic heterogeneity and variability in DNA sequencing methodology. There is a particular gap of knowledge in the characterization of molecular profiles in relation to HPV status.
  • #68 Immune-based therapies in penile cancer | Nature Reviews Urology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41585-022-00617-x
    Penile cancer is a rare genitourinary malignancy that is associated with poor outcomes and severely limited therapeutic options that are generally non-curative when used to treat localized disease with high-risk features or advanced disease. […] A diverse array of immune cells such as cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), tumour-associated macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells have been shown to infiltrate penile cancer tumours, with distinct immune landscapes being demonstrated in HPV-positive compared with HPV-negative tumours. […] Study results have also demonstrated the prognostic value of immune cells such as tumour-associated macrophages, immune markers such as programmed death ligand-1, and HPV-status in penile cancer. […] Current evidence regarding the safety and efficacy of immune-based therapies is limited in penile cancer, but a number of clinical and preclinical studies are ongoing to evaluate these therapies in this disease based on promising results from studies in other malignancies, including other squamous cell carcinomas.
  • #69 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] The genomic profile of PSCC also typically contains numerical alterations in MYC, EGFR and CCND1. […] Although PSCC has been divided into two different etiologic pathways (HPV-associated and -independent), the overall mutational profile of HPV-associated PSCC is not considerably different from HPV-independent tumors in the published studies. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] Unfortunately, the genes most frequently altered in PSCC, including TP53, CDKN2A, PIK3CA, MYC, and EGFR, have proven to be challenging to target separately. […] Therefore, large multicenter studies are urgently needed to continue on the path of the molecular characterization of PSCC.
  • #70 Relationship between human papillomavirus and penile cancer— implications for prevention and treatment – Kidd – Translational Andrology and Urology
    https://tau.amegroups.org/article/view/15824/html
    In HPV-16 mediated penile cancer, integration occurs at the chromosomal 8q21.3 locus (FAM92A1 gene) and at the 16p13.3 locus (TRAP1 gene). This HPV integration marks an end point in the clonal selection of cells, resulting in functional genes that are altered. This allows for uncontrolled growth and dedifferentiation which can progress into invasive cancer. […] The role of HPV as a prognostic factor in penile cancer remains unclear. It is uncertain whether cancers involving HPV infection have better survival profiles than cancers without HPV infection. […] HPV infection can result in two types of external genital lesions depending on how the virus affects the squamous epithelium. One type is condyloma acuminata (genital warts), which are low grade lesions resulting from the production of virus in the squamous epithelium due to a transient HPV viral infection. The other type of external genital lesions are undifferentiated PeIN, which are HPV viral-associated precancerous lesions, a result of viral genome integration into the host genome leading to overexpression of oncogene, driving cell proliferation leading to malignant transformation.
  • #71 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] The genomic profile of PSCC also typically contains numerical alterations in MYC, EGFR and CCND1. […] Although PSCC has been divided into two different etiologic pathways (HPV-associated and -independent), the overall mutational profile of HPV-associated PSCC is not considerably different from HPV-independent tumors in the published studies. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] Unfortunately, the genes most frequently altered in PSCC, including TP53, CDKN2A, PIK3CA, MYC, and EGFR, have proven to be challenging to target separately. […] Therefore, large multicenter studies are urgently needed to continue on the path of the molecular characterization of PSCC.
  • #72 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] The genomic profile of PSCC also typically contains numerical alterations in MYC, EGFR and CCND1. […] Although PSCC has been divided into two different etiologic pathways (HPV-associated and -independent), the overall mutational profile of HPV-associated PSCC is not considerably different from HPV-independent tumors in the published studies. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] Unfortunately, the genes most frequently altered in PSCC, including TP53, CDKN2A, PIK3CA, MYC, and EGFR, have proven to be challenging to target separately. […] Therefore, large multicenter studies are urgently needed to continue on the path of the molecular characterization of PSCC.
  • #73 Immune-based therapies in penile cancer | Nature Reviews Urology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41585-022-00617-x
    The immune landscape of penile cancer is defined by unique patterns of immune cell infiltration that also serve as prognostic indicators of metastasis and survival. […] Human papilloma virus (HPV) infection status can be used to stratify patients into two groups with differing tumour immune microenvironments (TIMEs) based on key markers such as programmed death-ligand 1. […] Immune-based therapies including immune-checkpoint blockade, adoptive T cell therapies, and HPV-targeting therapeutic vaccines are each promising candidate therapies, although these treatments are largely unexplored in penile cancer; however, they are currently being evaluated prospectively. […] Preclinical models that will improve understanding of the TIME and the mechanisms underlying responses to immune-based therapies are needed. […] In this rare disease context, future preclinical and clinical work on immune-based therapies will benefit from the centralization of care and the pooling of collaborative scientific knowledge and resources.
  • #74 Effective combinatorial immunotherapy for penile squamous cell carcinoma | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-15980-9
    Together, transcriptomic profiling revealed extensive signaling changes associated with PSCC formation in mice and, in particular, signaling molecules involved in inflammation and immunity. […] The vulnerability of MDSCs to the inhibition of induction signals (e.g. COX2-prostaglandins) and survival signals (e.g. PI3K) provides opportunities to block these cells and foster a more hospitable environment for immunotherapy to work, as we demonstrated in the SA models. […] Our results demonstrate that the SA model can serve as the platform to discover combination strategies for immunotherapy of spontaneous PSCC. […] Overall, the SAP model provides an essential tool to study cisplatin resistance. […] The PSCC resources developed in our studies include two GEM models and related murine PSCC cell lines.
  • #75 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    The high numbers of MYC and EGFR variations in PSCC are in concordance with previous evidence reported in head and neck cancers squamous cell carcinoma, a similar tumor with dual pathogenesis. […] Notch represents the most involved signaling pathway in the studies exploring the whole exome. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] The existing studies are limited in sample size, sociodemographic heterogeneity and variability in DNA sequencing methodology. […] There is a particular gap of knowledge in the characterization of molecular profiles in relation to HPV status.
  • #76 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/1/251
    Notch represents the most involved signaling pathway in the studies exploring the whole exome. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] The existing studies are limited in sample size, sociodemographic heterogeneity and variability in DNA sequencing methodology. There is a particular gap of knowledge in the characterization of molecular profiles in relation to HPV status.
  • #77 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    The high numbers of MYC and EGFR variations in PSCC are in concordance with previous evidence reported in head and neck cancers squamous cell carcinoma, a similar tumor with dual pathogenesis. […] Notch represents the most involved signaling pathway in the studies exploring the whole exome. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] The existing studies are limited in sample size, sociodemographic heterogeneity and variability in DNA sequencing methodology. […] There is a particular gap of knowledge in the characterization of molecular profiles in relation to HPV status.
  • #78 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/1/251
    Notch represents the most involved signaling pathway in the studies exploring the whole exome. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] The existing studies are limited in sample size, sociodemographic heterogeneity and variability in DNA sequencing methodology. There is a particular gap of knowledge in the characterization of molecular profiles in relation to HPV status.
  • #79
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00345-008-0302-z
    Penile cancer is a disease with a high morbidity and mortality. […] Insight into its precursor lesions, pathogenesis and risk factors offers options to prevent this potentially mutilating disease. […] This review presents an overview of the different histologically and clinically identified precursor lesions of penile cancer and discusses the molecular pathogenesis, including the role of HPV in penile cancer development. […] Special attention is given to flat penile lesions, which contain high numbers of HPV. Their role in HPV transmission to sexual partners is highlighted, but their potential to transform as a precursor lesion into penile cancer has been unsatisfactorily explored. […] Further research should not only focus on HPV mediated pathogenic pathways but also on the non-HPV related molecular and genetic factors that play a role in penile cancer development.
  • #80
    https://step1.medbullets.com/evidence/18607597
    Penile cancer is a disease with a high morbidity and mortality. Its prevalence is relatively rare, but the highest in some developing countries. Insight into its precursor lesions, pathogenesis and risk factors offers options to prevent this potentially mutilating disease. This review presents an overview of the different histologically and clinically identified precursor lesions of penile cancer and discusses the molecular pathogenesis, including the role of HPV in penile cancer development. […] Further research should not only focus on HPV mediated pathogenic pathways but also on the non-HPV related molecular and genetic factors that play a role in penile cancer development.
  • #81 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/20397
    The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] The genomic profile of PSCC also typically contains numerical alterations in MYC, EGFR and CCND1. […] Although PSCC has been divided into two different etiologic pathways (HPV-associated and -independent), the overall mutational profile of HPV-associated PSCC is not considerably different from HPV-independent tumors in the published studies. […] The prognostic role of most molecular alterations in PSCC also remains elusive. […] Unfortunately, the genes most frequently altered in PSCC, including TP53, CDKN2A, PIK3CA, MYC, and EGFR, have proven to be challenging to target separately. […] Therefore, large multicenter studies are urgently needed to continue on the path of the molecular characterization of PSCC.
  • #82 Immune-based therapies in penile cancer | Nature Reviews Urology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41585-022-00617-x
    The immune landscape of penile cancer is defined by unique patterns of immune cell infiltration that also serve as prognostic indicators of metastasis and survival. […] Human papilloma virus (HPV) infection status can be used to stratify patients into two groups with differing tumour immune microenvironments (TIMEs) based on key markers such as programmed death-ligand 1. […] Immune-based therapies including immune-checkpoint blockade, adoptive T cell therapies, and HPV-targeting therapeutic vaccines are each promising candidate therapies, although these treatments are largely unexplored in penile cancer; however, they are currently being evaluated prospectively. […] Preclinical models that will improve understanding of the TIME and the mechanisms underlying responses to immune-based therapies are needed. […] In this rare disease context, future preclinical and clinical work on immune-based therapies will benefit from the centralization of care and the pooling of collaborative scientific knowledge and resources.
  • #83 Pathogenesis of Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Molecular Update and Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8745288/
    Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare but aggressive neoplasm with dual pathogenesis (human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated and HPV-independent). […] The development of targeted treatment is hindered by poor knowledge of the molecular landscape of PSCC. […] Reported top-ranked mutations involve TP53, CDKN2A, FAT1, NOTCH-1 and PIK3CA. […] Numerical alterations involve gains in MYC and EGFR, as well as amplifications in HPV integration loci. […] Notch, RTK-RAS and Hippo pathways are frequently deregulated. […] Nevertheless, the relevance of the identified alterations, their role in signaling pathways or their association with HPV status remain elusive. […] Combined targeting of different pathways might represent a valid therapeutic approach in PSCC. […] Two different etiopathogenic pathways have been described in PSCC: one associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) and the other one independent of this infection.