Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Kidney infection – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-infection/symptoms-causes/syc-20353387

  A kidney infection is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI). A kidney infection may begin in the tube that carries urine from the body (urethra) or in the bladder. The infection can travel to one or both kidneys. A kidney infection is also called pyelonephritis. […] A kidney infection needs prompt medical treatment. If not treated properly, an infection can cause lasting damage to the kidneys. Or the bacteria can spread to the bloodstream and cause a dangerous infection. […] Bacteria that enter the urinary tract through the urethra can multiply and travel to your kidneys. This is the most common cause of kidney infections. […] Bacteria from an infection in another part of the body also can spread through the bloodstream to the kidneys. In rare cases, an artificial joint or heart valve that becomes infected can cause a kidney infection. […] Rarely, a kidney infection happens after kidney surgery.

• #2 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Bacteria can reach the kidneys in two ways: hematogenous spread or through an ascending infection from the lower urinary tract. Hematogenous spread is uncommon and usually occurs in patients who are debilitated, immunocompromised, or have ureteral obstructions. Bacterial access to the kidneys would be through the bloodstream via bacteremia. […] Most patients will get acute pyelonephritis through an ascending infection. Following contamination of the periurethral area with a pathogen from the rectum, the bacteria will first attach to urethral mucosal epithelial cells and eventually travel to the bladder. From there, the bacteria must overcome the natural host defenses and multiply fast enough to allow progression up the ureter to the kidneys. […] Any urinary outflow obstruction can lead to incomplete bladder emptying and urinary stasis, which allows bacteria multiplication without being flushed out. Urinary tract obstruction caused by a kidney stone can also lead to a potentially lethal and dangerous form of acute pyelonephritis known as obstructive pyelonephritis or pyonephrosis.

• #3 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  A less common cause of acute pyelonephritis is vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), which is a congenital condition where urine flows backward from the bladder into the kidneys during voiding. Up to 40% of children diagnosed with a UTI will also be diagnosed with vesicoureteral reflux. In addition, 10% of children with VUR will show renal scarring, which can lead to long-term renal impairment. […] Renal transplant patients are especially at risk of pyelonephritis due to a combination of immunosuppression and abnormal transplant kidney anatomy, especially in the first 6 months post-transplant. One study showed a single episode of pyelonephritis was associated with a 45% higher risk of transplant loss and death. […] Escherichia coli is by far the most common cause of acute pyelonephritis and most other urinary tract infections. Klebsiella pneumoniae is the second most common causative organism, followed by Proteus, Pseudomonas, Enterococci, Staphylococci, and other enterobacteria.

• #4 Kidney Infection (Pyelonephritis): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15456-kidney-infection-pyelonephritis

  Kidney infections are a type of urinary tract infection that usually moves from your bladder to your kidneys. Bacteria are the most common cause. […] A kidney infection (pyelonephritis) is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI). Bacteria cause it when they move from another part of your body, like your bladder, up to one or both of your kidneys. […] Bacterial infections are the most common cause of kidney infections. Viruses can cause them, too, but its rare in people who are healthy. Some types of bacteria that cause kidney infections include: E. coli, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter, Staphylococcus. […] Sometimes, bacteria can move upwards into your body and infect parts of your urinary tract, including your urethra, bladder (cystitis) or ureters. From there, they can move into one or both of your kidneys, causing a kidney infection. Bacteria that get into your blood from another part of your body can also infect your kidneys.

• #5 Kidney Infection (Pyelonephritis) Types, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment

  https://www.medicinenet.com/kidney_infection/article.htm

  Kidney infection (pyelonephritis) is one of several types of urinary tract infections (UTIs) usually caused by E. coli and other bacteria. […] What are the causes of a kidney infection? […] Urine, similar to other fluids in the body, is normally sterile without any bacterial infection. Therefore, the presence of bacteria in the urine is considered abnormal and may lead to urinary tract infection. Typically, bacteria gain access to the urinary system from outside through the urethra (the drainage tube for urine from the bladder). The bacteria may then ascend in the urinary system and cause kidney infections. […] The most common bacteria responsible for kidney infection are Escherichia coli (E. coli), which accounts for close to 80% of cases of kidney and urinary tract infections. Other common bacteria are Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Enterococcus, and Staphylococcus saprophyticus.

• #6 Kidney Infection (Pyelonephritis): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15456-kidney-infection-pyelonephritis

  Kidney infections are a type of urinary tract infection that usually moves from your bladder to your kidneys. Bacteria are the most common cause. […] A kidney infection (pyelonephritis) is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI). Bacteria cause it when they move from another part of your body, like your bladder, up to one or both of your kidneys. […] Bacterial infections are the most common cause of kidney infections. Viruses can cause them, too, but its rare in people who are healthy. Some types of bacteria that cause kidney infections include: E. coli, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter, Staphylococcus. […] Sometimes, bacteria can move upwards into your body and infect parts of your urinary tract, including your urethra, bladder (cystitis) or ureters. From there, they can move into one or both of your kidneys, causing a kidney infection. Bacteria that get into your blood from another part of your body can also infect your kidneys.

• #7 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  A less common cause of acute pyelonephritis is vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), which is a congenital condition where urine flows backward from the bladder into the kidneys during voiding. Up to 40% of children diagnosed with a UTI will also be diagnosed with vesicoureteral reflux. In addition, 10% of children with VUR will show renal scarring, which can lead to long-term renal impairment. […] Renal transplant patients are especially at risk of pyelonephritis due to a combination of immunosuppression and abnormal transplant kidney anatomy, especially in the first 6 months post-transplant. One study showed a single episode of pyelonephritis was associated with a 45% higher risk of transplant loss and death. […] Escherichia coli is by far the most common cause of acute pyelonephritis and most other urinary tract infections. Klebsiella pneumoniae is the second most common causative organism, followed by Proteus, Pseudomonas, Enterococci, Staphylococci, and other enterobacteria.

• #8 Signs of a Kidney Infection: When to Go to the Hospital

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/kidney-infection-when-to-go-to-the-hospital-7511488

  A kidney infection is typically caused by bacteria. Around 90% are due to bacteria called Escherichia coli (E. coli), but others like Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae can also cause an infection. […] Most cases start off as a lower urinary tract infection that migrates up the urethra to the bladder. Thereafter, the infection can spread to one or both kidneys through tubes that connect the bladder to the kidneys, called ureters. […] Several other factors can significantly increase your risk of a kidney infection, including urinary tract obstruction, urinary catheters, vesicoureteral reflux, having a weakened immune system, having diabetes, and neurogenic bladder. […] Uncomplicated kidney infections (acute pyelonephritis) are most often caused by the bacteria E. coli and treated at home with a five- to 14-day course of oral antibiotics. Other bacteria can also cause kidney infections, some of which are more difficult to treat.

• #9 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Candida spp is another possible causative agent, usually found in patients with diabetes, older individuals, patients who have previously been treated extensively with antibiotics, hospitalized patients (especially in the ICU), and those with indwelling catheters. […] The growing prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing bacteria and fluoroquinolone resistance greatly complicates antibiotic selection for these serious infections. This is a common and growing problem as over 90% of UTI-causing bacteria are resistant to at least one antibiotic, and close to 80% have become resistant to at least two. […] Patient risk factors for antibiotic resistance include recent broad-spectrum use of antimicrobials (especially quinolones and beta-lactams), obstructive uropathy, increased healthcare interactions, recurrent UTIs, hospital admissions, indwelling catheters, older patient age, and inappropriate antibiotic use (eg, inadequate or overlong duration of treatment, incorrect dosage, poor antimicrobial selection).

• #10 Kidney Infection: Symptoms, Diagnosis, Causes & Treatment – Tua Saúde

  https://www.tuasaude.com/en/kidney-infection/

  Other bacteria from infections in other parts of the body can also spread through the bloodstream and reach the kidneys, causing a kidney infection. This can occur in people with infections in artificial joints, or in prosthesis or heart valves. […] Kidney infections can also be caused by Candida albicans fungus, which are a normal component of normal vaginal bacterial flora. When this flora overgrows, this fungus can multiply, enter the urethra, and travel up to the kidneys. […] Additionally, some factors can increase the risk for developing a kidney infection, such as kidney problems, kidney stones, diabetes or a weakened immune system. […] A kidney infection during pregnancy is quite common and is usually the result of a prolonged bladder infection that was either left untreated or treated inadequately.

• #11 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Bacteria can reach the kidneys in two ways: hematogenous spread or through an ascending infection from the lower urinary tract. Hematogenous spread is uncommon and usually occurs in patients who are debilitated, immunocompromised, or have ureteral obstructions. Bacterial access to the kidneys would be through the bloodstream via bacteremia. […] Most patients will get acute pyelonephritis through an ascending infection. Following contamination of the periurethral area with a pathogen from the rectum, the bacteria will first attach to urethral mucosal epithelial cells and eventually travel to the bladder. From there, the bacteria must overcome the natural host defenses and multiply fast enough to allow progression up the ureter to the kidneys. […] Any urinary outflow obstruction can lead to incomplete bladder emptying and urinary stasis, which allows bacteria multiplication without being flushed out. Urinary tract obstruction caused by a kidney stone can also lead to a potentially lethal and dangerous form of acute pyelonephritis known as obstructive pyelonephritis or pyonephrosis.

• #12 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Bacteria can reach the kidneys in two ways: hematogenous spread or through an ascending infection from the lower urinary tract. Hematogenous spread is uncommon and usually occurs in patients who are debilitated, immunocompromised, or have ureteral obstructions. Bacterial access to the kidneys would be through the bloodstream via bacteremia. […] Most patients will get acute pyelonephritis through an ascending infection. Following contamination of the periurethral area with a pathogen from the rectum, the bacteria will first attach to urethral mucosal epithelial cells and eventually travel to the bladder. From there, the bacteria must overcome the natural host defenses and multiply fast enough to allow progression up the ureter to the kidneys. […] Any urinary outflow obstruction can lead to incomplete bladder emptying and urinary stasis, which allows bacteria multiplication without being flushed out. Urinary tract obstruction caused by a kidney stone can also lead to a potentially lethal and dangerous form of acute pyelonephritis known as obstructive pyelonephritis or pyonephrosis.

• #13 Symptoms & Causes of Kidney Infection (Pyelonephritis) – NIDDK

  https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/kidney-infection-pyelonephritis/symptoms-causes

  Bacteria in your upper urinary tract are often the cause of kidney infections. […] Most kidney infections start as a bladder infection in your lower urinary tract. Bacteria that live in your bowel can get into your urinary tract and cause an infection. […] In some cases, your blood may carry harmful bacteria or viruses from another part of your body to your kidneys. Rarely, you might get a kidney infection after surgery.

• #14 Kidney infection | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/kidneys-bladder-and-prostate/kidney-infection/

  A kidney infection usually happens when bacteria often a type called E. coli gets into the urethra (the tube which carries urine out of the body) and travels up through the bladder and into the kidneys. […] A kidney infection happens when bacteria infects your kidneys. The bacteria are usually a type called E. coli, which live in your bowel. […] The bacteria get in through the opening of the urethra and move upwards through your urinary tract, first infecting your bladder and then your kidneys. […] Its thought the bacteria can get into your urinary tract by accidentally spreading from your anus to your urethra. This can happen if you wipe your bottom after going to the toilet and the soiled toilet paper comes into contact with your genitals. It can also happen during sex. […] In rare cases, a kidney infection can develop if bacteria or fungi infect the skin and the infection spreads through your bloodstream into your kidney. However, this type of infection usually only occurs in people with weakened immune systems.

• #15 Kidney infection: Symptoms, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/182306

  Kidney infections (pyelonephritis) can occur when bacteria from the urinary tract travel up the urethra and affect one or both kidneys. […] Sometimes, the bacteria that cause kidney, or renal, infections come from another part of the urinary tract, such as the bladder, ureters, or urethra. […] A kidney infection develops due to bacteria or viruses entering the urethra and reproducing in the bladder, triggering an infection. Typically, a kidney infection results from a bladder infection that travels to the kidneys. […] An infection may happen when pathogens transfer from the bowel to the genitals during sexual intercourse or through accidental transference of feces to the urethra while wiping with toilet paper after a bowel movement. […] The American Kidney Fund notes that risk factors of kidney infection include: kidney stones, having a urinary catheter, an enlarged prostate in males, having a urinary tract shaped in a way where urine may not pass through easily, having vesicoureteral reflux, where the urinary tract allows urine to flow back up into the ureters, pregnancy, diabetes, a weakened immune system because of medication or a medical condition, a spinal cord injury or nerve damage that could block symptoms of a bladder infection. […] A kidney infection can be due to various conditions, the most common of which is a UTI. Females of all ages are more likely to contract a kidney infection than males.

• #16 Kidney infection | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/kidneys-bladder-and-prostate/kidney-infection/

  A kidney infection usually happens when bacteria often a type called E. coli gets into the urethra (the tube which carries urine out of the body) and travels up through the bladder and into the kidneys. […] A kidney infection happens when bacteria infects your kidneys. The bacteria are usually a type called E. coli, which live in your bowel. […] The bacteria get in through the opening of the urethra and move upwards through your urinary tract, first infecting your bladder and then your kidneys. […] Its thought the bacteria can get into your urinary tract by accidentally spreading from your anus to your urethra. This can happen if you wipe your bottom after going to the toilet and the soiled toilet paper comes into contact with your genitals. It can also happen during sex. […] In rare cases, a kidney infection can develop if bacteria or fungi infect the skin and the infection spreads through your bloodstream into your kidney. However, this type of infection usually only occurs in people with weakened immune systems.

• #17 Kidney infection: Symptoms, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/182306

  Kidney infections (pyelonephritis) can occur when bacteria from the urinary tract travel up the urethra and affect one or both kidneys. […] Sometimes, the bacteria that cause kidney, or renal, infections come from another part of the urinary tract, such as the bladder, ureters, or urethra. […] A kidney infection develops due to bacteria or viruses entering the urethra and reproducing in the bladder, triggering an infection. Typically, a kidney infection results from a bladder infection that travels to the kidneys. […] An infection may happen when pathogens transfer from the bowel to the genitals during sexual intercourse or through accidental transference of feces to the urethra while wiping with toilet paper after a bowel movement. […] The American Kidney Fund notes that risk factors of kidney infection include: kidney stones, having a urinary catheter, an enlarged prostate in males, having a urinary tract shaped in a way where urine may not pass through easily, having vesicoureteral reflux, where the urinary tract allows urine to flow back up into the ureters, pregnancy, diabetes, a weakened immune system because of medication or a medical condition, a spinal cord injury or nerve damage that could block symptoms of a bladder infection. […] A kidney infection can be due to various conditions, the most common of which is a UTI. Females of all ages are more likely to contract a kidney infection than males.

• #18 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Bacteria can reach the kidneys in two ways: hematogenous spread or through an ascending infection from the lower urinary tract. Hematogenous spread is uncommon and usually occurs in patients who are debilitated, immunocompromised, or have ureteral obstructions. Bacterial access to the kidneys would be through the bloodstream via bacteremia. […] Most patients will get acute pyelonephritis through an ascending infection. Following contamination of the periurethral area with a pathogen from the rectum, the bacteria will first attach to urethral mucosal epithelial cells and eventually travel to the bladder. From there, the bacteria must overcome the natural host defenses and multiply fast enough to allow progression up the ureter to the kidneys. […] Any urinary outflow obstruction can lead to incomplete bladder emptying and urinary stasis, which allows bacteria multiplication without being flushed out. Urinary tract obstruction caused by a kidney stone can also lead to a potentially lethal and dangerous form of acute pyelonephritis known as obstructive pyelonephritis or pyonephrosis.

• #19 Kidney Infection – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/urinary-tract-infections-utis/kidney-infection

  In about 5% of cases, infections are carried to the kidneys from another part of the body through the bloodstream. […] The risk and severity of pyelonephritis are increased in people with diabetes or a weakened immune system (which reduces the body’s ability to fight infection). […] Pyelonephritis is usually caused by bacteria. Rarely, it is caused by tuberculosis (a rare bacterial cause of pyelonephritis), fungal infections, and viruses. […] Chronic pyelonephritis can cause bacteria to be released into the bloodstream, sometimes resulting in infections in the opposite kidney or elsewhere in the body.

• #20 Kidney infection – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-infection/symptoms-causes/syc-20353387

  A kidney infection is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI). A kidney infection may begin in the tube that carries urine from the body (urethra) or in the bladder. The infection can travel to one or both kidneys. A kidney infection is also called pyelonephritis. […] A kidney infection needs prompt medical treatment. If not treated properly, an infection can cause lasting damage to the kidneys. Or the bacteria can spread to the bloodstream and cause a dangerous infection. […] Bacteria that enter the urinary tract through the urethra can multiply and travel to your kidneys. This is the most common cause of kidney infections. […] Bacteria from an infection in another part of the body also can spread through the bloodstream to the kidneys. In rare cases, an artificial joint or heart valve that becomes infected can cause a kidney infection. […] Rarely, a kidney infection happens after kidney surgery.

• #21 Kidney Infection – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/urinary-tract-infections-utis/kidney-infection

  In about 5% of cases, infections are carried to the kidneys from another part of the body through the bloodstream. […] The risk and severity of pyelonephritis are increased in people with diabetes or a weakened immune system (which reduces the body’s ability to fight infection). […] Pyelonephritis is usually caused by bacteria. Rarely, it is caused by tuberculosis (a rare bacterial cause of pyelonephritis), fungal infections, and viruses. […] Chronic pyelonephritis can cause bacteria to be released into the bloodstream, sometimes resulting in infections in the opposite kidney or elsewhere in the body.

• #22 Kidney Infection | Center for Urologic Care of Berks County

  https://www.centerforurologiccare.com/patient-education/kidney-infection/

  A kidney infection is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI) that affects one or both kidneys. […] Kidney infection is a more specific term and refers to infection in the kidneys. […] Like UTIs, most kidney infections begin in the urethra the tube that allows urine to flow out of the body. […] E. coli, a type of bacteria that lives in the bowel, is a common cause of kidney infections. […] Its also possible for bacteria or viruses in the blood to flow into the kidneys and cause an infection. […] A history of UTIs. People who have had a UTI before, especially during the previous 12 months, are more likely to develop a kidney infection. […] Family history of UTIs. If a parent, sibling, or child has had a UTI, a person may be at higher risk, too. […] Being female. Women have shorter urethras than men do, so bacteria have a shorter route to the bladder and kidneys. For this reason, women are more likely to have kidney infections.

• #23 Kidney Infection: Symptoms, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/kidney-infection

  Kidney infections most often result from an infection in your urinary tract that spreads to one or both kidneys. […] Most kidney infections are caused by bacteria or viruses that enter the kidneys from the urinary tract. A common bacterial cause is Escherichia coli (E. coli). These bacteria are found in your intestine and can enter the urinary tract through the urethra. […] Other causes of kidney infections are less common and include: bacteria from an infection somewhere else in your body, such as from an artificial joint, that spreads through your bloodstream to the kidneys; surgery of the bladder or kidneys; something blocking urine flow, such as a kidney stone or tumor in your urinary tract, an enlarged prostate in men, or a problem with the shape of your urinary tract. […] A history of UTIs may put you at risk for future kidney infections.

• #24 Kidney Infections: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/kidney-infections-symptoms-and-treatments

  Any problem in your urinary tract that keeps pee from flowing as it should can raise your chances of a kidney infection, such as a blockage in your urinary tract. Anything that slows or stops the flow of pee through your urinary tract lets bacteria back up into your kidneys. […] You’re also more likely to get a kidney infection if you have a weak immune system. Diseases like HIV and type 2 diabetes make it harder for your immune system to fight off germs. Some medicines also turn down your immune system response and increase your risk of infections.

• #25 Kidney infection: Symptoms, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/182306

  Kidney infections (pyelonephritis) can occur when bacteria from the urinary tract travel up the urethra and affect one or both kidneys. […] Sometimes, the bacteria that cause kidney, or renal, infections come from another part of the urinary tract, such as the bladder, ureters, or urethra. […] A kidney infection develops due to bacteria or viruses entering the urethra and reproducing in the bladder, triggering an infection. Typically, a kidney infection results from a bladder infection that travels to the kidneys. […] An infection may happen when pathogens transfer from the bowel to the genitals during sexual intercourse or through accidental transference of feces to the urethra while wiping with toilet paper after a bowel movement. […] The American Kidney Fund notes that risk factors of kidney infection include: kidney stones, having a urinary catheter, an enlarged prostate in males, having a urinary tract shaped in a way where urine may not pass through easily, having vesicoureteral reflux, where the urinary tract allows urine to flow back up into the ureters, pregnancy, diabetes, a weakened immune system because of medication or a medical condition, a spinal cord injury or nerve damage that could block symptoms of a bladder infection. […] A kidney infection can be due to various conditions, the most common of which is a UTI. Females of all ages are more likely to contract a kidney infection than males.

• #26 Kidney infection – Symptoms, treatment and prevention | American Kidney Fund

  https://www.kidneyfund.org/all-about-kidneys/other-kidney-problems/kidney-infection

  Kidney infections are caused by bacteria or viruses in your kidneys. […] When bacteria or viruses get into your kidneys, usually through your urinary tract, they can cause a kidney infection. […] The bacteria or viruses that cause kidney infections usually come from another part of your urinary tract, such as your bladder, ureters (the tubes that connect your kidneys to your bladder) or urethra (the tube that urine passes through to leave your body) and spread to your kidneys. […] Kidney infection can also happen if the flow of urine through your urinary tract is blocked. This can happen due to kidney stones, an enlarged prostate, or a problem with the shape of your urinary tract that makes it harder for urine to pass through. […] A kidney infection is not contagious; you cannot catch one from another person or spread a kidney infection if you have one.

• #27 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Bacteria can reach the kidneys in two ways: hematogenous spread or through an ascending infection from the lower urinary tract. Hematogenous spread is uncommon and usually occurs in patients who are debilitated, immunocompromised, or have ureteral obstructions. Bacterial access to the kidneys would be through the bloodstream via bacteremia. […] Most patients will get acute pyelonephritis through an ascending infection. Following contamination of the periurethral area with a pathogen from the rectum, the bacteria will first attach to urethral mucosal epithelial cells and eventually travel to the bladder. From there, the bacteria must overcome the natural host defenses and multiply fast enough to allow progression up the ureter to the kidneys. […] Any urinary outflow obstruction can lead to incomplete bladder emptying and urinary stasis, which allows bacteria multiplication without being flushed out. Urinary tract obstruction caused by a kidney stone can also lead to a potentially lethal and dangerous form of acute pyelonephritis known as obstructive pyelonephritis or pyonephrosis.

• #28 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  A less common cause of acute pyelonephritis is vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), which is a congenital condition where urine flows backward from the bladder into the kidneys during voiding. Up to 40% of children diagnosed with a UTI will also be diagnosed with vesicoureteral reflux. In addition, 10% of children with VUR will show renal scarring, which can lead to long-term renal impairment. […] Renal transplant patients are especially at risk of pyelonephritis due to a combination of immunosuppression and abnormal transplant kidney anatomy, especially in the first 6 months post-transplant. One study showed a single episode of pyelonephritis was associated with a 45% higher risk of transplant loss and death. […] Escherichia coli is by far the most common cause of acute pyelonephritis and most other urinary tract infections. Klebsiella pneumoniae is the second most common causative organism, followed by Proteus, Pseudomonas, Enterococci, Staphylococci, and other enterobacteria.

• #29 Kidney infection: Symptoms, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/182306

  Kidney infections (pyelonephritis) can occur when bacteria from the urinary tract travel up the urethra and affect one or both kidneys. […] Sometimes, the bacteria that cause kidney, or renal, infections come from another part of the urinary tract, such as the bladder, ureters, or urethra. […] A kidney infection develops due to bacteria or viruses entering the urethra and reproducing in the bladder, triggering an infection. Typically, a kidney infection results from a bladder infection that travels to the kidneys. […] An infection may happen when pathogens transfer from the bowel to the genitals during sexual intercourse or through accidental transference of feces to the urethra while wiping with toilet paper after a bowel movement. […] The American Kidney Fund notes that risk factors of kidney infection include: kidney stones, having a urinary catheter, an enlarged prostate in males, having a urinary tract shaped in a way where urine may not pass through easily, having vesicoureteral reflux, where the urinary tract allows urine to flow back up into the ureters, pregnancy, diabetes, a weakened immune system because of medication or a medical condition, a spinal cord injury or nerve damage that could block symptoms of a bladder infection. […] A kidney infection can be due to various conditions, the most common of which is a UTI. Females of all ages are more likely to contract a kidney infection than males.

• #30 Kidney Infection | Center for Urologic Care of Berks County

  https://www.centerforurologiccare.com/patient-education/kidney-infection/

  Pregnancy. Some scientists think that hormonal changes or changes in the urinary tract during pregnancy might increase kidney infection risk. […] Structural problem with urinary tract. Issues like kidney stones, tumors, or a narrowed urethra can block or change the normal flow of urine. If this occurs, bacteria may linger in the urinary tract. […] Surgical procedures or medical devices. While surgeons take every precaution, bacteria can enter the urinary tract during surgery or while a medical device, such as a catheter, is in use. […] Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR). This condition causes urine to flow backwards from the bladder back to the kidneys instead of out the urethra. When this happens, bacteria can remain in the urinary tract. […] Diabetes. Diabetes can cause sensory problems, making it difficult for a person to know that they need to urinate. In this case, urine may stay in the bladder longer than it should, fostering bacterial growth that could spread to the kidneys.

• #31 What Causes a Kidney Infection? | KHC

  https://khccares.com/blog/what-causes-a-kidney-infection/

  Pyelonephritis, commonly known as a kidney infection, is a type of urinary tract infection. […] Kidney infections are most commonly caused by bacteria entering the urethra and traveling up to the bladder. From there, the bacteria can move into the kidneys. A kidney infection may also occur from a blockage in the urinary tract, such as a kidney stone. […] Women have shorter urethras than men making it easier for bacteria to travel from the urethra to the bladder. Once bacteria enter the bladder, they can move up to the kidneys and cause an infection. Additionally, pregnant women are at a higher risk of developing a kidney infection. This is due to the fact that pregnancy puts extra pressure on the bladder and may interfere with the flow of urine. […] If you have a weakened immune system due to a chronic illness or certain medical treatments, you may be at a higher risk of developing pyelonephritis. […] Whether it be a narrowed urethra, kidney stone, or an enlarged prostate, any obstruction in the urinary tract may increase your risk of developing a kidney infection.

• #32 Kidney Infection | Center for Urologic Care of Berks County

  https://www.centerforurologiccare.com/patient-education/kidney-infection/

  A kidney infection is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI) that affects one or both kidneys. […] Kidney infection is a more specific term and refers to infection in the kidneys. […] Like UTIs, most kidney infections begin in the urethra the tube that allows urine to flow out of the body. […] E. coli, a type of bacteria that lives in the bowel, is a common cause of kidney infections. […] Its also possible for bacteria or viruses in the blood to flow into the kidneys and cause an infection. […] A history of UTIs. People who have had a UTI before, especially during the previous 12 months, are more likely to develop a kidney infection. […] Family history of UTIs. If a parent, sibling, or child has had a UTI, a person may be at higher risk, too. […] Being female. Women have shorter urethras than men do, so bacteria have a shorter route to the bladder and kidneys. For this reason, women are more likely to have kidney infections.

• #33 What Causes a Kidney Infection? | KHC

  https://khccares.com/blog/what-causes-a-kidney-infection/

  Pyelonephritis, commonly known as a kidney infection, is a type of urinary tract infection. […] Kidney infections are most commonly caused by bacteria entering the urethra and traveling up to the bladder. From there, the bacteria can move into the kidneys. A kidney infection may also occur from a blockage in the urinary tract, such as a kidney stone. […] Women have shorter urethras than men making it easier for bacteria to travel from the urethra to the bladder. Once bacteria enter the bladder, they can move up to the kidneys and cause an infection. Additionally, pregnant women are at a higher risk of developing a kidney infection. This is due to the fact that pregnancy puts extra pressure on the bladder and may interfere with the flow of urine. […] If you have a weakened immune system due to a chronic illness or certain medical treatments, you may be at a higher risk of developing pyelonephritis. […] Whether it be a narrowed urethra, kidney stone, or an enlarged prostate, any obstruction in the urinary tract may increase your risk of developing a kidney infection.

• #34 Urinary tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection

  Women are more prone to UTIs than men because, in females, the urethra is much shorter and closer to the anus. […] Urinary catheterization increases the risk for urinary tract infections. The risk of bacteriuria (bacteria in the urine) is between three and six percent per day and prophylactic antibiotics are not effective in decreasing symptomatic infections. […] A predisposition for bladder infections may run in families. This is believed to be related to genetics. Other risk factors include diabetes, being uncircumcised, and having a large prostate. […] Persons with spinal cord injury are at increased risk for urinary tract infection in part because of chronic use of catheter, and in part because of voiding dysfunction. It is the most common cause of infection in this population, as well as the most common cause of hospitalization.

• #35 Kidney Infections: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/kidney-infections-symptoms-and-treatments

  A kidney infection, also called pyelonephritis, is when bacteria or viruses cause problems in one or both of your kidneys. It’s a type of urinary tract infection (UTI). […] Kidney infections usually start with a bladder infection that spreads to your kidney. Bacteria called Escherichia coli are most often the cause. These bacteria live in your intestines, where they don’t cause any problems. But they do cause problems in your urinary tract. Other bacteria or viruses can also cause kidney infections. […] If you don’t treat a bladder infection quickly, bacteria can travel up to your kidneys. How long it takes for germs to spread from the bladder to the kidneys is different for each person. […] You’re more likely to get a bladder and kidney infection if you’re pregnant. This is because of hormone changes and because your baby puts pressure on your bladder and ureters and slows the flow of urine.

• #36 What Causes a Kidney Infection? | KHC

  https://khccares.com/blog/what-causes-a-kidney-infection/

  Pyelonephritis, commonly known as a kidney infection, is a type of urinary tract infection. […] Kidney infections are most commonly caused by bacteria entering the urethra and traveling up to the bladder. From there, the bacteria can move into the kidneys. A kidney infection may also occur from a blockage in the urinary tract, such as a kidney stone. […] Women have shorter urethras than men making it easier for bacteria to travel from the urethra to the bladder. Once bacteria enter the bladder, they can move up to the kidneys and cause an infection. Additionally, pregnant women are at a higher risk of developing a kidney infection. This is due to the fact that pregnancy puts extra pressure on the bladder and may interfere with the flow of urine. […] If you have a weakened immune system due to a chronic illness or certain medical treatments, you may be at a higher risk of developing pyelonephritis. […] Whether it be a narrowed urethra, kidney stone, or an enlarged prostate, any obstruction in the urinary tract may increase your risk of developing a kidney infection.

• #37 Kidney Infections: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/kidney-infections-symptoms-and-treatments

  A kidney infection, also called pyelonephritis, is when bacteria or viruses cause problems in one or both of your kidneys. It’s a type of urinary tract infection (UTI). […] Kidney infections usually start with a bladder infection that spreads to your kidney. Bacteria called Escherichia coli are most often the cause. These bacteria live in your intestines, where they don’t cause any problems. But they do cause problems in your urinary tract. Other bacteria or viruses can also cause kidney infections. […] If you don’t treat a bladder infection quickly, bacteria can travel up to your kidneys. How long it takes for germs to spread from the bladder to the kidneys is different for each person. […] You’re more likely to get a bladder and kidney infection if you’re pregnant. This is because of hormone changes and because your baby puts pressure on your bladder and ureters and slows the flow of urine.

• #38 Kidney Infection – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/urinary-tract-infections-utis/kidney-infection

  Pyelonephritis is a bacterial infection of one or both kidneys. […] Infection can spread up the urinary tract to the kidneys, or uncommonly the kidneys may become infected through bacteria in the bloodstream. […] Escherichia coli, a type of bacteria normally in the large intestine, causes about 90% of cases of pyelonephritis among people who are not hospitalized or living in a nursing home. […] Infections usually ascend from the genital area through the urethra to the bladder, up the ureters, into the kidneys. […] However, any physical blockage (obstruction) to the flow of urine, such as a structural abnormality, kidney stone, or an enlarged prostate gland, or the backflow (reflux) of urine from the bladder into the ureters increases the likelihood of pyelonephritis. […] The risk of pyelonephritis is increased during pregnancy.

• #39 Kidney Infections: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/kidney-infections-symptoms-and-treatments

  Any problem in your urinary tract that keeps pee from flowing as it should can raise your chances of a kidney infection, such as a blockage in your urinary tract. Anything that slows or stops the flow of pee through your urinary tract lets bacteria back up into your kidneys. […] You’re also more likely to get a kidney infection if you have a weak immune system. Diseases like HIV and type 2 diabetes make it harder for your immune system to fight off germs. Some medicines also turn down your immune system response and increase your risk of infections.

• #40 Kidney Infection | Center for Urologic Care of Berks County

  https://www.centerforurologiccare.com/patient-education/kidney-infection/

  A weakened immune system. People may be at higher risk for kidney infections if their immune system has been weakened, such as by cancer, HIV, an organ transplant, or a low white blood cell count. […] Spinal cord injury or nerve damage. In this case, a person may be unable to feel the physical symptoms of a UTI and the infection can spread. […] Urinary retention. Urinary retention occurs when a person cant empty their bladder completely. Bacteria could remain in the bladder and travel to the kidneys. […] Frequent sex or a new sex partner. Viruses and bacteria can be easily transmitted during sexual activity because the urethra is so close to the genitals. Also, new sex partners might not be aware of each others infection history. […] Spermicides. Many women use spermicides for birth control. However, spermicides can disrupt the balance of good and bad bacteria in the vagina, making it more likely that UTI-causing bacteria will enter the urethra.

• #41 Kidney Infection – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/urinary-tract-infections-utis/kidney-infection

  In about 5% of cases, infections are carried to the kidneys from another part of the body through the bloodstream. […] The risk and severity of pyelonephritis are increased in people with diabetes or a weakened immune system (which reduces the body’s ability to fight infection). […] Pyelonephritis is usually caused by bacteria. Rarely, it is caused by tuberculosis (a rare bacterial cause of pyelonephritis), fungal infections, and viruses. […] Chronic pyelonephritis can cause bacteria to be released into the bloodstream, sometimes resulting in infections in the opposite kidney or elsewhere in the body.

• #42 Kidney Infection | Center for Urologic Care of Berks County

  https://www.centerforurologiccare.com/patient-education/kidney-infection/

  A weakened immune system. People may be at higher risk for kidney infections if their immune system has been weakened, such as by cancer, HIV, an organ transplant, or a low white blood cell count. […] Spinal cord injury or nerve damage. In this case, a person may be unable to feel the physical symptoms of a UTI and the infection can spread. […] Urinary retention. Urinary retention occurs when a person cant empty their bladder completely. Bacteria could remain in the bladder and travel to the kidneys. […] Frequent sex or a new sex partner. Viruses and bacteria can be easily transmitted during sexual activity because the urethra is so close to the genitals. Also, new sex partners might not be aware of each others infection history. […] Spermicides. Many women use spermicides for birth control. However, spermicides can disrupt the balance of good and bad bacteria in the vagina, making it more likely that UTI-causing bacteria will enter the urethra.

• #43 Kidney infection – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-infection/symptoms-causes/syc-20353387

  A kidney infection is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI). A kidney infection may begin in the tube that carries urine from the body (urethra) or in the bladder. The infection can travel to one or both kidneys. A kidney infection is also called pyelonephritis. […] A kidney infection needs prompt medical treatment. If not treated properly, an infection can cause lasting damage to the kidneys. Or the bacteria can spread to the bloodstream and cause a dangerous infection. […] Bacteria that enter the urinary tract through the urethra can multiply and travel to your kidneys. This is the most common cause of kidney infections. […] Bacteria from an infection in another part of the body also can spread through the bloodstream to the kidneys. In rare cases, an artificial joint or heart valve that becomes infected can cause a kidney infection. […] Rarely, a kidney infection happens after kidney surgery.

• #44 Kidney Infection | Center for Urologic Care of Berks County

  https://www.centerforurologiccare.com/patient-education/kidney-infection/

  Pregnancy. Some scientists think that hormonal changes or changes in the urinary tract during pregnancy might increase kidney infection risk. […] Structural problem with urinary tract. Issues like kidney stones, tumors, or a narrowed urethra can block or change the normal flow of urine. If this occurs, bacteria may linger in the urinary tract. […] Surgical procedures or medical devices. While surgeons take every precaution, bacteria can enter the urinary tract during surgery or while a medical device, such as a catheter, is in use. […] Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR). This condition causes urine to flow backwards from the bladder back to the kidneys instead of out the urethra. When this happens, bacteria can remain in the urinary tract. […] Diabetes. Diabetes can cause sensory problems, making it difficult for a person to know that they need to urinate. In this case, urine may stay in the bladder longer than it should, fostering bacterial growth that could spread to the kidneys.

• #45 Infectious Disease and Your Kidneys | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/news-stories/infectious-disease-and-your-kidneys

  Kidney infections are rare, but they can cause a number of problems. […] Most kidney infections start as bladder infections. […] Other, more unusual, causes of kidney infections are medical procedures that require a scope of the bladder or surgery of the urinary tract. […] Urinary tract infections can be caused by bacteria that come in from catheters. […] Other causes of infections are blockages from prostate enlargement or kidney stones.

• #46 Kidney infection (pyelonephritis) | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/kidney-infection

  A kidney infection (also known as pyelonephritis) is one type of urinary tract infection (UTI) […] Kidney infections are usually caused by bacteria. The bacteria can spread to the kidneys from a bacterial infection in the bladder. […] You may be at a higher risk of getting a kidney infection if: you are female, you have diabetes, you have a blockage in your urinary tract, such as a kidney stone, you have a structural problem with your urinary tract, you have a urinary catheter, you have an enlarged prostate.

• #47 Health Conditions that Increase the Risk of Kidney Infections in Women: A Comprehensive Guide

  https://docsmedicalgroup.com/docsurgentcare/health-conditions-that-increase-the-risk-of-kidney-infections-in-women-a-comprehensive-guide/

  Sexual Activity: Sexual activity, particularly frequent or vigorous sexual intercourse, can introduce bacteria into the urethra and increase the risk of urinary tract infections, including kidney infections. […] Use of Certain Birth Control Methods: Certain birth control methods, such as diaphragms and spermicides, can increase women’s risk of kidney infections.

• #48 What Causes Kidney Infections in Females: Complete Guide

  https://ilioshealth.com/what-causes-kidney-infections-in-females/

  Kidney infection is a kind of infection in the urinary tract that generally begins in the tube carrying urine from your body or in the urinary bladder. Pyelonephritis is the medical term for it, and it may affect both kidneys or one. While doctors identify bacteria as the most obvious cause, your kidneys may get infected for several other reasons. […] Bacteria happen to be the most common causative agents of kidney infections. The following kinds of bacteria are held accountable: E. coli, Enterobacter, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus. In some cases, kidney infection happens because of virus as well. […] The chances of having kidney infections are higher in women who are sexually active than women who dont engage in coitus regularly. […] Studies have revealed that the number of women having kidney infections is more than the number of men suffering from kidney problems.

• #49 Kidney Infection | Center for Urologic Care of Berks County

  https://www.centerforurologiccare.com/patient-education/kidney-infection/

  A weakened immune system. People may be at higher risk for kidney infections if their immune system has been weakened, such as by cancer, HIV, an organ transplant, or a low white blood cell count. […] Spinal cord injury or nerve damage. In this case, a person may be unable to feel the physical symptoms of a UTI and the infection can spread. […] Urinary retention. Urinary retention occurs when a person cant empty their bladder completely. Bacteria could remain in the bladder and travel to the kidneys. […] Frequent sex or a new sex partner. Viruses and bacteria can be easily transmitted during sexual activity because the urethra is so close to the genitals. Also, new sex partners might not be aware of each others infection history. […] Spermicides. Many women use spermicides for birth control. However, spermicides can disrupt the balance of good and bad bacteria in the vagina, making it more likely that UTI-causing bacteria will enter the urethra.

• #50 Health Conditions that Increase the Risk of Kidney Infections in Women: A Comprehensive Guide

  https://docsmedicalgroup.com/docsurgentcare/health-conditions-that-increase-the-risk-of-kidney-infections-in-women-a-comprehensive-guide/

  Sexual Activity: Sexual activity, particularly frequent or vigorous sexual intercourse, can introduce bacteria into the urethra and increase the risk of urinary tract infections, including kidney infections. […] Use of Certain Birth Control Methods: Certain birth control methods, such as diaphragms and spermicides, can increase women’s risk of kidney infections.

• #51 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Candida spp is another possible causative agent, usually found in patients with diabetes, older individuals, patients who have previously been treated extensively with antibiotics, hospitalized patients (especially in the ICU), and those with indwelling catheters. […] The growing prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing bacteria and fluoroquinolone resistance greatly complicates antibiotic selection for these serious infections. This is a common and growing problem as over 90% of UTI-causing bacteria are resistant to at least one antibiotic, and close to 80% have become resistant to at least two. […] Patient risk factors for antibiotic resistance include recent broad-spectrum use of antimicrobials (especially quinolones and beta-lactams), obstructive uropathy, increased healthcare interactions, recurrent UTIs, hospital admissions, indwelling catheters, older patient age, and inappropriate antibiotic use (eg, inadequate or overlong duration of treatment, incorrect dosage, poor antimicrobial selection).

• #52 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Candida spp is another possible causative agent, usually found in patients with diabetes, older individuals, patients who have previously been treated extensively with antibiotics, hospitalized patients (especially in the ICU), and those with indwelling catheters. […] The growing prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing bacteria and fluoroquinolone resistance greatly complicates antibiotic selection for these serious infections. This is a common and growing problem as over 90% of UTI-causing bacteria are resistant to at least one antibiotic, and close to 80% have become resistant to at least two. […] Patient risk factors for antibiotic resistance include recent broad-spectrum use of antimicrobials (especially quinolones and beta-lactams), obstructive uropathy, increased healthcare interactions, recurrent UTIs, hospital admissions, indwelling catheters, older patient age, and inappropriate antibiotic use (eg, inadequate or overlong duration of treatment, incorrect dosage, poor antimicrobial selection).

• #53 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Candida spp is another possible causative agent, usually found in patients with diabetes, older individuals, patients who have previously been treated extensively with antibiotics, hospitalized patients (especially in the ICU), and those with indwelling catheters. […] The growing prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing bacteria and fluoroquinolone resistance greatly complicates antibiotic selection for these serious infections. This is a common and growing problem as over 90% of UTI-causing bacteria are resistant to at least one antibiotic, and close to 80% have become resistant to at least two. […] Patient risk factors for antibiotic resistance include recent broad-spectrum use of antimicrobials (especially quinolones and beta-lactams), obstructive uropathy, increased healthcare interactions, recurrent UTIs, hospital admissions, indwelling catheters, older patient age, and inappropriate antibiotic use (eg, inadequate or overlong duration of treatment, incorrect dosage, poor antimicrobial selection).

• #54 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Candida spp is another possible causative agent, usually found in patients with diabetes, older individuals, patients who have previously been treated extensively with antibiotics, hospitalized patients (especially in the ICU), and those with indwelling catheters. […] The growing prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing bacteria and fluoroquinolone resistance greatly complicates antibiotic selection for these serious infections. This is a common and growing problem as over 90% of UTI-causing bacteria are resistant to at least one antibiotic, and close to 80% have become resistant to at least two. […] Patient risk factors for antibiotic resistance include recent broad-spectrum use of antimicrobials (especially quinolones and beta-lactams), obstructive uropathy, increased healthcare interactions, recurrent UTIs, hospital admissions, indwelling catheters, older patient age, and inappropriate antibiotic use (eg, inadequate or overlong duration of treatment, incorrect dosage, poor antimicrobial selection).

• #55 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Other factors include the general overuse of antibiotics in healthcare, increased agricultural use of antibiotics, availability of many antibiotics without prescriptions in many parts of the world, migration and travel patterns, non-adherence to best practice guidelines on antimicrobial use, and failure to limit the use of last-resort antibiotics appropriately.

• #56 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  A less common cause of acute pyelonephritis is vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), which is a congenital condition where urine flows backward from the bladder into the kidneys during voiding. Up to 40% of children diagnosed with a UTI will also be diagnosed with vesicoureteral reflux. In addition, 10% of children with VUR will show renal scarring, which can lead to long-term renal impairment. […] Renal transplant patients are especially at risk of pyelonephritis due to a combination of immunosuppression and abnormal transplant kidney anatomy, especially in the first 6 months post-transplant. One study showed a single episode of pyelonephritis was associated with a 45% higher risk of transplant loss and death. […] Escherichia coli is by far the most common cause of acute pyelonephritis and most other urinary tract infections. Klebsiella pneumoniae is the second most common causative organism, followed by Proteus, Pseudomonas, Enterococci, Staphylococci, and other enterobacteria.

• #57 Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) in Males: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231574-overview

  Chlamydia trachomatis and N gonorrhoeae are the most common pathogens in patients younger than 35 years with UTI, whereas Enterobacteriaceae and gram-positive cocci are frequent pathogens in older patients. […] Bacteria responsible for pyelonephritis and cystitis in males include E coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Enterococcus, and Staphylococcus species. […] N gonorrhoeae is the most common cause of urethritis in males; nongonococcal causes of urethritis include C trachomatis (in up to 50% of cases), Ureaplasma urealyticum, Trichomonas vaginalis, and herpes simplex virus (HSV). The role of Mycoplasma in urethritis is controversial. […] Short-term catheters are placed for a mean duration of 2-4 days. The usual indications are for acute illnesses, output measurement, perioperative routine, and acute retention. Approximately 15% of patients develop bacteriuria, usually with a single organism (E coli). Catheter-associated bacteriuria usually resolves after the catheter is removed; however, one third of patients may have symptoms, and bacteremia is the most serious complication. Approximately 10-30% of patients develop a fever, and the risk for postoperative wound infection associated with bacteriuria is increased.

• #58 Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) in Men: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/men/urinary-tract-infection-in-men

  Your risk of urinary tract infection goes up as you age. Among men younger than 50, sexually transmitted diseases are the most common cause of UTIs. […] Causes of UTIs in men include: […] Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Chlamydia and gonorrhea are two STDs that can cause UTIs. STDs are also the most common cause of UTIs in younger men. […] Prostate problems. An enlarged prostate (BPH) is common in older men and can block the flow of urine. This can increase the odds that bacteria will build up and cause a UTI. […] Diabetes. This condition and other medical issues that affect your immune system can also make you more likely to get a UTI. […] Kidney stones. When you have kidney stones, the blockage can cause urine to build up in your bladder. That increases the chance of a UTI.

• #59 Chronic pyelonephritis | Kidney Care UK

  https://kidneycareuk.org/kidney-disease-information/kidney-conditions/chronic-pyelonephritis/

  Chronic pyelonephritis describes the long-term damage recurrent urine infections cause to the kidneys. […] The cause of chronic pyelonephritis is unclear, partly because the condition may develop with no evidence of infection. […] It can be caused by reflux nephropathy. This happens when the kidneys are damaged by urine flowing backwards from the bladder to the kidney because of a leaky valve between the bladder and the ureter. […] Reflux nephropathy, often just called reflux, occurs when these valves fail, allowing urine to flow backwards and into the kidney. If the bladder is infected or the urine contains bacteria, the kidney then becomes infected (pyelonephritis). […] Over time, this increased pressure will damage the kidney and cause scarring.

• #60 Kidney Infection – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/urinary-tract-infections-utis/kidney-infection

  In about 5% of cases, infections are carried to the kidneys from another part of the body through the bloodstream. […] The risk and severity of pyelonephritis are increased in people with diabetes or a weakened immune system (which reduces the body’s ability to fight infection). […] Pyelonephritis is usually caused by bacteria. Rarely, it is caused by tuberculosis (a rare bacterial cause of pyelonephritis), fungal infections, and viruses. […] Some people develop long-standing infection (chronic pyelonephritis). […] Chronic pyelonephritis can cause bacteria to be released into the bloodstream, sometimes resulting in infections in the opposite kidney or elsewhere in the body. […] Rarely, chronic pyelonephritis can eventually severely damage the kidneys.

• #61

  https://www.laparoscopyhospital.com/forum/forum.php?p=&cat_id=&tid=3622

  Kidney infections, also known as pyelonephritis, can be serious and may lead to various complications if not treated promptly. Some potential complications associated with kidney infections include: Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): Untreated or recurrent kidney infections can cause damage to the kidneys over time, leading to chronic kidney disease. This condition may result in a gradual loss of kidney function. […] Sepsis: In severe cases, a kidney infection can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition where the body’s response to infection causes widespread inflammation. Sepsis can affect multiple organs and systems and requires immediate medical attention. […] Kidney Abscess: Pockets of pus (abscesses) may form in the kidney as a result of a severe infection. These abscesses can cause additional complications and may require drainage.

• #62 What Is A Kidney Infection? What Are The Causes And How Are Kidney Infections Treated? | Clinical Renal Associates

  https://clinicalrenal.com/2023/04/kidney-infection-causes-treatment/

  Blood poisoning. A kidney infection can cause bacteria to spread through the bloodstream as kidneys filter waste from the blood and return the filtered blood to the rest of the body. […] A kidney infection needs immediate medical treatment. An infection can cause lasting damage to the kidneys, if not treated properly.

• #63

  https://www.laparoscopyhospital.com/forum/forum.php?p=&cat_id=&tid=3622

  Kidney infections, also known as pyelonephritis, can be serious and may lead to various complications if not treated promptly. Some potential complications associated with kidney infections include: Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): Untreated or recurrent kidney infections can cause damage to the kidneys over time, leading to chronic kidney disease. This condition may result in a gradual loss of kidney function. […] Sepsis: In severe cases, a kidney infection can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition where the body’s response to infection causes widespread inflammation. Sepsis can affect multiple organs and systems and requires immediate medical attention. […] Kidney Abscess: Pockets of pus (abscesses) may form in the kidney as a result of a severe infection. These abscesses can cause additional complications and may require drainage.

• #64

  https://www.laparoscopyhospital.com/forum/forum.php?p=&cat_id=&tid=3622

  Scarring of the Kidneys: Repeated kidney infections can lead to scarring, which may affect kidney function over time. Scarring can interfere with the normal filtering and excretion processes of the kidneys. […] High Blood Pressure: Kidney infections can contribute to hypertension (high blood pressure). The kidneys play a crucial role in regulating blood pressure, and damage to these organs can disrupt this balance. […] Pregnancy Complications: Kidney infections can pose risks to pregnant women, potentially leading to complications such as preterm birth or low birth weight. […] Causes of kidney infections (also known as pyelonephritis) can include: Bacterial infection: The most common cause of kidney infections is a bacterial infection that starts in the urinary tract and spreads to the kidneys. The bacteria usually enter the urinary tract through the urethra and then travel upwards to the bladder and kidneys.

• #65 What Is A Kidney Infection? What Are The Causes And How Are Kidney Infections Treated? | Clinical Renal Associates

  https://clinicalrenal.com/2023/04/kidney-infection-causes-treatment/

  Blockage in the urinary tract. The risk of a kidney infection is also raised by slowing the flow of urine or anything which makes it harder to fully empty the bladder. […] Having a weak immune system. The immune system can be weakened by medical conditions which include diabetes and HIV. […] Having damage to nerves around the bladder. Spinal cord or nerve damage can block the feeling of a bladder infection, which makes it hard to know when an infection travels to the kidneys. […] Using a urinary catheter. To drain urine from the bladder urinary catheters are used. […] Urine is flowing the wrong way. Small amounts of urine flow from the bladder back into the tubes that connect the bladder and kidneys in vesicoureteral reflux. […] Kidney infection if left untreated, can lead to possibly serious complications, such as: Kidney scarring. This can lead to high blood pressure, kidney failure, and chronic kidney disease.

• #66 Kidney infection – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-infection/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353393

  Antibiotics are the first line of treatment for kidney infections. The drugs used and the length of time of the treatment depend on your health and the bacteria found in your urine tests. […] An underlying medical problem such as a misshapen urinary tract can cause you to have repeated kidney infections.

• #67 Urinary Tract Infection – Adults – UF Health

  https://ufhealth.org/conditions-and-treatments/urinary-tract-infection-adults

  If the infection spreads to your kidneys, symptoms may include: Chills and shaking or night sweats, Fatigue and a general ill feeling, Fever above 101F (38.3C), Pain in the side, back, or groin, Flushed, warm, or reddened skin, Mental changes or confusion (in older people, these symptoms often are the only signs of a UTI), Nausea and vomiting, Severe abdominal pain (sometimes). […] You may need surgery if the infection is caused by a problem with the structure of the urinary tract.

• #68 Kidney infection – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-infection/symptoms-causes/syc-20353387

  A kidney infection is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI). A kidney infection may begin in the tube that carries urine from the body (urethra) or in the bladder. The infection can travel to one or both kidneys. A kidney infection is also called pyelonephritis. […] A kidney infection needs prompt medical treatment. If not treated properly, an infection can cause lasting damage to the kidneys. Or the bacteria can spread to the bloodstream and cause a dangerous infection. […] Bacteria that enter the urinary tract through the urethra can multiply and travel to your kidneys. This is the most common cause of kidney infections. […] Bacteria from an infection in another part of the body also can spread through the bloodstream to the kidneys. In rare cases, an artificial joint or heart valve that becomes infected can cause a kidney infection. […] Rarely, a kidney infection happens after kidney surgery.

• #69 Acute Pyelonephritis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519537/

  Candida spp is another possible causative agent, usually found in patients with diabetes, older individuals, patients who have previously been treated extensively with antibiotics, hospitalized patients (especially in the ICU), and those with indwelling catheters. […] The growing prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing bacteria and fluoroquinolone resistance greatly complicates antibiotic selection for these serious infections. This is a common and growing problem as over 90% of UTI-causing bacteria are resistant to at least one antibiotic, and close to 80% have become resistant to at least two. […] Patient risk factors for antibiotic resistance include recent broad-spectrum use of antimicrobials (especially quinolones and beta-lactams), obstructive uropathy, increased healthcare interactions, recurrent UTIs, hospital admissions, indwelling catheters, older patient age, and inappropriate antibiotic use (eg, inadequate or overlong duration of treatment, incorrect dosage, poor antimicrobial selection).

• #70

  https://www.laparoscopyhospital.com/forum/forum.php?p=&cat_id=&tid=3622

  Kidney infections, also known as pyelonephritis, can be serious and may lead to various complications if not treated promptly. Some potential complications associated with kidney infections include: Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): Untreated or recurrent kidney infections can cause damage to the kidneys over time, leading to chronic kidney disease. This condition may result in a gradual loss of kidney function. […] Sepsis: In severe cases, a kidney infection can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition where the body’s response to infection causes widespread inflammation. Sepsis can affect multiple organs and systems and requires immediate medical attention. […] Kidney Abscess: Pockets of pus (abscesses) may form in the kidney as a result of a severe infection. These abscesses can cause additional complications and may require drainage.

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