Opoksa
Diagnostyka i diagnoza

Mpox (opoksa) to choroba zakaźna wywoływana przez wirusa MPXV z rodzaju Orthopoxvirus, której diagnostyka opiera się przede wszystkim na wykrywaniu DNA wirusa metodą PCR, szczególnie z próbek pobranych ze zmian skórnych (wymazy, strupy). Zalecane jest pobranie co najmniej dwóch wymazów z każdej zmiany, a także próbek z różnych zmian w różnych stadiach. Testy PCR, w tym Real-time PCR, stanowią złoty standard diagnostyczny ze względu na wysoką czułość i specyficzność, przy czym metody multipleks PCR oraz techniki oparte na CRISPR i amplifikacji izotermicznej (LAMP) są obiecującymi narzędziami do szybkiego wykrywania MPXV. Diagnostyka różnicowa powinna uwzględniać m.in. ospę wietrzną, odrę, zakażenia bakteryjne skóry, świerzb, opryszczkę oraz inne choroby przenoszone drogą płciową, a u dorosłych z mpox zaleca się także badanie w kierunku HIV. Czas oczekiwania na wyniki PCR wynosi zwykle 2-4 dni, a w przypadkach pilnych wyniki mogą być przekazywane telefonicznie.

Diagnostyka mpox (opoksy)

Opoksa (mpox) jest chorobą zakaźną wywoływaną przez wirusa mpox (MPXV), należącego do rodzaju Orthopoxvirus. Prawidłowa i szybka diagnostyka tej choroby ma kluczowe znaczenie zarówno dla skutecznego leczenia pacjentów, jak i zapobiegania rozprzestrzenianiu się wirusa w populacji. Z uwagi na podobieństwo objawów klinicznych do innych chorób zakaźnych, w tym ospy wietrznej, odry, zakażeń bakteryjnych skóry, świerzbu, opryszczki czy innych chorób przenoszonych drogą płciową, postawienie właściwej diagnozy wyłącznie na podstawie objawów klinicznych może być trudne i wymaga potwierdzenia laboratoryjnego.12

Standardy diagnostyczne mpox

Zgodnie z wytycznymi Światowej Organizacji Zdrowia (WHO), diagnoza mpox wymaga spełnienia odpowiednich kryteriów definicji przypadku i/lub potwierdzenia poprzez testy laboratoryjne. Zaleca się wysoki poziom czujności przy ocenie osób z charakterystyczną wysypką, szczególnie jeśli pacjent spełnia kryteria epidemiologiczne. Mpox jest chorobą podlegającą obowiązkowi zgłoszenia, a każdy przypadek jest traktowany jako ognisko. Należy natychmiast zgłaszać podejrzane przypadki do krajowych lub lokalnych organów zdrowia publicznego, niezależnie od tego, czy rozważa się również inne potencjalne diagnozy.3

Preferowaną metodą laboratoryjnego potwierdzenia mpox jest wykrycie wirusowego DNA za pomocą techniki reakcji łańcuchowej polimerazy (PCR). Najlepsze próbki diagnostyczne pobiera się bezpośrednio ze zmian skórnych, płynu lub strupów zebranych przez energiczne wymazy. W przypadku braku zmian skórnych, badania można przeprowadzić za pomocą wymazów z gardła lub odbytu. Nie zaleca się badania krwi. Metody wykrywania przeciwciał mogą nie być przydatne, ponieważ nie rozróżniają różnych ortopokswirusów.4

Metody diagnostyczne

PCR i Real-time PCR są obecnie uznawane za złoty standard diagnostyki laboratoryjnej mpox, ze względu na ich dokładność i czułość. Badania te mogą być ogólne dla Orthopoxvirus lub specyficzne dla wirusa mpox (preferowane). Pozytywne wykrycie przy użyciu testu PCR dla Orthopoxvirus powinno być uzupełnione o PCR dla wirusa mpox i/lub sekwencjonowanie w celu potwierdzenia diagnozy.56

W odpowiedzi na obecny wybuch mpox opracowano metody multipleks PCR w czasie rzeczywistym, które zapewniają strategię molekularną do jednoczesnego wykrywania i rozróżniania różnych czynników zakaźnych, ortopokswirusów i kladów MPXV. Metody te oferują wyższą czułość i specyficzność w porównaniu z konwencjonalnym PCR.7

Pomimo że RT-qPCR jest obecnie złotym standardem techniki diagnozowania zakażenia mpox, ma kilka wad, w tym długi czas przetwarzania próbek, wymaga wiedzy technicznej, niezawodnego dostępu do elektryczności i wykorzystuje zaawansowany termocykler do wykrywania i amplifikacji genomu wirusa. W związku z tym metody izotermalne, takie jak amplifikacja izotermiczna wspomagana pętlą (LAMP), są prawdopodobnie jednymi z najbardziej obiecujących technik do szybkiego wykrywania MPXV.8

W odpowiedzi na obecny wybuch epidemii opracowano systemy diagnostyczne oparte na CRISPR do diagnostyki MPXV. Techniki te łączą wysoką czułość z możliwością szybkiego uzyskania wyników, co jest szczególnie istotne w sytuacjach wymagających szybkiej diagnozy.910

Rodzaje próbek i ich pobieranie

Zalecany rodzaj próbki do diagnostyki mpox to materiał ze zmian skórnych, w tym wymazy wydzieliny ze zmian, stropy z więcej niż jednej zmiany lub strupy ze zmian. Wymazy ze zmian skórnych są najbardziej skutecznym sposobem wykrywania DNA wirusa mpox za pomocą PCR.1112

Klinicyści powinni pobrać dwa wymazy z każdej zmiany w przypadku, gdyby potrzebne było dodatkowe badanie, takie jak badanie specyficzne dla kladu. Wymazy te należy pobrać energicznie i umieścić w odpowiednim medium transportowym. Zalecane jest pobieranie próbek z wielu zmian, jeśli występują one w różnych stadiach.1314

Rodzaj próbki może różnić się w zależności od fazy wysypki. Laboratorium referencyjne może również poprosić o wymaz z jamy ustno-gardłowej, wymaz odbytniczy, krew pobraną na EDTA, nasienie lub mocz. Alternatywne rodzaje próbek (np. wymazy z jamy ustno-gardłowej) można pobrać od osób kontaktujących się z podejrzanymi lub potwierdzonymi przypadkami, które nie mają widocznych zmian skórnych lub śluzówkowych. Mogą one jednak nie wykazywać odpowiedniej czułości w przypadkach przedobjawowych, a badanie należy powtórzyć na materiale ze zmian, jeśli pojawi się wysypka lub zmiany śluzówkowe.15

Diagnostyka różnicowa

W diagnostyce różnicowej mpox należy uwzględnić inne choroby o podobnym obrazie klinicznym, takie jak ospa wietrzna, odra, bakteryjne zakażenia skóry, świerzb, opryszczka, kiła i inne zakażenia przenoszone drogą płciową. Pacjent z mpox może jednocześnie mieć inne zakażenie przenoszone drogą płciową, takie jak kiła czy opryszczka. Alternatywnie, dziecko z podejrzeniem mpox może również mieć ospę wietrzną. Z tego powodu badanie jest kluczowe, aby pacjenci mogli otrzymać opiekę jak najwcześniej i zapobiec ciężkiej chorobie oraz dalszemu rozprzestrzenianiu się.16

Dorosłym z mpox należy zaoferować badanie w kierunku HIV, a dzieciom w miarę możliwości. Tam, gdzie to możliwe, należy rozważyć testy diagnostyczne w kierunku innych chorób, na przykład wirusa ospy wietrznej i półpaśca (VZV), kiły i opryszczki.17

Badanie próbki w kierunku wirusa ospy wietrznej i półpaśca powinno być automatycznie wykonane przez laboratorium referencyjne podczas przeprowadzania PCR w kierunku DNA pokswirusów. Może być pozytywne dla DNA wirusa ospy wietrznej i półpaśca, jeśli obecne jest współistniejące zakażenie.18

Laboratoria diagnostyczne i dostępność testów

Testy na mpox są dostępne za pośrednictwem lokalnych, stanowych, terytorialnych lub plemiennych departamentów zdrowia oraz wielu dużych laboratoriów komercyjnych. Po pobraniu, próbki te mogą być badane w laboratoriach komercyjnych lub laboratoriach w ramach Sieci Reagowania Laboratoryjnego.19

Czas oczekiwania na wyniki badań PCR w kierunku mpox wynosi zazwyczaj od 2 do 4 dni. W przypadkach pilnych wyniki mogą być przekazywane telefonicznie lekarzowi kierującemu, jak tylko będą dostępne. Nieurgencyjne wyniki dodatnie zazwyczaj są przekazywane telefonicznie do laboratorium kierującego w ciągu 24 godzin.2021

FDA wydało wytyczne dotyczące polityki dla testów na mpox w celu rozwiązania problemu zagrożenia zdrowia publicznego, zawierające informacje na temat autoryzacji do użytku w sytuacjach wyjątkowych (EUA) dla diagnostyki in vitro, które FDA wydało w związku z mpox.22

Biomarkery mpox

Poziomy biomarkerów klinicznych związanych z zakażeniem mpox wahają się w zależności od stadium klinicznego choroby. W porównaniu do osób zdrowych, biomarkery kliniczne związane z zakażeniem mpox obejmują trombocytopenię, leukocytozę, hipoalbuminemię, niski poziom azotu mocznikowego we krwi i podwyższony poziom transaminaz. Chociaż wcześniej sugerowano jako biomarkery zakażenia MPXV podwyższone poziomy aminotransferazy asparaginianowej (AST) i aminotransferazy alaninowej (ALT), nowsze badania wykazały, że mają one słabą wartość prognostyczną. Co ważne, żaden pojedynczy biomarker nie może być użyty do potwierdzenia lub wykluczenia przypadku zakażenia mpox, dlatego dla wszystkich podejrzanych przypadków należy przeprowadzić laboratoryjny test diagnostyczny.23

Rozwój nowych metod diagnostycznych

W związku z globalnym rozprzestrzenianiem się mpox, trwają intensywne prace nad rozwojem nowych, bardziej dostępnych i szybszych metod diagnostycznych. Światowa Organizacja Zdrowia (WHO) ogłosiła zatwierdzenie pierwszego testu diagnostycznego na mpox do użytku w sytuacjach nagłych. Badanie Alinity m MPXV jest testem PCR w czasie rzeczywistym, który umożliwia wykrycie DNA wirusa mpox z wymazów ze zmian skórnych u ludzi, co znacznie zwiększy zdolności diagnostyczne w krajach borykających się z wybuchami choroby.24

WHO ogłosiła również dodatkowe testy diagnostyczne mpox w ramach procedury wyjątkowej (EUL), w tym Xpert Mpox, test PCR w czasie rzeczywistym wyprodukowany przez Cepheid, oraz cobas MPXV, opracowany przez Roche Molecular Systems, Inc. Te testy PCR zwiększają dostępność diagnostyki mpox, szczególnie w obszarach o ograniczonych zasobach.2526

Opracowano również przenośną platformę diagnostyki molekularnej do szybkiego wykrywania mpox w miejscu opieki. Platforma ta wykazała analityczną granicę wykrywalności 100 kopii genomu na reakcję dla wirusa mpox, skutecznie odróżniając go od innych ortopokswirusów, wirusa opryszczki i wirusa ospy wietrznej-półpaśca. Walidacja kliniczna na 164 próbkach, w tym 51 przypadkach dodatnich na mpox, wykazała 96,1% czułości i 100% swoistości dla ortopokswirusów oraz 94,1% czułości i 100% swoistości dla wirusa mpox.27

Znaczenie szybkiej i dokładnej diagnostyki

Wczesna i dokładna diagnostyka mpox ma kluczowe znaczenie dla skutecznej kontroli choroby i zapobiegania jej rozprzestrzenianiu się. Jak pokazały pierwsze dni pandemii COVID-19, terminowa i dokładna diagnostyka jest niezbędna dla naszej zdolności do spowolnienia transmisji wirusa.28

Wysoka dostępność testów diagnostycznych umożliwia szybką identyfikację przypadków, co z kolei pozwala na szybsze wprowadzenie środków izolacji i leczenia, a tym samym zmniejszenie ryzyka transmisji. Ponadto dokładna diagnostyka umożliwia lepsze śledzenie kontaktów i monitorowanie ognisk choroby, co jest kluczowe dla kontroli epidemii.29

Światowa Organizacja Zdrowia podkreśla, że wczesna diagnoza jest kluczowa, ponieważ umożliwia szybkie leczenie i opiekę, a także kontrolę wirusa. Rozszerzenie dostępu do usług diagnostycznych jest pilnie potrzebne, ponieważ testy są niezbędne dla takich krytycznych działań, jak wzmocnienie zdolności laboratoryjnych, lepsza identyfikacja przypadków, śledzenie kontaktów, gromadzenie danych z nadzoru i terminowe raportowanie.30

Podsumowanie diagnostyki mpox

Diagnostyka mpox (opoksy) wymaga kompleksowego podejścia, łączącego ocenę kliniczną, dane epidemiologiczne i wyniki badań laboratoryjnych. Złotym standardem diagnostycznym pozostaje badanie PCR próbek pobranych ze zmian skórnych, które oferuje najwyższą czułość i specyficzność. Rozwój nowych technik diagnostycznych, w tym testów typu point-of-care, ma na celu zwiększenie dostępności szybkiej i dokładnej diagnostyki, szczególnie w regionach o ograniczonych zasobach.3132

Współpraca międzynarodowa i inwestycje w rozwój diagnostyki mpox są kluczowe dla skutecznej kontroli obecnego wybuchu choroby i zapobiegania przyszłym epidemiom. WHO, wraz z innymi organizacjami zdrowia publicznego, kontynuuje wysiłki na rzecz zwiększenia dostępności wysokiej jakości testów diagnostycznych i wzmocnienia zdolności laboratoryjnych na całym świecie.33

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10183700/
    The emergence and rapid spread of the monkeypox virus (MPXV) to non-endemic countries has brought this once obscure pathogen to the forefront of global public health. […] Given the range of conditions that cause similar skin lesions, and because the clinical manifestation may often be atypical in the current mpox outbreak, it can be challenging to diagnose patients based on clinical signs and symptoms. […] With this perspective in mind, laboratory-based diagnosis assumes a critical role for the clinical management, along with the implementation of countermeasures. […] Here, we review the clinical features reported in mpox patients, the available laboratory tests for mpox diagnosis, and discuss the principles, advances, advantages, and drawbacks of each assay. […] In this way, a laboratory-based diagnosis is of paramount importance in assisting physicians in the therapeutic management of patients and for health authorities to deploy countermeasures.
  • #2
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mpox
    Identifying mpox can be difficult because other infections and conditions can look similar. It is important to distinguish mpox from chickenpox, measles, bacterial skin infections, scabies, herpes, syphilis, other sexually transmitted infections, and medication-associated allergies. Someone with mpox may also have another sexually transmitted infection at the same time, such as syphilis or herpes. Alternatively, a child with suspected mpox may also have chickenpox. For these reasons, testing is key for people to get care as early as possible and prevent severe illness and further spread. […] The preferred laboratory test for mpox is detection of viral DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The best diagnostic specimens are taken directly from the rash skin, fluid or crusts collected by vigorous swabbing. In the absence of skin lesions, testing can be done using swabs of the throat or anus. Testing blood is not recommended. Antibody detection methods may not be useful as they do not distinguish between different orthopoxviruses. […] HIV testing should be offered to adults with mpox, and children as appropriate. Diagnostic tests for other conditions should be considered where feasible, for example, varicella zoster virus (VZV), syphilis and herpes.
  • #3 Mpox – Diagnosis Approach | BMJ Best Practice US
    https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1611/diagnosis-approach
    A definitive diagnosis can only be considered if the appropriate clinical case definition has been met, and/or the diagnosis has been confirmed by laboratory testing. […] A high index of suspicion is recommended when evaluating people with a characteristic rash, particularly if the patient meets the epidemiologic criteria. […] Mpox is a notifiable condition and one case is considered an outbreak. Immediately report suspected cases to national or local public health authorities, regardless of whether you are also exploring other potential diagnoses. […] Perform screening and triage at the first point of contact with the health system for all people who present with a rash and fever or lymphadenopathy in order to identify people that have suspected or confirmed infection. […] A simplified questionnaire and screening protocol based on the World Health Organization (WHO) case definition (and adapted to local epidemiology) can be implemented at the point of entry to health care.
  • #4
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mpox
    Identifying mpox can be difficult because other infections and conditions can look similar. It is important to distinguish mpox from chickenpox, measles, bacterial skin infections, scabies, herpes, syphilis, other sexually transmitted infections, and medication-associated allergies. Someone with mpox may also have another sexually transmitted infection at the same time, such as syphilis or herpes. Alternatively, a child with suspected mpox may also have chickenpox. For these reasons, testing is key for people to get care as early as possible and prevent severe illness and further spread. […] The preferred laboratory test for mpox is detection of viral DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The best diagnostic specimens are taken directly from the rash skin, fluid or crusts collected by vigorous swabbing. In the absence of skin lesions, testing can be done using swabs of the throat or anus. Testing blood is not recommended. Antibody detection methods may not be useful as they do not distinguish between different orthopoxviruses. […] HIV testing should be offered to adults with mpox, and children as appropriate. Diagnostic tests for other conditions should be considered where feasible, for example, varicella zoster virus (VZV), syphilis and herpes.
  • #5 Mpox – Diagnosis Approach | BMJ Best Practice US
    https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1611/diagnosis-approach
    Enter patients with symptoms that meet the case definition for suspected infection into the mpox clinical care pathway immediately. […] Triage patients with suspected infection using a standardized triage tool. […] Testing should be conducted in patients with suspected infection as soon as possible. […] Offer testing to any person who meets the case definition for a suspected or probable case. […] Nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT), using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) or conventional PCR, is the preferred laboratory test given its accuracy and sensitivity. […] NAAT can be generic to Orthopoxvirus or specific to monkeypox virus (preferable). Positive detection using an Orthopoxvirus PCR assay should be followed by monkeypox virus PCR and/or sequencing or detection to confirm the diagnosis.
  • #6 Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10183700/
    Currently, real-time PCR is the gold standard molecular method for lab-based diagnosis of mpox, for samples from either patients or wild animals. […] Since the emergence of MPXV, several real-time PCR assays have been developed for the diagnosis of this virus. […] These real-time PCR assays have been designed for different targets in the MPXV genome, and the diagnostic validation has been evaluated using clinical samples. […] In response to the recent mpox outbreak, multiplex real-time PCR methods provide a molecular strategy to simultaneously detect and distinguish different infectious agents, orthopoxviruses, and MPXV clades as well. […] Despite RT-qPCR being the current gold standard technique for the diagnosis of mpox infection, it has several drawbacks, including long sample processing time, requires technical expertise, reliable access to electricity, and utilizes a sophisticated thermocycler for detection and amplification of the viral genome. […] With this in mind, isothermal methods such as loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) are perhaps among the most promising techniques for rapid detection of MPXV. […] In response to the current outbreak, CRISPR-based systems have been developed for MPXV diagnostics.
  • #7 Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10183700/
    Currently, real-time PCR is the gold standard molecular method for lab-based diagnosis of mpox, for samples from either patients or wild animals. […] Since the emergence of MPXV, several real-time PCR assays have been developed for the diagnosis of this virus. […] These real-time PCR assays have been designed for different targets in the MPXV genome, and the diagnostic validation has been evaluated using clinical samples. […] In response to the recent mpox outbreak, multiplex real-time PCR methods provide a molecular strategy to simultaneously detect and distinguish different infectious agents, orthopoxviruses, and MPXV clades as well. […] Despite RT-qPCR being the current gold standard technique for the diagnosis of mpox infection, it has several drawbacks, including long sample processing time, requires technical expertise, reliable access to electricity, and utilizes a sophisticated thermocycler for detection and amplification of the viral genome. […] With this in mind, isothermal methods such as loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) are perhaps among the most promising techniques for rapid detection of MPXV. […] In response to the current outbreak, CRISPR-based systems have been developed for MPXV diagnostics.
  • #8 Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10183700/
    Currently, real-time PCR is the gold standard molecular method for lab-based diagnosis of mpox, for samples from either patients or wild animals. […] Since the emergence of MPXV, several real-time PCR assays have been developed for the diagnosis of this virus. […] These real-time PCR assays have been designed for different targets in the MPXV genome, and the diagnostic validation has been evaluated using clinical samples. […] In response to the recent mpox outbreak, multiplex real-time PCR methods provide a molecular strategy to simultaneously detect and distinguish different infectious agents, orthopoxviruses, and MPXV clades as well. […] Despite RT-qPCR being the current gold standard technique for the diagnosis of mpox infection, it has several drawbacks, including long sample processing time, requires technical expertise, reliable access to electricity, and utilizes a sophisticated thermocycler for detection and amplification of the viral genome. […] With this in mind, isothermal methods such as loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) are perhaps among the most promising techniques for rapid detection of MPXV. […] In response to the current outbreak, CRISPR-based systems have been developed for MPXV diagnostics.
  • #9 Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10183700/
    Currently, real-time PCR is the gold standard molecular method for lab-based diagnosis of mpox, for samples from either patients or wild animals. […] Since the emergence of MPXV, several real-time PCR assays have been developed for the diagnosis of this virus. […] These real-time PCR assays have been designed for different targets in the MPXV genome, and the diagnostic validation has been evaluated using clinical samples. […] In response to the recent mpox outbreak, multiplex real-time PCR methods provide a molecular strategy to simultaneously detect and distinguish different infectious agents, orthopoxviruses, and MPXV clades as well. […] Despite RT-qPCR being the current gold standard technique for the diagnosis of mpox infection, it has several drawbacks, including long sample processing time, requires technical expertise, reliable access to electricity, and utilizes a sophisticated thermocycler for detection and amplification of the viral genome. […] With this in mind, isothermal methods such as loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) are perhaps among the most promising techniques for rapid detection of MPXV. […] In response to the current outbreak, CRISPR-based systems have been developed for MPXV diagnostics.
  • #10 Mpox: When to Get Tested and What to Do if Exposed
    https://asm.org/articles/2022/august/monkeypox-when-to-get-tested-and-what-to-do-if-exp
    On Aug. 14, 2024, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared mpox (formerly called monkeypox) a public health emergency of international concern. […] Altogether, these facts necessitate proactive diagnostic and preventative steps in order to contain the outbreak and offer hope to those suffering from the disease. […] If the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic taught us anything, its that timely and accurate diagnosis are critical to our ability to slow transmission of the virus. […] This means that previously developed diagnostic, treatment and prevention strategies are available and expected to benefit current efforts to contain outbreaks. […] How is mpox diagnosed? […] Confirmatory laboratory testing is therefore essential for accurate diagnosis. […] Due to the sensitivity and accuracy of this technique, PCR is the preferred laboratory test for mpox diagnosis.
  • #11 Mpox – Diagnosis Approach | BMJ Best Practice US
    https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1611/diagnosis-approach
    The recommended specimen type is skin lesion material, including swabs of lesion exudate, roofs from more than one lesion, or lesion crusts. […] Skin lesion swabs are the most effective means of detecting monkeypox virus DNA using PCR. […] Collect, label, package, and send specimens according to local or national protocols. […] Always rule out coinfection with malaria in any febrile patient who has been to a malaria-endemic area, especially in the 3 weeks prior to onset of fever.
  • #12 Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10183700/
    Laboratory virology methods are critical for a correct diagnosis and to investigate the population level prevalence of infection. […] To date, the unequivocal confirmation of mpox infection is done through the use of direct and indirect diagnostic methods. […] In direct tests, the clinical specimen is investigated for the presence of the virus, viral nucleic acids, or antigens. […] For this purpose, nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) are most commonly applied to identify the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) sequences that comprise the genetic material of the virus. […] In contrast, indirect MPXV tests detect the patient immune response against the viral infection. […] Choosing the correct specimens for diagnosis tests is a critical step in a reliable and accurate diagnosis. […] According to the WHO criteria, the recommended sample type for laboratory investigation of mpox infection is skin lesion material, including roofs from more than one lesion roofs (e.g., lesion crusts) and swabs of lesion surface and/or exudate.
  • #13 Diagnostic Testing for Mpox | Mpox | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/mpox/hcp/diagnosis-testing/index.html
    Mpox is diagnosed using real-time PCR tests. […] Tests are available through local, state, territorial or tribal health department and many large commercial laboratories. […] Clinicians should collect two swabs from each lesion in case additional testing, such as clade-specific testing, is needed. […] Results are usually available in 2-4 days. […] Clinicians should notify their state health department if they have a patient with mpox-like symptoms and recent travel to Central or Eastern Africa. […] Collect skin lesion material for initial laboratory testing. Once collected, these specimens can be tested at commercial laboratories or laboratories within the Laboratory Response Network. […] To protect yourself and your staff, consult CDC’s guidance on Infection Prevention and Control of Mpox in Healthcare Settings.
  • #14 Mpox Virus DNA, Qualitative Real-Time PCR | Test Detail | Quest Diagnostics
    https://testdirectory.questdiagnostics.com/test/test-detail/12084/monkeypox-virus-dna-qualitative-real-time-pcr?cc=MASTER&q=monkeypox
    Mpox Virus DNA, Qualitative Real-time PCR test is intended for the qualitative detection of non-variola Orthopoxviruses and Mpox virus (clade II) DNA using swabs from human pustular or vesicular rash specimens. […] This test has been authorized by the FDA under an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for use by authorized laboratories. […] Swab a pustule/lesion vigorously and place the swab into a viral culture media (or equivalent) tube. No additional confirmatory testing is required at the CDC, therefore a duplicate swab from the same lesion is not needed. If clinically indicated, consider submitting additional swabs if multiple lesions with different stages are present. Multiple specimens collected on a single patient should be submitted separately and be accompanied by its own separate requisition and transported in its own sealed bag. […] IMPORTANT: Please review the Specimen Collection instructions for this test.
  • #15 Mpox – Tests | BMJ Best Practice US
    https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1611/investigations
    Caution is required when interpreting a single test result in patients with a low pretest probability of infection (e.g., lack of epidemiologic link, non-MSM [men who have sex with men] populations, signs/symptoms inconsistent with mpox) due to the risk of a false-positive result. Repeat testing (re-extraction and retesting of the specimen) is recommended in patients with high RT-PCR cycle threshold values (i.e., 34), as this indicates a low level of viral DNA and poorly- or noninfectious specimens. […] The recommended specimen type is skin lesion material, including swabs of lesion exudate, roofs from more than one lesion, or lesion crusts. Skin lesion swabs are the most effective means of detecting monkeypox virus DNA using PCR. […] Specimen type may vary depending on the phase of the rash. The reference laboratory may also ask for an oropharyngeal swab, anorectal swab, ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) blood, semen, or urine. Alternative specimen types (e.g., oropharyngeal swabs) can be collected from contacts of suspected or confirmed cases but who have no visible skin or mucosal lesions. However, they may lack sensitivity in presymptomatic cases, and testing should be repeated on lesion material if a rash or mucosal lesions develop.
  • #16
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mpox
    Identifying mpox can be difficult because other infections and conditions can look similar. It is important to distinguish mpox from chickenpox, measles, bacterial skin infections, scabies, herpes, syphilis, other sexually transmitted infections, and medication-associated allergies. Someone with mpox may also have another sexually transmitted infection at the same time, such as syphilis or herpes. Alternatively, a child with suspected mpox may also have chickenpox. For these reasons, testing is key for people to get care as early as possible and prevent severe illness and further spread. […] The preferred laboratory test for mpox is detection of viral DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The best diagnostic specimens are taken directly from the rash skin, fluid or crusts collected by vigorous swabbing. In the absence of skin lesions, testing can be done using swabs of the throat or anus. Testing blood is not recommended. Antibody detection methods may not be useful as they do not distinguish between different orthopoxviruses. […] HIV testing should be offered to adults with mpox, and children as appropriate. Diagnostic tests for other conditions should be considered where feasible, for example, varicella zoster virus (VZV), syphilis and herpes.
  • #17
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mpox
    Identifying mpox can be difficult because other infections and conditions can look similar. It is important to distinguish mpox from chickenpox, measles, bacterial skin infections, scabies, herpes, syphilis, other sexually transmitted infections, and medication-associated allergies. Someone with mpox may also have another sexually transmitted infection at the same time, such as syphilis or herpes. Alternatively, a child with suspected mpox may also have chickenpox. For these reasons, testing is key for people to get care as early as possible and prevent severe illness and further spread. […] The preferred laboratory test for mpox is detection of viral DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The best diagnostic specimens are taken directly from the rash skin, fluid or crusts collected by vigorous swabbing. In the absence of skin lesions, testing can be done using swabs of the throat or anus. Testing blood is not recommended. Antibody detection methods may not be useful as they do not distinguish between different orthopoxviruses. […] HIV testing should be offered to adults with mpox, and children as appropriate. Diagnostic tests for other conditions should be considered where feasible, for example, varicella zoster virus (VZV), syphilis and herpes.
  • #18 Mpox – Tests | BMJ Best Practice US
    https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1611/investigations
    Oropharyngeal swabs are recommended for high-risk contacts of a confirmed or highly probable case who have developed systemic symptoms but do not have a rash or lesion for sampling. However, viral load is higher in lesion swabs than in pharyngeal specimens, and oropharyngeal swabs are known to be unreliable standalone specimen types for primary diagnosis. […] There are limited clinical data to support the use of sample types other than swab samples taken directly from a lesion (e.g., blood, saliva). Testing samples not taken from a lesion may lead to false positive results. […] Recommended specimens may differ between testing laboratories and you should always consult your local guidance. Collect, label, package, and send specimens according to local or national protocols. Notify the laboratory of the possibility of mpox prior to sending specimens. […] Testing the sample for varicella zoster virus should automatically be performed by the reference laboratory when undertaking PCR for poxviral DNA. It may be positive for varicella zoster virus DNA if coinfection is present.
  • #19 Diagnostic Testing for Mpox | Mpox | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/mpox/hcp/diagnosis-testing/index.html
    Mpox is diagnosed using real-time PCR tests. […] Tests are available through local, state, territorial or tribal health department and many large commercial laboratories. […] Clinicians should collect two swabs from each lesion in case additional testing, such as clade-specific testing, is needed. […] Results are usually available in 2-4 days. […] Clinicians should notify their state health department if they have a patient with mpox-like symptoms and recent travel to Central or Eastern Africa. […] Collect skin lesion material for initial laboratory testing. Once collected, these specimens can be tested at commercial laboratories or laboratories within the Laboratory Response Network. […] To protect yourself and your staff, consult CDC’s guidance on Infection Prevention and Control of Mpox in Healthcare Settings.
  • #20 Diagnostic Testing for Mpox | Mpox | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/mpox/hcp/diagnosis-testing/index.html
    Mpox is diagnosed using real-time PCR tests. […] Tests are available through local, state, territorial or tribal health department and many large commercial laboratories. […] Clinicians should collect two swabs from each lesion in case additional testing, such as clade-specific testing, is needed. […] Results are usually available in 2-4 days. […] Clinicians should notify their state health department if they have a patient with mpox-like symptoms and recent travel to Central or Eastern Africa. […] Collect skin lesion material for initial laboratory testing. Once collected, these specimens can be tested at commercial laboratories or laboratories within the Laboratory Response Network. […] To protect yourself and your staff, consult CDC’s guidance on Infection Prevention and Control of Mpox in Healthcare Settings.
  • #21
    https://www.gov.uk/guidance/monkeypox-diagnostic-testing
    Urgent results for will be phoned to the referring clinician as soon as they are available. Non-urgent positive results will usually be phoned to the referring laboratory within 24 hours. […] There is a body of evidence documenting the detection of RNA and DNA viruses in semen after acute infection. MPXV DNA has been detected in semen up to day 11 after acute infection in men in Italy, although longitudinal sampling after this point was not carried out. […] Current UKHSA advice takes a cautious approach and recommends that men who have had a confirmed or highly probable diagnosis of mpox according to the UKHSA case definition should use condoms during sex for 12 weeks after complete recovery from mpox infection. […] It is expected that evidence will emerge for duration of MPXV DNA detection in semen which will allow this guide to be updated, and earlier testing may be offered if the evidence supports this. […] For PCR testing of specimens from suspected mpox cases (for example testing for syphilis or HSV), the specimens should be opened in an appropriate microbiological safety cabinet in a CL2 facility.
  • #22 Monkeypox (mpox) and Medical Devices | FDA
    https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/emergency-situations-medical-devices/monkeypox-mpox-and-medical-devices
    Monkeypox (mpox) diagnostic tests are in vitro diagnostic (IVD) devices used to determine if a person is infected with the virus that causes monkeypox (mpox), which is a type of Orthopoxvirus. They may detect the virus that causes monkeypox (mpox) specifically or more generally detect non-variola orthopoxviruses, which includes monkeypox (mpox). […] On September 7, 2022, the FDA issued a guidance, Policy for Monkeypox [mpox] Tests to Address the Public Health Emergency, that describes: […] Information on Emergency Use Authorizations (EUAs) for in vitro diagnostics that the FDA has issued related to monkeypox (mpox) to address the public health emergency is available on the Monkeypox (mpox) EUAs web page. […] The FDA has not applied this general enforcement discretion approach to tests used for declared emergencies under Section 564 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDC Act).
  • #23 Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10183700/
    Importantly, data on the accuracy of this type of sample for mpox diagnosis is scarce, and therefore a negative throat swab sample should be interpreted with caution. […] The levels of these biomarkers fluctuate depending on the clinical stage of the disease. […] Compared to healthy persons, clinical biomarkers associated with mpox infection include thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis, hypoalbuminemia, low blood urea nitrogen level, and elevation of transaminase level. […] While previously suggested as biomarkers for MPXV infection, more recent work has established that elevated aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) expression have poor prognostic value. […] Importantly, no single biomarker can be used to confirm or discard a case of mpox infection, thus a laboratory diagnostic test should be conducted for all suspected cases.
  • #24 WHO approves first mpox diagnostic test for emergency use | UN News
    https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/10/1155351
    The World Health Organization (WHO) announced on Friday that it has approved the first mpox diagnostic test for emergency use, which will boost diagnostic capacity in countries facing outbreaks of the disease. […] The Alinity m MPXV assay is a real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction) test that enables detection of monkeypox virus DNA from human skin lesion swabs. […] Detection of viral DNA by PCR testing is the gold standard for mpox diagnosis. […] WHO said early diagnosis is critical as it enables timely treatment and care, as well as control of the virus.
  • #25 WHO lists additional mpox diagnostic tests for emergency use – World | ReliefWeb
    https://reliefweb.int/report/world/who-lists-additional-mpox-diagnostic-tests-emergency-use
    As part of ongoing efforts to enhance quality-assured testing options, the World Health Organization (WHO) has listed two additional mpox in vitro diagnostics under its Emergency Use Listing (EUL) procedure. […] Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) testing, which detects viral DNA, is considered the gold standard for diagnosing mpox infection. […] WHO listed the Xpert Mpox, a real-time PCR test manufactured by Cepheid under its EUL procedure, on 25 October. […] Another PCR-based option, the cobas MPXV assay, developed by Roche Molecular Systems, Inc., was listed on 14 October 2024. […] Ensuring global access to mpox diagnostic tests that meet WHO standards for quality, safety and performance is essential for efficient and effective testing in settings affected by mpox outbreaks, said Dr Rogerio Gaspar, WHO Director for Regulation and Prequalification.
  • #26 WHO lists additional mpox diagnostic tests for emergency use – World | ReliefWeb
    https://reliefweb.int/report/world/who-lists-additional-mpox-diagnostic-tests-emergency-use
    WHO previously listed Alinity m MPXV assay, manufactured by Abbott Molecular Inc. under EUL on 3 October. […] WHO is working with manufacturers of the EUL-listed products and national regulatory authorities in affected countries to facilitate domestic registration or emergency listing. […] Overall, WHO has received over 60 expressions of interest for the EUL review of mpox diagnostic tests.
  • #27 Portable molecular diagnostic platform for rapid point-of-care detection of mpox and other diseases | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57647-3
    The World Health Organizations designation of mpox as a public health emergency of international concern in August 2024 underscores the urgent need for effective diagnostic solutions to combat this escalating threat. […] The platform demonstrated an analytical limit-of-detection of 100 genome copies per reaction for monkeypox virus, effectively distinguishing it from other orthopoxviruses, herpes simplex virus, and varicella-zoster virus. Clinical validation on 164 samples, including 51 mpox-positive cases, yielded 96.1% sensitivity and 100% specificity for orthopoxviruses, and 94.1% sensitivity and 100% specificity for monkeypox virus. […] The WHO Target Product Profiles for mpox diagnosis states the importance of differential tests that distinguish multiple diseases, particularly in the prodrome phase when mpox clinical presentation may overlap with other conditions.
  • #28 Mpox: When to Get Tested and What to Do if Exposed
    https://asm.org/articles/2022/august/monkeypox-when-to-get-tested-and-what-to-do-if-exp
    On Aug. 14, 2024, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared mpox (formerly called monkeypox) a public health emergency of international concern. […] Altogether, these facts necessitate proactive diagnostic and preventative steps in order to contain the outbreak and offer hope to those suffering from the disease. […] If the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic taught us anything, its that timely and accurate diagnosis are critical to our ability to slow transmission of the virus. […] This means that previously developed diagnostic, treatment and prevention strategies are available and expected to benefit current efforts to contain outbreaks. […] How is mpox diagnosed? […] Confirmatory laboratory testing is therefore essential for accurate diagnosis. […] Due to the sensitivity and accuracy of this technique, PCR is the preferred laboratory test for mpox diagnosis.
  • #29 WHO urges rapid access to mpox diagnostic tests, invites manufacturers to emergency review – World | ReliefWeb
    https://reliefweb.int/report/world/who-urges-rapid-access-mpox-diagnostic-tests-invites-manufacturers-emergency-review
    WHO has asked manufacturers of mpox in vitro diagnostics (IVDs) to submit an expression of interest for Emergency Use Listing (EUL). […] Testing is key for people to get treatment and care as early as possible and prevent further spread. […] Since May 2024, six additional labs have been equipped to diagnose mpox, enabling a decentralization of testing capacity from major cities to affected provinces. […] WHO has also updated its diagnostic testing guidance to detect the new virus strain and is working with countries to roll it out. […] Detection of viral DNA by PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) testing is the gold standard for mpox diagnosis. It detects the virus’s DNA in samples taken from skin lesions, such as fluid or crusts from vesicles or pustules. […] Expanding access to diagnostic services is urgently needed as tests are essential to critical measures such as strengthened laboratory capacity, improved case investigation, contact tracing, surveillance data collection, and timely reporting.
  • #30 WHO urges rapid access to mpox diagnostic tests, invites manufacturers to emergency review – World | ReliefWeb
    https://reliefweb.int/report/world/who-urges-rapid-access-mpox-diagnostic-tests-invites-manufacturers-emergency-review
    WHO has asked manufacturers of mpox in vitro diagnostics (IVDs) to submit an expression of interest for Emergency Use Listing (EUL). […] Testing is key for people to get treatment and care as early as possible and prevent further spread. […] Since May 2024, six additional labs have been equipped to diagnose mpox, enabling a decentralization of testing capacity from major cities to affected provinces. […] WHO has also updated its diagnostic testing guidance to detect the new virus strain and is working with countries to roll it out. […] Detection of viral DNA by PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) testing is the gold standard for mpox diagnosis. It detects the virus’s DNA in samples taken from skin lesions, such as fluid or crusts from vesicles or pustules. […] Expanding access to diagnostic services is urgently needed as tests are essential to critical measures such as strengthened laboratory capacity, improved case investigation, contact tracing, surveillance data collection, and timely reporting.
  • #31 Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10183700/
    The emergence and rapid spread of the monkeypox virus (MPXV) to non-endemic countries has brought this once obscure pathogen to the forefront of global public health. […] Given the range of conditions that cause similar skin lesions, and because the clinical manifestation may often be atypical in the current mpox outbreak, it can be challenging to diagnose patients based on clinical signs and symptoms. […] With this perspective in mind, laboratory-based diagnosis assumes a critical role for the clinical management, along with the implementation of countermeasures. […] Here, we review the clinical features reported in mpox patients, the available laboratory tests for mpox diagnosis, and discuss the principles, advances, advantages, and drawbacks of each assay. […] In this way, a laboratory-based diagnosis is of paramount importance in assisting physicians in the therapeutic management of patients and for health authorities to deploy countermeasures.
  • #32
    https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MPX-Laboratory-2024.1
    The overall goal of testing for Mpox virus in the context of the 2022-2024 multi-country outbreak of mpox is to enable timely and accurate confirmation of infection to support the breaking of chains of transmission. […] Confirmation of monkeypox virus infection is based on nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT), using real-time or conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), for detection of unique sequences of viral DNA. […] The recommended specimen type for laboratory confirmation of monkeypox is lesion material.
  • #33 WHO urges rapid access to mpox diagnostic tests, invites manufacturers to emergency review – World | ReliefWeb
    https://reliefweb.int/report/world/who-urges-rapid-access-mpox-diagnostic-tests-invites-manufacturers-emergency-review
    WHO has asked manufacturers of mpox in vitro diagnostics (IVDs) to submit an expression of interest for Emergency Use Listing (EUL). […] Testing is key for people to get treatment and care as early as possible and prevent further spread. […] Since May 2024, six additional labs have been equipped to diagnose mpox, enabling a decentralization of testing capacity from major cities to affected provinces. […] WHO has also updated its diagnostic testing guidance to detect the new virus strain and is working with countries to roll it out. […] Detection of viral DNA by PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) testing is the gold standard for mpox diagnosis. It detects the virus’s DNA in samples taken from skin lesions, such as fluid or crusts from vesicles or pustules. […] Expanding access to diagnostic services is urgently needed as tests are essential to critical measures such as strengthened laboratory capacity, improved case investigation, contact tracing, surveillance data collection, and timely reporting.