Przewlekła encefalopatia pourazowa
Epidemiologia

Przewlekła encefalopatia pourazowa (CTE) to postępująca choroba neurodegeneracyjna związana z powtarzającymi się urazami głowy, której rozpoznanie jest możliwe jedynie pośmiertnie na podstawie badania neuropatologicznego. Epidemiologia CTE jest trudna do określenia, jednak dane wskazują na wysoką częstość występowania wśród zawodowych sportowców uprawiających sporty kontaktowe, z częstością sięgającą od 17% do nawet 99% w zależności od dyscypliny i badanej populacji (np. 91,7% u byłych zawodników NFL). Ryzyko rozwoju CTE koreluje z ekspozycją na powtarzające się urazy głowy, szczególnie wstrząśnienia mózgu i urazy podwstrząśnieniowe, a także z siłą uderzeń. Czynniki ryzyka obejmują także wiek, długość kariery sportowej oraz obecność allelu ApoE4. Poza sportowcami, grupy wysokiego ryzyka to personel wojskowy narażony na wybuchy, ofiary przemocy domowej oraz osoby z przewlekłymi napadami padaczkowymi. W USA w 2014 roku odnotowano około 2,87 miliona wizyt na oddziałach ratunkowych, hospitalizacji i zgonów związanych z urazami mózgu, z czego ponad 837 000 dotyczyło dzieci.

Epidemiologia przewlekłej encefalopatii pourazowej

Przewlekła encefalopatia pourazowa (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, CTE) to postępująca choroba neurodegeneracyjna związana z powtarzającymi się urazami głowy. Dokładna częstość występowania i rozpowszechnienie CTE w populacji ogólnej pozostają nieznane, głównie ze względu na fakt, że definitywne rozpoznanie można postawić wyłącznie pośmiertnie podczas badania neuropatologicznego123. Śledzenie epidemiologii CTE jest trudne właśnie z powodu niemożności zdiagnozowania tego zespołu za życia4.

W Stanach Zjednoczonych corocznie zgłaszanych jest około 4 milionów wstrząśnień mózgu związanych ze sportem5. Według szacunków, częstość występowania chorób neurologicznych związanych ze sportem wśród bokserów wynosi około 17%56. W jednym z badań przeprowadzonych przez Mayo Clinic Brain Bank patologię charakterystyczną dla CTE stwierdzono u 32% sportowców uczestniczących w sportach kontaktowych5. Z kolei w największej serii przypadków obejmującej 177 byłych zawodowych futbolistów, CTE zdiagnozowano aż u 87% pacjentów57.

Według badania opublikowanego w 2017 roku dotyczącego mózgów zmarłych graczy futbolu amerykańskiego, CTE stwierdzono u 99% badanych mózgów zawodników NFL, 88% graczy CFL (Canadian Football League), 64% graczy półprofesjonalnych, 91% graczy futbolu akademickiego i 21% graczy futbolu szkolnego4. W 2023 roku Boston University CTE Center ogłosiło, że zdiagnozowało CTE u 345 z 376 badanych byłych zawodników NFL (91,7%)8. Dane te wskazują na alarmująco wysoką częstość występowania CTE wśród zawodowych sportowców uprawiających sporty kontaktowe.

Częstotliwość CTE u młodych sportowców

Badania wykazują, że CTE może występować nawet u młodych sportowców. W badaniu mózgów osób uprawiających sporty kontaktowe, które zmarły przed ukończeniem 30 roku życia, u ponad 40% (63 ze 152) stwierdzono CTE na podstawie ustalonych kryteriów910. Wyniki te potwierdzają, że patologia CTE może rozpocząć się już w młodym wieku, choć związek między obecnością zmian patologicznych a objawami klinicznymi wymaga dalszych badań9.

Badacze oszacowali, że około 17% osób z wieloletnim narażeniem na powtarzające się wstrząśnienia mózgu lub łagodne urazy mózgu (TBI) rozwinie przewlekłą encefalopatię pourazową10. Jedno z badań wykazało, że ryzyko CTE jest bardziej związane z siłą uderzeń w głowę niż z liczbą doznanych wstrząśnień mózgu, co sugeruje, że ryzyko CTE można by zmniejszyć, zmieniając siłę uderzeń w głowę podczas treningów i meczów10.

Czynniki ryzyka rozwoju CTE

Głównym czynnikiem ryzyka rozwoju CTE są powtarzające się urazy głowy, szczególnie te prowadzące do wstrząśnień mózgu lub urazy podwstrząśnieniowe112. Ponad 97% opublikowanych przypadków CTE dotyczyło osób ze znaną ekspozycją na powtarzające się urazy głowy (Repetitive Head Impacts, RHI)11. Istnieje wyraźna zależność dawka-odpowiedź między CTE a latami gry w futbol amerykański, zależność ta pozostaje spójna nawet przy rygorystycznym uwzględnieniu błędu selekcji12.

Do grup wysokiego ryzyka należą:

  • Sportowcy uprawiający sporty kontaktowe – futbol amerykański, boks, hokej na lodzie, rugby, kickboxing, mieszane sztuki walki, piłka nożna i zapasy4
  • Personel wojskowy, szczególnie narażony na wybuchy131
  • Ofiary przemocy domowej131
  • Osoby z historią przewlekłych napadów padaczkowych13

Oprócz powtarzających się urazów głowy, potencjalnymi czynnikami ryzyka rozwoju CTE są: wiek (szczególnie zaawansowany), długość kariery sportowej oraz czynniki genetyczne, w tym obecność allelu apolipoproteiny E4 (ApoE4)7614. Według badań z 2021 roku, gen ApoE4 może hamować wzrost neuronów po urazie mózgu7.

Systemy nadzoru nad CTE i zbieranie danych

Ze względu na trudności diagnostyczne związane z CTE, kluczowe znaczenie dla zrozumienia epidemiologii tej choroby mają banki mózgów i systemy nadzoru. Największym repozytorium tkanek na świecie skupiającym się na urazach mózgu i CTE jest UNITE Brain Bank, który otrzymał donacje ponad 1000 mózgów1015. Podobne inicjatywy realizowane są również w innych krajach, na przykład Australian Sports Brain Bank (ASBB), który od 2018 roku otrzymał ponad 600 deklaracji darowizn od sportowców amatorskich i zawodowych1617.

W Stanach Zjednoczonych dane na temat urazów mózgu są gromadzone przez:

  • Healthcare Cost and Utilization Projects (HCUP) Nationwide Emergency Department Sample (NEDS)
  • National Inpatient Sample (NIS)
  • National Vital Statistics System (NVSS), który rejestruje dane dotyczące wszystkich zgonów w 50 stanach USA i Dystrykcie Kolumbii18

W 2014 roku w Stanach Zjednoczonych odnotowano około 2,87 miliona wizyt na oddziałach ratunkowych, hospitalizacji i zgonów związanych z urazami mózgu (TBI), w tym ponad 837 000 przypadków wśród dzieci19. Liczba ta obejmuje około 2,53 miliona wizyt związanych z TBI na oddziałach ratunkowych (ponad 812 000 wizyt wśród dzieci), 288 000 hospitalizacji związanych z TBI (ponad 23 000 wśród dzieci) i 56 800 zgonów związanych z TBI (w tym 2529 dzieci)19.

W 2020 roku w USA odnotowano 214 110 hospitalizacji związanych z TBI, a w 2021 roku – 69 473 zgony związane z TBI. Mężczyźni mieli prawie dwukrotnie większe ryzyko hospitalizacji z powodu TBI w porównaniu z kobietami i prawie trzykrotnie wyższe ryzyko zgonu związanego z TBI. Największa liczba i wskaźnik hospitalizacji i zgonów związanych z TBI dotyczyły osób w wieku 75 lat lub starszych19.

Ograniczenia w nadzorze nad CTE

Istnieje kilka istotnych ograniczeń w obecnych systemach nadzoru nad CTE:

  • Brak możliwości przyżyciowej diagnozy CTE – obecnie potwierdzenie CTE jest możliwe wyłącznie podczas badania pośmiertnego320
  • Problem mianownika – trudność w ustaleniu całkowitej liczby potencjalnych przypadków zagrożonych rozwojem CTE21
  • Brak standaryzowanych protokołów zgłaszania urazów głowy w różnych instytucjach, np. w zakładach karnych, co prowadzi do niedoszacowania krajowego obciążenia urazami głowy22
  • Nakładanie się objawów CTE z innymi chorobami neurodegeneracyjnymi, takimi jak choroba Alzheimera i otępienie czołowo-skroniowe3

W zakładach karnych w Nowym Jorku w ciągu 42 miesięcy analizy odnotowano 10 286 incydentów urazów głowy, z czego w 1 507 przypadkach wystąpił łagodny uraz mózgu (mTBI). Wskaźnik urazów głowy i mTBI wynosił odpowiednio 269,0 i 39,4 na 1000 osobolat22. Brak sprawozdawczości w zakresie urazów głowy w ośrodkach penitencjarnych oznacza, że krajowe szacunki dotyczące rozpowszechnienia tych krytycznych wyników zdrowotnych pomijają wrażliwą kohortę osób osadzonych.

CTE w różnych populacjach i grupach zawodowych

Sportowcy

Najwyższe wskaźniki CTE odnotowuje się wśród zawodowych sportowców uprawiających sporty kontaktowe4. Według różnych badań, wskaźniki CTE wśród byłych zawodowych sportowców wahają się od 17% do 99%, w zależności od badanej serii i dyscypliny sportu23. Wśród sportów o najwyższym ryzyku znajdują się:

  • Boks – około 17-20% emerytowanych zawodowych bokserów ma CTE; choroba ta jest rzadka u bokserów amatorskich624
  • Futbol amerykański – w najnowszych badaniach wykazano CTE u 91,7% byłych zawodników NFL8
  • Hokej na lodzie
  • Rugby
  • Piłka nożna

Na poziomie szkoły średniej futbol amerykański, hokej na lodzie i lacrosse należą do sportów o najwyższym ryzyku dla chłopców, podczas gdy piłka nożna, lacrosse i koszykówka są sportami o najwyższym ryzyku dla dziewcząt25.

Częstość występowania CTE w sportach kontaktowych może być związana z różnymi czynnikami, takimi jak wiek przejścia na emeryturę (po 28 roku życia), długa kariera zawodowa lub udział w dużej liczbie meczów6.

Personel wojskowy

CTE stwierdzono również w mózgach zmarłych weteranów wojskowych, zarówno z historią uczestnictwa w sportach kontaktowych, jak i bez niej23. W grupie szczególnego ryzyka są weterani narażeni na wybuchy i urazy głowy związane z działaniami bojowymi120.

Przegląd literatury ujawnił mniej niż 100 zgłoszonych przypadków CTE u personelu wojskowego26. Weterani narażeni na powtarzające się urazy związane z wybuchami również zostali zdiagnozowani z CTE26. Zdaniem dr Benneta Omalu, odkrywcy CTE u graczy futbolu amerykańskiego w 2002 roku, zespół stresu pourazowego (PTSD) u weteranów wojskowych może należeć do spektrum chorób CTE27.

W Australijskich Siłach Obronnych (ADF) zatrudnionych jest 59 095 członków służby, z czego 28 878 w pełnym wymiarze czasu pracy i 17 454 w niepełnym wymiarze. Dokładna częstość występowania powtarzających się TBI w ADF nie jest mierzalna, ponieważ wielu członków służby nie zgłasza swoich doświadczeń związanych z TBI28.

Inne grupy ryzyka

Poza sportowcami i personelem wojskowym, inne grupy zagrożone rozwojem CTE obejmują:

  • Ofiary przemocy domowej29
  • Osoby z ciężką padaczką30
  • Osoby po wielokrotnych upadkach prowadzących do uderzeń w głowę29
  • Ofiary wypadków w miejscu pracy29

W zakładach karnych w ciągu 42 miesięcy analizy zarejestrowano ponad 10 000 incydentów urazów głowy, co wskazuje, że osoby osadzone również mogą być grupą zwiększonego ryzyka CTE22.

Współwystępowanie CTE z innymi chorobami neurodegeneracyjnymi

CTE często współwystępuje z innymi chorobami neurodegeneracyjnymi, co może komplikować diagnozę i obraz kliniczny. Do najczęstszych chorób współistniejących należą:

Badania wykazały, że urazy mózgu są potencjalnym czynnikiem ryzyka rozwoju wielu chorób neurodegeneracyjnych. Metaanalizy tych badań wykazały istotny związek między TBI a chorobą Alzheimera, chorobą Parkinsona, stwardnieniem zanikowym bocznym i otępieniem czołowo-skroniowym34.

Interesujące jest odkrycie współwystępowania CTE i choroby prionowej w dwóch przypadkach z kohorty CTE obejmującej 55 osób, co statystycznie byłoby zgodne z zapadalnością na sporadyczną chorobę prionową wynoszącą ponad 100 przypadków na milion osób rocznie. Ta zapadalność jest co najmniej 83 razy wyższa niż obecnie zgłaszana zapadalność w USA33.

Tendencje i prognozy epidemiologiczne

W ostatnich 17 latach nastąpił znaczny wzrost badań naukowych dotyczących przewlekłej encefalopatii pourazowej (CTE)11. Boston University CTE Center opublikował już 182 badania na temat CTE8. Wraz z rosnącą świadomością na temat CTE i lepszymi metodami diagnostycznymi, możliwe jest, że w przyszłości będziemy obserwować wzrost liczby diagnozowanych przypadków.

Według analizy przeprowadzonej przez Centra Kontroli i Zapobiegania Chorobom (CDC), wizyty na oddziałach ratunkowych z powodu urazów mózgu związanych ze sportem, w tym wstrząśnień mózgu, wśród dzieci i młodzieży wzrosły o 60% w ciągu ostatniej dekady35. Biorąc pod uwagę, że CTE rozwija się po latach lub dekadach od urazów, może to prowadzić do wzrostu liczby przypadków CTE w przyszłości.

W Stanach Zjednoczonych szacuje się, że rocznie dochodzi do około 1,6 do 3,8 miliona wstrząśnień mózgu związanych ze sportem i rekreacją36. W Australii 73% emerytowanych zawodowych piłkarzy miało co najmniej jeden epizod wstrząśnienia mózgu w trakcie swojej kariery (ponad połowa z wielokrotną ekspozycją)36. Dane te sugerują, że może istnieć wiele niezdiagnozowanych przypadków CTE obecnie występujących w społeczeństwie.

Znaczenie dla zdrowia publicznego

Biorąc pod uwagę miliony sportowców, zarówno młodych, jak i starszych, uczestniczących w sportach kontaktowych, które wiążą się z powtarzającymi się urazami mózgu, CTE pozostaje ważnym i rozwijającym się problemem zdrowotnym o niezaspokojonych potrzebach medycznych35. Badania prospektywne są niezbędne do zidentyfikowania specyficznych czynników ryzyka rozwoju tej choroby neurodegeneracyjnej.

Głównym celem badań powinny być badania epidemiologiczne i prospektywne identyfikujące konkretne czynniki ryzyka rozwoju CTE35. Potrzebne są również bardziej włączające badania prospektywne, aby określić prawdziwą epidemiologię przewlekłej encefalopatii pourazowej23.

Wnioski i przyszłe kierunki badań

Pomimo rosnącej liczby badań nad CTE, nadal istnieją znaczące luki w naszej wiedzy na temat epidemiologii tej choroby. Dotychczasowe badania nad CTE były ograniczone do selektywnych raportów przypadków37. Nie ma opublikowanych systematycznych badań uwzględniających zarówno populacje związane ze sportem, jak i niezwiązane ze sportem, narażone na urazy głowy. Na podstawie braku tych danych, obecnie niemożliwe jest określenie zapadalności na nowe przypadki CTE w sportach kontaktowych. Ponadto, ogólna częstość występowania CTE wśród wszystkich przypadków urazów głowy nie może być określona w tym momencie37.

Przegląd systematyczny 153 przypadków CTE potwierdzonych patologicznie reprezentuje najbardziej aktualną i najbardziej kompletną liczbę potwierdzonych przypadków CTE w literaturze medycznej. Ostateczna liczba przypadków CTE została ustalona po uwzględnieniu 113 zduplikowanych zgłoszonych przypadków38. Ta liczba stanowi bardzo małą część całkowitej liczby osób uprawiających sporty kontaktowe, która sięga wielu milionów i mogła doznać wstrząśnień mózgu lub innych łagodnych urazów mózgu (mTBI).

Przyszłe badania powinny koncentrować się na:

  • Opracowaniu przyżyciowych metod diagnostycznych CTE39
  • Identyfikacji biomarkerów CTE40
  • Lepszym zrozumieniu związku między powtarzającymi się urazami głowy a progresją choroby41
  • Opracowaniu skutecznych metod leczenia i strategii profilaktycznych41
  • Przeprowadzeniu dużych, długoterminowych badań w celu określenia rzeczywistej częstości występowania i czynników ryzyka CTE42

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) opracował kryteria diagnostyczne zespołu encefalopatii pourazowej (Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome, TES), które mają reprezentować kliniczny zespół CTE43. W badaniu z zastosowaniem tych kryteriów u emerytowanych zawodowych pięściarzy stwierdzono, że częstość występowania TES w całej kohorcie wynosiła 41% (95% CI: 34% do 48%) i wzrastała z wiekiem. Ponad 60% emerytowanych pięściarzy powyżej 50 roku życia spełniało kryteria TES44.

Oprócz wieku, głównym czynnikiem związanym z TES+ w tej grupie była ilość ekspozycji na powtarzające się urazy głowy. Próg 25 lub więcej walk prognozował, czy pacjent został sklasyfikowany jako TES+, choć czułość i swoistość tego testu były stosunkowo niskie (odpowiednio 72 i 64)44. Grupa TES+ wykazywała znacząco mniejsze objętości różnych struktur korowych i podkorowych, w tym wzgórza, hipokampa, ciała modzelowatego oraz zarówno całkowitej istoty białej, jak i szarej45.

Dalsze badania kliniczne i patologiczne są potrzebne, aby zwalidować dokładność kryteriów w identyfikacji osób z CTE, ale te wyniki wspierają ich proponowane wykorzystanie w dalszych badaniach długoterminowych skutków powtarzających się urazów głowy.

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  1. 09.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy?embed_domain=hackmd.io%25252F%252540yipuafecsl2jsu8smr5njq%25252Fbnjhjgjghjghjghfavicon.ico&lang=us
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative tauopathy that is thought to result from mild repetitive head injury. The exact incidence and prevalence are unknown. It is most commonly seen in amateur and professional contact/collision sports players where repetitive head injury is common (e.g. boxing, American football, rugby, ice hockey), as well as in military personnel exposed to explosive blasts and victims of domestic violence. […] The diagnosis can only be made by neuropathological examination.
  • #2 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy/symptoms-causes/syc-20370921
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a brain disorder likely caused by repeated head injuries. […] CTE is a rare disorder that is not yet well understood. […] Experts don’t yet know how often CTE occurs in the population, but it appears to be rare. […] Repeated exposure to traumatic brain injury is thought to increase the risk of CTE. […] There is no treatment for CTE. But CTE may be prevented because it’s associated with recurrent concussions.
  • #3 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE): Symptoms & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17686-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-cte
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a brain condition that can develop due to repeated head impacts and concussions. […] Experts arent sure just how common CTE is. […] CTE also has strong similarities and shares symptoms with several other degenerative brain diseases, such as Alzheimers disease and frontotemporal dementia. […] The only way to do that is to examine samples of a persons brain under a microscope, which is only possible during an autopsy after death. […] While experts may not be able to confirm CTE before death, they can still make a presumptive diagnosis based on your symptoms and a physical and neurological exam. […] Reducing the number of head impacts you experience is ultimately the best way to reduce the risk of CTE. […] Currently, the available research and understanding of CTE indicate this condition isnt deadly on its own. […] CTE is a permanent, lifelong condition. […] Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a condition that can affect people who have a history of repeated head impacts or concussions.
  • #4 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_traumatic_encephalopathy
    Rates of disease are about 30% among those with a history of multiple head injuries. Population rates, however, are unclear. Tracking the epidemiology of CTE is difficult due to the inability to diagnose this syndrome during life. […] Professional level athletes are the largest group with CTE, due to frequent concussions and sub-concussive impacts from play in contact sport. These contact-sports include American football, Australian rules football, ice hockey, Rugby football (Rugby union and Rugby league), boxing, kickboxing, mixed martial arts, association football, and wrestling. […] According to a 2017 study on brains of deceased gridiron football players, 99% of tested brains of NFL players, 88% of CFL players, 64% of semi-professional players, 91% of college football players, and 21% of high school football players had various stages of CTE.
  • #5 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541013/
    Epidemiology […] Approximately 4 million sports-related concussions are reported annually in the United States alone. The incidence of sport-related neurological conditions among boxers is reported to be 17%. In a study conducted by the Mayo Clinic Brain Bank, CTE pathology was found in 32% of athletes who participated in contact sports. Similarly, in the largest case series of 177 former professional football players, CTE was diagnosed in up to 87% of the patients. A recent study has also revealed significant neuropathological evidence of CTE among football players who donated their brains for research.
  • #6 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: The unknown disease | Neurología (English Edition)
    https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-neurologia-english-edition–495-articulo-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-the-unknown-S2173580816301171
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy is a neurodegenerative disease produced by accumulated minor traumatic brain injuries; no definitive premortem diagnosis and no treatments are available for chronic traumatic encephalopathy. […] Risk factors associated with chronic traumatic encephalopathy include playing contact sports, presence of the apolipoprotein E4, and old age. […] To date, there are no epidemiological studies providing data on the frequency of CTE or DP. […] Around 17% of all retired professional boxers are estimated to have CTE; this disease is rare in amateur boxers. […] In a review conducted by McKee et al., 46 of the 51 patients diagnosed with CTE (90%) were athletes. […] Several risk factors for CTE have been described, including retirement after the age of 28, a long professional career, or participating in a high number of matches.
  • #7 What Is CTE (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy)? An Overview
    https://www.healthline.com/health/overview-of-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-cte
    Most confirmed cases of CTE have been in athletes of contact sports, like American football and boxing, but it can develop in anybody with a history of repeated head trauma. […] CTE has been the most common name for this condition since the 1940s. Most confirmed cases of CTE have been in athletes competing in contact sports with a high risk of head injuries, like American football and boxing, according to 2016 research. […] In the largest case series of CTE in deceased football players, researchers found a CTE prevalence of 87 percent across all levels of play and a prevalence of 99 percent (110 out of 111) in ex-NFL players. […] Its been speculated that certain genes may make some people more prone to developing CTE. According to 2021 research, the gene that has gained the most attention is the ApoE e4 allele, which might inhibit the growth of neurons after brain injury. […] CTE can only be diagnosed after death, and treatment is limited to managing your symptoms.
  • #8 Researchers Find CTE in 345 of 376 Former NFL Players Studied | Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine
    https://www.bumc.bu.edu/camed/2023/02/06/researchers-find-cte-in-345-of-376-former-nfl-players-studied/
    Researchers Find CTE in 345 of 376 Former NFL Players Studied […] The Boston University CTE Center announced today that they have now diagnosed 345 former NFL players with chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) out of 376 former players studied (91.7 percent). […] The prevalence of CTE among NFL players is unknown as CTE can only be definitively diagnosed after death. […] Research on CTE has advanced considerably over the past five years, and the BU CTE Center soon will publish its 182nd study on CTE. […] in October 2022 the National Institutes of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), a branch of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), updated their position on what causes CTE: CTE is a delayed neurodegenerative disorder that was initially identified in postmortem brains and, research-to-date suggests, is caused in part by repeated traumatic brain injuries.
  • #9 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in young athletes | National Institutes of Health (NIH)
    https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-young-athletes
    In a study of brains from contact sport players who died before reaching 30, more than 40% had chronic traumatic encephalopathy, or CTE. […] The findings confirm that CTE can occur even in young people, but more work is needed to determine how CTE relates to clinical symptoms. […] The incidence of CTE in young people, however, is unknown. […] More than 40% of the donors (63 out of 152) had CTE based on established criteria. […] This study clearly shows that the pathology of CTE starts early, McKee says. The fact that over 40% of young contact and collision sport athletes in the UNITE Brain Bank have CTE is remarkable. […] But the findings suggest that the donors clinical symptoms were not caused by CTE alone. Instead, these symptoms might reflect a variety of factors.
  • #10 What is CTE? Understanding chronic traumatic encephalopathy – Harvard Health
    https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/what-is-cte-understanding-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a disease linked to repeated blows to the head. CTE has most commonly been diagnosed in athletes, but it can happen in anyone who has had recurring head injuries. […] Researchers say CTE may be far more widespread in young people who play a lot of contact sports than previously believed. A study of brains from contact sport players who died before they reached age 30 showed that more than 40% had CTE. […] Researchers have estimated that about 17% of people with years of repetitive concussions or mild TBIs will develop chronic traumatic encephalopathy. […] One study found that CTE is linked more closely to the force of blows to the head than to the number of concussions a person has experienced. The study suggests that CTE risk could be lowered by changing the force of head impacts in practices and games. […] Brain donations from athletes have helped support research into CTE. More than 1,000 brains have been donated to the UNITE Brain Bank, the largest tissue repository in the world focused on TBI and CTE, to help further research.
  • #11
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00401-023-02540-w
    Over the last 17 years, there has been a remarkable increase in scientific research concerning chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). […] Presently, CTE can be definitively diagnosed only by postmortem neuropathological examination; the corresponding clinical condition is known as traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES). […] Over 97% of CTE cases published have been reported in individuals with known exposure to repetitive head impacts (RHI), including concussions and nonconcussive impacts, most often experienced through participation in contact sports. […] While some suggest there is uncertainty whether a causal relationship exists between RHI and CTE, the preponderance of the evidence suggests a high likelihood of a causal relationship, a conclusion that is strengthened by the absence of any evidence for plausible alternative hypotheses.
  • #12
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00401-023-02540-w
    There is a robust doseresponse relationship between CTE and years of American football play, a relationship that remains consistent even when rigorously accounting for selection bias. […] Here, we present the advances in the neuropathological diagnosis of CTE culminating with the development of the NINDSNIBIB criteria, the multiple international studies that have used these criteria to report CTE in hundreds of contact sports players and others, and the evidence for a robust doseresponse relationship between RHI and CTE.
  • #13 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_traumatic_encephalopathy
    As reported in a study published by Roberts, about 11% of the retired boxers he examined had a mild case of CTE, and about 6% of the boxers had major neurological problems. […] Other individuals diagnosed with CTE were those involved in military service, had a previous history of chronic seizures, were domestically abused, or were involved in activities resulting in repetitive head collisions.
  • #14 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: The unknown disease | Neurología (English Edition)
    https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-neurologia-english-edition–495-articulo-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-the-unknown-S2173580816301171
    Episodes of concussions and head trauma increase the athlete’s risk of developing CTE. […] It seems reasonable to state that repeated head trauma is a necessary condition for developing CTE. […] However, not all athletes experiencing head trauma develop the disease. […] Age may be another potential risk factor. […] Among the genetic factors involved, special mention should be made of the gene for apolipoprotein E (ApoE). […] The main findings in patients with CTE are reactive astrocytes, dot-like spindle-shaped neuropil neurites, and a band-shaped or flame-shaped accumulation of small and large globose neurofibrillary tangles which are immunoreactive to phosphorylated tau protein. […] CTE is a syndrome of neurological impairment associated with phosphorylated tau protein deposition resulting from repeated head trauma.
  • #15 What is CTE? | Concussion Legacy Foundation
    https://concussionfoundation.org/cte-resources/what-is-cte/
    Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy is a degenerative brain disease found in athletes, military veterans, and others with a history of repetitive brain trauma. […] CTE is caused in part by repeated traumatic brain injuries, which include concussions and nonconcussive impacts. […] The causal relationship was explored thoroughly in in the 2022 article Applying the Bradford Hill Criteria for Causation to Repetitive Head Impacts and CTE, published in Frontiers in Neurology. […] The UNITE Brain Bank has revolutionized how we understand CTE. More than 1,000 brains have been donated, teaching us who is at risk and how the disease manifests differently in different people. […] The report also shows that almost every person diagnosed with CTE has one thing in common: a history of repetitive hits to the head. CTE is most frequently found in contact sport athletes and military veterans.
  • #16 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in Australia: the first three years of the Australian Sports Brain Bank | The Medical Journal of Australia
    https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2022/216/10/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-australia-first-three-years-australian-sports
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative tauopathy caused by repetitive head injury.1 Although it has chiefly been studied in contact sport participants, anyone who experiences repetitive head injury is at risk of CTE. It is associated with a range of neuropsychological problems, ranging from mood and behavioural symptoms to cognitive impairment and dementia.2 Clinical diagnostic criteria have been proposed,3 but, as for many neurodegenerative disorders, a definitive diagnosis requires post mortem brain examination. […] In 2018, we established the Australian Sports Brain Bank (ASBB; https://www.brainbank.org.au) to support the study of CTE in Australia. The ASBB has since received more than 600 donation pledges from amateur and professional sportspeople. […] In this first ASBB case series, a snapshot of neurodegeneration in Australian people who participate in contact sports, CTE was the most frequent neuropathology. Our findings should encourage clinicians and policymakers to develop measures that further mitigate the risk of sportrelated repetitive head injury.
  • #17 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE): Symptoms and Treatment
    https://brainfoundation.org.au/disorders/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy/
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a type of dementia associated with repeated head injuries or concussions. […] Chronic traumatic encephalopathy is not fully understood, but research has established a clear link between repetitive concussive or subconcussive blows to the head and CTE. […] Diagnosis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy is challenging because the symptoms often overlap with other neurological conditions such as Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease, or depression. […] Research on chronic traumatic encephalopathy is ongoing, and scientists are working to better understand the disease and develop ways to diagnose and treat it. […] Understanding the risk factors for developing CTE is crucial for prevention. Current research is focused on determining how the number, severity, and frequency of head injuries are related to the risk of developing CTE. […] The Australian Sports Brain Bank (ASBB) is an Australian research centre focusing on chronic traumatic encephalopathy.
  • #18 Surveillance report of traumatic brain injury-related emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths, United States, 2014
    https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/78062
    In the United States (U.S.), traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious public health concern that results in death and disability for thousands of people each year. During 2013, TBIs were diagnosed in nearly 2.8 million of the 26 million injury-related emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths that occurred in the U.S. This report describes 2014 national incidence estimates of TBI-related emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths (TBI-EDHDs) by principal mechanism of injury, injury intent, and age as well as describes the trends in TBI incidence by principal mechanism from 2006-2014. […] TBI morbidity estimates were derived from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Projects (HCUP) Nationwide Emergency Department Sample (NEDS) and National Inpatient Sample (NIS). […] TBI mortality estimates were derived from the National Vital Statistics System (NVSS) which captures data for all deaths registered in all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia.
  • #19 Head Trauma: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/433855-overview
    In 2014, approximately 2.87 million TBI-related emergency department (ED) visits, hospitalizations, and deaths were reported in the United States, including more than 837,000 that occurred among children. This figure includes about 2.53 million TBI-related ED visits (over 812,00 of these visits among children), 288,000 TBI-related hospitalizations (over 23,000 among children), and 56,800 TBI-related deaths (including 2529 children). […] In the United States, 214,110 TBI-related hospitalizations occurred in 2020, and 69,473 TBI-related deaths occurred in 2021. Males had an almost twofold greater risk of hospitalization for TBI compared with females and an almost threefold higher risk of TBI-associated death. The greatest number and rate of TBI-related hospitalizations and deaths were in persons aged 75 years or older.
  • #20 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) | Symptoms & Treatments | alz.org
    https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-dementia/related_conditions/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a progressive and fatal brain disease associated with repeated traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), including concussions and repeated blows to the head. […] Studies have shown that people who experience TBI in early to midlife are two to four times more at risk of developing dementia in late life. This risk appears to be much higher in people with several TBIs, although more research is needed to confirm this. […] Those at greatest risk for CTE are athletes who play contact sports (e.g., boxers, football players, etc.) and military veterans, likely due to their increased chances of enduring repeated blows to the head. […] Research on CTE diagnosis, cause(s), symptoms, and risk factors is still in the early stages. […] A diagnosis of CTE can only be made after death, when an autopsy can reveal whether the known brain changes of CTE are present.
  • #21 The Current Status of Research on Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy.
    https://vivo.weill.cornell.edu/display/pubid28254594
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) evolved from the term dementia pugilistica describing the dementia found in many boxers to its current use in describing the dementia and depression sometimes found in athletes subjected to multiple concussions or subconcussive blows to the head. […] However, it remains unclear whether this is a syndrome unique to repetitive head trauma, especially in contact sports, because the epidemiology has been difficult to establish. […] In particular, research to date has had a denominator problem in not establishing the total number of potential cases at risk for developing CTE.
  • #22 Project MUSE – Head Trauma in Jail and Implications for Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in the United States: Case Report and Results of Injury Surveillance in NYC Jails
    https://muse.jhu.edu/article/666596
    Because there is no standard reporting of injuries in jails and prisons, the national burden of head trauma during incarceration is unclear. […] The case report revealed 64 injurious events over two years, 44% resulting in a head injury and 25% resulting in emergency hospitalization. […] During the 42 months of this analysis, 10,286 incidents of head trauma occurred in the NYC jail system. […] Mild TBI occurred in 1,507 of these instances. […] The rate of head trauma and mTBI was 269.0 and 39.4 per 1,000 person-years, respectively. […] The lack of reporting head trauma in correctional settings means that national prevalence estimates of these critical health outcomes miss the vulnerable cohort of incarcerated individuals.
  • #23 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy
    Epidemiology of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is not well defined, with the true incidence and prevalence within the general population unknown. Among patients with a history of contact sports involvement at the professional level, the reported rate varies from 17% to 99%, depending on the series and sports studied. […] Chronic traumatic encephalopathy has been found in the brains of deceased military veterans, both with and without a history of contact sports participation. […] The literature regarding concussion prevalence estimates that around 3.8 million sports-related concussions occur per year in the United States alone, with many going unreported. […] Although the age of initial presentation for chronic traumatic encephalopathy is estimated to be between 30 and 65 years, chronic traumatic encephalopathy pathology has been seen in patients as young as 18 years. […] More inclusive prospective studies are needed to define the true epidemiology of chronic traumatic encephalopathy.
  • #24 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: the dangers of getting
    https://springerplus.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2193-1801-1-2
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a form of neurodegeneration that results from repetitive brain trauma. […] Given the millions of athletes participating in contact sports that involve repetitive brain trauma, CTE represents an important public health issue. […] In the United States, approximately 75% of individuals with TBI sustain a mild TBI also known as a concussion. […] Contact sports athletes are commonly exposed to concussions. […] The frequency of CTE in professional boxers is estimated to be 0.8 brain injuries per 10 rounds. […] Approximately 20% of retired professional boxers developed CTE. […] Although initially seen in professional boxers, CTE has now been identified in a number of athletes competing in different contact sports including amateur and professional wrestling, professional hockey, professional soccer and American football.
  • #25 Should Potential Risk of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy Be Discussed with Young Athletes? | Journal of Ethics | American Medical Association
    https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/should-potential-risk-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-be-discussed-young-athletes/2017-07
    Our PubMed search identified no published epidemiological, cross-sectional, longitudinal, or prospective studies related to CTE, making it impossible to determine true incidence and causation. […] At the high school level, football, ice hockey, and lacrosse are among the highest-risk sports for boys, while soccer, lacrosse, and basketball are the highest-risk sports for girls.
  • #26 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy/Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome in Military Personnel – JMVH
    https://jmvh.org/article/https-doi-ds-org-doilink-09-2022-92558949-jmvh-vol-30-no-3/
    The literature review revealed less than 100 reported CTE cases in service members. […] The true prevalence and incidence of CTE, both in service members and the general population, is unknown. […] Research commitments into understanding CTE are becoming more available but limited, especially in military settings. […] The outcome of the International State-of-the-Science Meeting, exploring the potential relationship between blast-related trauma and CTE development, is helpful for the ADF. […] The panel acknowledged an association between TBI and CTE. […] Service members exposed to repetitive blast injuries have been diagnosed with CTE.
  • #27 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in an Iraqi war veteran with posttraumatic stress disorder who committed suicide in: Neurosurgical Focus Volume 31 Issue 5 (2011) Journals
    https://thejns.org/focus/view/journals/neurosurg-focus/31/5/2011.9.focus11178.xml
    Following his discovery of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in football players in 2002, Dr. Bennet Omalu hypothesized that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in military veterans may belong to the CTE spectrum of diseases. The CTE surveillance at the Brain Injury Research Institute was therefore expanded to include deceased military veterans diagnosed with PTSD. […] The authors report this case as a sentinel case of CTE in an Iraqi war veteran diagnosed with PTSD to possibly stimulate new lines of thought and research in the possible pathoetiology and pathogenesis of PTSD in military veterans as part of the CTE spectrum of diseases, and as chronic sequelae and outcomes of repetitive traumatic brain injuries. […] We expanded our CTE surveillance and brain tissue analyses to include deceased military veterans who were diagnosed with PTSD.
  • #28 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy/Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome in Military Personnel – JMVH
    https://jmvh.org/article/https-doi-ds-org-doilink-09-2022-92558949-jmvh-vol-30-no-3/
    Australian Defence Force (ADF) service members occupational history, consisting of repeated minor traumatic brain injury (TBI) with accompanying cognitive, behavioural, mood and movement disorders, are cardinal symptoms suggestive of the diagnosis of traumatic encephalopathy syndrome (TES) and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). […] CTE is a topic of significant interest for legal medicine practitioners as, according to the ADF statistics, there are 59 095 service members employed by the ADF, of which 28 878 were full-time and 17 454 part-time. […] The accurate prevalence of repetitive TBI in the ADF is not measurable as many service members do not report their TBI experience(s). […] Although exposure to a single TBI was associated with the development of CTE, the consensus is that the CTE arises from repeated TBIs reaching a cumulative dose, in a dose-dependent manner, to develop permanent brain damage.
  • #29 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy or CTE – Connectivity
    https://www.connectivity.org.au/symptoms-and-care/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-or-cte/
    Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disease that has been linked to repeated head injuries. […] CTE can be caused by repeated head injuries. Repeated head injuries often occur from participation in contact sports but can also occur in non-sporting situations (e.g., military service, domestic violence, workplace accidents). […] CTE has been identified in individuals who have participated in boxing, football, competitive cycling, as well as equestrian and other sports involving contact or collisions. Outside of sports, CTE may occur as a result of repeated head injuries from violent assault (e.g., family and domestic violence), frequent falls leading to head impacts, explosions or blast trauma. […] CTE can be prevented by avoiding and minimising the risk of (repetitive) head injury. Good concussion management is an important aspect of preventative care.
  • #30
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12024-023-00624-3
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative condition, in which the only known cause is exposure to repeated episodes of blunt head trauma. It most often occurs in professional and amateur athletes who have had frequent and repetitive cranial impacts during contact sports, but may also be found in victims of domestic violence, military personnel exposed to explosive devices and in individuals with severe epilepsy. […] Failure to examine the brain or to adequately sample appropriate areas at autopsy may lead to cases being overlooked and to an underestimation of the incidence of this condition in the community. […] Ascertaining whether there is a history of head trauma, including exposure to contact sports, as a standard part of forensic clinical history protocols will help identify at-risk individuals so that Coronial consideration of the need for brain examination can be appropriately informed. Repetitive head trauma, particularly from contact sport, is being increasingly recognized as a cause of significant preventable neurodegeneration.
  • #31 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy as the Course of Alzheimer’s Disease
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/9/4639
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease that results from repeated mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). Many epidemiological studies show that experiencing a TBI in early or middle life is associated with an increased risk of dementia later in life. […] Starting from epidemiology, CTE is mainly associated with professional and amateur athletes, especially American football players and boxers, but it should not only be. Plenty of different groups of people are exposed to repetitive head impacts (RHIs), also known as repetitive traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), defined as cumulative exposure to recurrent concussive and subconcussive events. These injuries can be caused through contact and collision sports at any age, military service, severe epilepsy attacks, or being the victim of domestic violence.
  • #32 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy and Posttraumatic Neurodegenerative Disorders | Springer Publishing
    https://connect.springerpub.com/content/book/978-0-8261-4305-1/part/part06/chapter/ch32
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disease associated with exposure to repetitive head impacts. This chapter describes current knowledge and knowledge gaps regarding the neuropathology, mechanism, clinical presentation, biomarkers, and risk and resilience factors of CTE, as well as the long-term consequences of a single moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury. […] There has been tremendous growth in the number of biomedical publications on CTE over the past decade. […] Further evidence that CTE is a distinct disease was provided by a series of cryo-electron microscopy studies. […] CTE is also frequently comorbid with other neurodegenerative conditions, including Lewy body disease, argyrophilic grain disease, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. […] Much of the research that has been produced has relied on case studies and retrospective histories obtained from next-of-kin of individuals posthumously diagnosed with CTE.
  • #33 Co-occurrence of chronic traumatic encephalopathy and prion disease | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-018-0643-9
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disease associated with repetitive traumatic brain injury (TBI). CTE is generally found in athletes participating in contact sports and military personnel exposed to explosive blasts but can also affect civilians. […] We investigated the presence of prion disease in 55 subjects with autopsy-proven CTE and found two prion-positive cases. A third case clinically diagnosed with PTSD and prion disease had been referred to the National Prion Disease Pathology Surveillance Center (NPDPSC). […] The occurrence of sCJD in 2 cases of a CTE cohort comprising 55 subjects would be statistically consistent with a sporadic prion disease incidence of over 100 cases per million people per year. This incidence is at least 83 times higher than the currently reported US incidence.
  • #34 Understanding the Molecular Progression of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Traumatic Brain Injury, Aging and Neurodegenerative Disease
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/3/1847
    Many studies have assessed the role of TBI in developing neurodegenerative conditions, and meta-analyses of these studies have shown a significant association between TBI and AD, PD, ALS, and FTD (Frontotemporal dementia). […] Chronic traumatic encephalopathy is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative condition caused by a single or multiple blows to the head. […] The Tau neurofibrillary tangles found in CTE are also distinctively found in patients with neurodegenerative diseases such as AD, FTD, PiD, and PSP, among others.
  • #35 Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: the dangers of getting
    https://springerplus.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2193-1801-1-2
    Because repetitive closed head injuries seem to be the cause of CTE, athletes involved in collision sports seem to be at a high risk of developing the disorder. […] There are approximately 100,000 to 300,000 concussions occurring in the game of football alone each year. […] According to an analysis by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention, emergency department visits for sport-related TBI, including concussions, among children and adolescents increased by 60% during the last decade. […] The specific nature of the brain trauma exposure also needs to be carefully studied. […] A major goal of research must be epidemiologic and prospective studies to identify the specific risk factors for the development of this neurodegenerative disease. […] Given the millions of athletes both young and old participating in contact sports that involve repetitive brain trauma, CTE remains an important and expanding health issue with unmet medical need.
  • #36
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12024-023-00624-3
    The link with repetitive head trauma, including that associated with sporting activities has been established. However, determining the clinical course and incidence of the disorder, in addition to establishing stronger clinicopathological predictors and clarifying epidemiological characteristics, may be problematic. […] As it has been estimated that there are at least 1.6 to 3.8 million sport/recreational related-concussions per year in the USA, with 73% of retired professional footballers in Australia having at least one episode of concussion over their careers (over half with multiple episodes), it is possible that there are a number of occult cases currently in the community. Given this possibility, CTE is a condition that will in all likelihood command increasing forensic attention in future years.
  • #37 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Contact Sports: A Systematic Review of All Reported Pathological Cases | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0117338
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disease associated with head trauma. Although initially believed to affect only boxers, the at-risk population has expanded to encompass a much wider demographic, including American football players, hockey players, wrestlers, and military veterans. This expansion has garnered considerable media attention and public concern for the potential neurodegenerative effects of head trauma. The main aim of this systematic review is to give a complete overview of the common findings and risk factors for CTE as well as the status quo regarding the incidence and prevalence of CTE. […] Thus far CTE research has been limited to selective case reports. There are no published systematic studies incorporating both sport and non-sport related head trauma populations. Based on this lack of data, it is currently impossible to determine the incidence of new cases occurring within contact sport. Additionally, overall prevalence of CTE amongst all cases of head trauma cannot be determined at this time.
  • #38 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Contact Sports: A Systematic Review of All Reported Pathological Cases | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0117338
    Despite media speculation and several prominent CTE research groups purporting to estimate the prevalence of CTE in former boxers and football players, there has not yet been a large, longitudinal study conducted to substantiate any estimates. The number of former participants in contact sports and military combat with a reported history of mTBI is estimated to be in the millions and to determine the actual incidence and prevalence of CTE would require thousands of participants and would need to span decades. […] This review of 153 pathologically confirmed cases of CTE represents the most current and most complete number of confirmed CTE cases in the medical literature. The final number of CTE cases was determined after accounting for 113 duplicate reported cases. […] Our comprehensive review of the medical literature revealed 153 unique cases of pathologically confirmed CTE cases reported as of August 1, 2013. This figure comes after accounting for a large number of duplicate cases in the literature (43% of all cases), which misrepresents the current extent of research and hence our understanding of CTE. Additionally, this figure represents a very small fraction of the total number of individuals in contact sports in the many millions who may have suffered concussions or other mTBI.
  • #39 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: Connecting Mechanisms to Diagnosis and Treatment — Journal of Young Investigators
    https://www.jyi.org/2017-september/2017/9/2/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-connecting-mechanisms-to-diagnosis-and-treatment
    The goal of current research on chronic traumatic encephalopathy is to investigate prospective solutions to these gaps in knowledge. […] Although there have been numerous suggested guidelines for diagnosing CTE in vivo based on neuropsychological observations and life history, there are currently no widely accepted pre-mortem diagnostic criteria for the disease. […] The emergence of more sophisticated technology is creating opportunities for advancing in vivo diagnostic methods, particularly with regards to advancements in neuroimaging techniques. […] Assessing white matter integrity can provide insight into the severity of brain damage, and may be a useful tool in identifying individuals at risk of developing CTE. […] Functional neuroimaging techniques have demonstrated great promise in establishing connections between the neuropathology and symptomatology of CTE.
  • #40 What is Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy?  | NanoString
    https://nanostring.com/blog/what-is-chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy/
    It is still not very clear how repeated head traumas and severity of trauma contribute to the changes in the brain that result in CTE. […] Interestingly, not all individuals who have had head injuries go on to develop CTE. […] There is some debate in the literature that APOE 4 allele may contribute towards a genetic susceptibility to CTE, although more studies are required to definitively establish a correlation. […] Currently, CTE can solely be diagnosed postmortem based on the spatial pattern of tau-accumulation. […] Discovering biomarkers to diagnose CTE in living subjects has been a major challenge. […] Currently, there are no targeted pharmacologic therapies to prevent TBI-related symptoms. […] A larger study and a thorough investigation of the neuroprotection function of these drugs are required.
  • #41 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: Connecting Mechanisms to Diagnosis and Treatment — Journal of Young Investigators
    https://www.jyi.org/2017-september/2017/9/2/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy-connecting-mechanisms-to-diagnosis-and-treatment
    Just as there is a lack of pre-mortem diagnostic criteria for CTE, the same is true for treatment methods. […] The prospective treatment methods for CTE are predominantly preventative in nature by aiming to target and alleviate the adverse neurobiological outcomes of brain injury before they can become pathological and manifest as neurodegeneration. […] Despite these promising findings, these types of drugs have yet to progress into human clinical trials as enhancing neurotransmission in the endocannabinoid system may have adverse effects including cognitive and sensorimotor impairments. […] There are some established hypotheses that aim to explain how brain injury can predispose an individual to developing CTE, although the specific mechanisms by which this occurs remain unclear. […] Future research on the relationship between repetitive brain injury and disease progression is warranted, in addition to further investigation into the formation of a standardized diagnostic criteria and effective treatment methods for the disease.
  • #42 Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Contact Sports: A Systematic Review of All Reported Pathological Cases | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0117338
    This systematic review study emphasizes the need for further research into the epidemiology of CTE. Despite the lack of large scale systematic and randomized studies, the reporting of CTE in former professional American football players has led to widespread speculation far beyond the conclusions that can be drawn based on the current state of CTE research. With CTE research in the early stages and the small number of current cases, there is no credible data with which to establish the incidence or prevalence of CTE in former contact sport participants.
  • #43 Traumatic encephalopathy syndrome: application of new criteria to a cohort exposed to repetitive head impacts | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/57/7/389
    Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disorder described in athletes with previous exposure to repetitive head impacts (RHIs). Currently, the diagnosis can only be made by pathological examination. Despite the media attention it has received, much is still unknown about the disease including its incidence/prevalence, natural history and risk factors. […] […] One of the difficulties in studying CTE had been the lack of an agreed on clinical diagnostic criteria. However, guided by accumulating clinical and pathological data, the first National Institute of Neurological Disease and Stroke (NINDS) Consensus Diagnostic Criteria for Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome (TES) was recently published. The TES criteria was designed to represent the clinical syndrome of CTE and consists of core features including substantial exposure to RHI, impairment in cognitive function and/or neurobehavioural dysregulation, a progressive course, and the absence of any other process that could account for the symptoms. […]
  • #44 Traumatic encephalopathy syndrome: application of new criteria to a cohort exposed to repetitive head impacts | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/57/7/389
    The prevalence of TES in our entire cohort of retired professional fighters and those over the age of 35 was 41% (95% CI: 34% to 48%) and increases with age. More than 60% of retired fighters above the age of 50 met criteria for TES. It is important to emphasise that it is currently unknown what percentage of individuals who fulfil the criteria for TES actually harbour CTE pathology. […] […] Aside from age, we found the major factor associated with TES+ in our group was amount of exposure to RHI. The TES criteria require substantial exposure to RHI and designates only for former football players a specific minimum amount (5 years of play). Looking at boxers in our cohort, we found that a threshold of 25 or more fights predicted whether a patient was categorised as TES+, though the sensitivity and specificity of this was relatively low (72 and 64, respectively). […]
  • #45 Traumatic encephalopathy syndrome: application of new criteria to a cohort exposed to repetitive head impacts | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/57/7/389
    While TES currently is defined by clinical features, it does seem to separate a group that show volumetric differences on MRI imaging. A variety of cortical and subcortical structures had significantly lower volumes in the TES+ group including thalamus, hippocampus, corpus callosum and both total white matter and grey matter. […] […] We report the first application of the new NINDS TES criteria to a cohort of professional fighters. Our results suggest that the criterion does distinguish a group with clear differences in regional brain volumes. While ultimately clinical and pathological studies are needed to validate the accuracy of the criteria to identify those with CTE, these findings support its proposed use in further research of the long-term effects of RHI.