Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism, the most prevalent congenital condition involving male genitalia, is characterized by the absence of at least one testicle from the scrotum; this often manifests unilaterally or bilaterally, with a higher frequency of involvement observed in the right testicle. Approximately 3% of full-term and 30% of premature male infants are born with undescended testicles, necessitating a nuanced understanding among healthcare professionals. […] The cause of cryptorchidism is often indeterminate in full-term infants, rendering it a common yet sporadic, idiopathic congenital abnormality. Experts believe that a combination of genetics, maternal factors, and environmental influences may disrupt the hormonal and physical processes that influence testicular development and descent. […] Birth weight is the primary risk factor for undescended testes, followed by family history. Furthermore, other potential contributing risk factors include: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy (5 or more drinks per week, which can increase the risk up to 3 times), Chemical endocrine disruptors interfering with normal fetal hormone balance, Cigarette smoking, Congenital malformation syndromes such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome, Cosmetics use, Exposure to phthalate (di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate or DEHP), Family history of cryptorchidism, Ibuprofen use, In vitro fertilization, Maternal diabetes, Maternal exposure to diethylstilbestrol, Maternal obesity, Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome, Pesticide exposure, Preeclampsia (especially in its more severe forms, poses an increased risk of cryptorchidism), Premature infants born before the descent of the testicles, Small for gestational-age infants, Smaller placental weight.

• #2

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/genitourinary-tract/Pages/Undescended-Testicles.aspx

  In some boys, especially those who are born premature, one or both testicles do not make it down to the scrotum before birth. This is known as cryptorchidism, more commonly called undescended testicles. […] Nobody is certain what causes undescended testicles. Premature birth plays a role, but the condition may also be genetic. There is a 7.5% chance that a brother of a boy with undescended testicles will have the same condition. The odds rise to 25% if the brother is an identical twin. […] Undescended testicles is the most common genital abnormality found at birth. About 1-3% of full-term boys have the condition at birth. But the rate is much higher in boys born preterm. About 30% of boys with a low birthweight (less than 5 pounds, 4 ounces) are born with undescended testicles. Those with a very low birthweight (less than 3 pounds, 4 ounces) have a near 100% chance of being born with undescended testicles.

• #3 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  Cryptorchidism, also known as undescended testis, is the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis. However, about 80% of cryptorchid testes descend by the first year of life, making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall. Cryptorchidism may develop after infancy, sometimes as late as young adulthood, but that is exceptional. […] In most full-term infant boys with cryptorchidism but no other genital abnormalities, a cause cannot be found, making this a common, sporadic, unexplained (idiopathic) birth defect. A combination of genetics, maternal health, and other environmental factors may disrupt the hormones and physical changes that influence the development of the testicles.

• #4 Undescended testicle – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/undescended-testicle/symptoms-causes/syc-20351995

  A testicle that doesn’t move down into its proper place in the scrotum before birth is called an undescended testicle. It’s also known as cryptorchidism (krip-TOR-kih-diz-um). […] The exact cause of an undescended testicle isn’t known. Genes, the health of the baby’s mother and other factors might have a combined effect. Together they may disrupt the hormones, physical changes and nerve activity that play roles in how the testicles develop. […] Things that might raise the risk of an undescended testicle in a newborn include: Premature birth or low birth weight. Family history of undescended testicles. Health conditions in the baby, such as cerebral palsy or a problem with the wall of the abdomen. The mother having diabetes before or during pregnancy. Alcohol use during pregnancy. Smoking cigarettes or exposure to secondhand smoke during pregnancy. Exposure to some pesticides during pregnancy.

• #5 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  Cryptorchidism, also known as undescended testis, is the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis. However, about 80% of cryptorchid testes descend by the first year of life, making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall. Cryptorchidism may develop after infancy, sometimes as late as young adulthood, but that is exceptional. […] In most full-term infant boys with cryptorchidism but no other genital abnormalities, a cause cannot be found, making this a common, sporadic, unexplained (idiopathic) birth defect. A combination of genetics, maternal health, and other environmental factors may disrupt the hormones and physical changes that influence the development of the testicles.

• #6 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism): Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17594-undescended-testicles

  During pregnancy, testicles develop in the abdominal cavity. In most cases, they drop into the scrotum before birth. Undescended testicles dont drop before birth. It isnt clear what causes undescended testicles. […] Healthcare providers and medical researchers arent sure why some babies have undescended testicles at birth. In some cases, they think a testosterone deficiency during fetal development may interfere with how the testicles develop. […] There isnt any evidence that anything you do while pregnant causes your baby to have undescended testicles. […] If testicles dont drop into the scrotum, they may not function properly or produce healthy sperm. They can cause infertility later in life.

• #7 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism is associated with male infertility in adulthood, primarily due to poor semen quality, which can be linked to compromised Sertoli cell function and its impact on Leydig cell function. […] A normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is a prerequisite for normal testicular descent, as it coordinates hormonal signals necessary for the developmental process. The absence of an appendix testis has been associated with abdominal and cryptorchid testes, mainly when located proximal to the external ring. However, the exact role of the appendix testis in testicular descent remains unclear.

• #8 Risk factors for cryptorchidism

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5815831/

  The condition known as cryptorchidism undescended testis is one of the most common congenital abnormalities found among males, and is one of the few known risk factors for testicular cancer (TC). […] Testicular descent is thought to occur during two hormonally-controlled phases between 8-15 weeks and 25-35 weeks gestation and while it is clear that a failure of testes to descend permanently is likely due to disruptions to one or both of these phases, the cause(s) and mechanism(s) of such disruption are still unclear. […] There are few exposures for which there is consistent evidence of an association with cryptorchidism; and in those cases where evidence appears unequivocal for example, the relationship between cryptorchidism and gestational measures such as low birth weight the measured exposure is likely to be a surrogate for the true causal exposure.

• #9 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  The etiology of cryptorchidism is multifactorial. Extensive research and clinical observations have elucidated some of the factors involved, but the exact mechanism of cryptorchidism has proved elusive. […] Birth weight is the principal determining factor for undescended testes at birth to age 1 year, independent of the length of gestation. […] One study found that almost 23% of index patients with undescended testes had a positive family history of cryptorchidism, as opposed to 7.5% of a control group without cryptorchidism. […] The familial cluster is 3.6-fold overall, 6.9 if a brother is affected and 4.6 if the father. Mutations in the homeobox gene HOXA10, which plays a pivotal role in regulation of testicular descent, may be involved in select cases. […] Transabdominal descent of the testis involves differential growth of vertebrae and pelvis until 23 weeks gestation. Afterward, further descent is facilitated by the development of the gubernaculum, processus vaginalis, spermatic vessels, and scrotum.

• #10 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  About five per cent of boys are born with undescended testicles. […] Premature and low birth weight babies are at increased risk. […] Undescended testicles are linked to a range of health problems and conditions, including hernia, testicular cancer and infertility. […] Premature babies are at increased risk of undescended testicles because the migration of the testicles hasnt had time to occur during development in the womb. Low birth weight babies also have a higher rate of undescended testicles. […] Around 17 per cent of male newborns that weigh under 2.3 kg have undescended testicles. The lower the birth weight, the higher the risk; nearly 100 per cent of male babies weighing under 907 g are born with the condition. […] Undescended testicles are linked to a range of health problems and conditions, including:

• #11

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/genitourinary-tract/Pages/Undescended-Testicles.aspx

  In some boys, especially those who are born premature, one or both testicles do not make it down to the scrotum before birth. This is known as cryptorchidism, more commonly called undescended testicles. […] Nobody is certain what causes undescended testicles. Premature birth plays a role, but the condition may also be genetic. There is a 7.5% chance that a brother of a boy with undescended testicles will have the same condition. The odds rise to 25% if the brother is an identical twin. […] Undescended testicles is the most common genital abnormality found at birth. About 1-3% of full-term boys have the condition at birth. But the rate is much higher in boys born preterm. About 30% of boys with a low birthweight (less than 5 pounds, 4 ounces) are born with undescended testicles. Those with a very low birthweight (less than 3 pounds, 4 ounces) have a near 100% chance of being born with undescended testicles.

• #12 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  About five per cent of boys are born with undescended testicles. […] Premature and low birth weight babies are at increased risk. […] Undescended testicles are linked to a range of health problems and conditions, including hernia, testicular cancer and infertility. […] Premature babies are at increased risk of undescended testicles because the migration of the testicles hasnt had time to occur during development in the womb. Low birth weight babies also have a higher rate of undescended testicles. […] Around 17 per cent of male newborns that weigh under 2.3 kg have undescended testicles. The lower the birth weight, the higher the risk; nearly 100 per cent of male babies weighing under 907 g are born with the condition. […] Undescended testicles are linked to a range of health problems and conditions, including:

• #13 Undescended Testes (Cryptorchidism) – Children’s Hospital of Orange County

  https://choc.org/programs-services/urology/undescended-testes-cryptorchidism/

  Undescended testes are a condition seen most commonly in newborns when one or both of the male testes have not passed down into the scrotal sac. Ten percent of cases are bilateral (involve both testes). Cryptorchidism is more commonly seen in premature males because the testes do not descend from the abdomen to the scrotal sac until the seventh month of fetal development. […] Undescended testes may occur for several reasons. While prematurity is a leading cause, other causes may include hormonal disorders, retractile testes (a muscle reflex that causes a testicle to move back and forth from the scrotum to the groin), testicular absence or the cause may be unknown. Undescended testes can be unilateral (involving only one testicle) or bilateral (involving one testicle). […] Up to one-third of premature male infants have an undescended testis. […] If undescended testes are not repaired, the following complications may occur as the child grows and matures: Infertility, especially if both testes are affected. Increased risk of testicular cancer. Psychological consequences of an empty scrotum.

• #14 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  The etiology of cryptorchidism is multifactorial. Extensive research and clinical observations have elucidated some of the factors involved, but the exact mechanism of cryptorchidism has proved elusive. […] Birth weight is the principal determining factor for undescended testes at birth to age 1 year, independent of the length of gestation. […] One study found that almost 23% of index patients with undescended testes had a positive family history of cryptorchidism, as opposed to 7.5% of a control group without cryptorchidism. […] The familial cluster is 3.6-fold overall, 6.9 if a brother is affected and 4.6 if the father. Mutations in the homeobox gene HOXA10, which plays a pivotal role in regulation of testicular descent, may be involved in select cases. […] Transabdominal descent of the testis involves differential growth of vertebrae and pelvis until 23 weeks gestation. Afterward, further descent is facilitated by the development of the gubernaculum, processus vaginalis, spermatic vessels, and scrotum.

• #15 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  The etiology of cryptorchidism is multifactorial. Extensive research and clinical observations have elucidated some of the factors involved, but the exact mechanism of cryptorchidism has proved elusive. […] Birth weight is the principal determining factor for undescended testes at birth to age 1 year, independent of the length of gestation. […] One study found that almost 23% of index patients with undescended testes had a positive family history of cryptorchidism, as opposed to 7.5% of a control group without cryptorchidism. […] The familial cluster is 3.6-fold overall, 6.9 if a brother is affected and 4.6 if the father. Mutations in the homeobox gene HOXA10, which plays a pivotal role in regulation of testicular descent, may be involved in select cases. […] Transabdominal descent of the testis involves differential growth of vertebrae and pelvis until 23 weeks gestation. Afterward, further descent is facilitated by the development of the gubernaculum, processus vaginalis, spermatic vessels, and scrotum.

• #16 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  When one identical twin is born with cryptorchidism, his identical twin also has the trait only 25% of the time, despite sharing their genes and prenatal hormonal environment. Animal studies have found that androgen antagonists during early fetal development cause elevated rates of hypospadias and cryptorchidism, however, in humans these traits rarely occur together. […] The most common type of testicular cancer occurring in undescended testes is seminoma. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develops testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The risk of malignancy in the undescended testis is 4 to 10 ten times higher than that in the general population and is about one in 80 with a unilateral undescended testis and one in 40 to one in 50 for bilateral undescended testes.

• #17

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/genitourinary-tract/Pages/Undescended-Testicles.aspx

  In some boys, especially those who are born premature, one or both testicles do not make it down to the scrotum before birth. This is known as cryptorchidism, more commonly called undescended testicles. […] Nobody is certain what causes undescended testicles. Premature birth plays a role, but the condition may also be genetic. There is a 7.5% chance that a brother of a boy with undescended testicles will have the same condition. The odds rise to 25% if the brother is an identical twin. […] Undescended testicles is the most common genital abnormality found at birth. About 1-3% of full-term boys have the condition at birth. But the rate is much higher in boys born preterm. About 30% of boys with a low birthweight (less than 5 pounds, 4 ounces) are born with undescended testicles. Those with a very low birthweight (less than 3 pounds, 4 ounces) have a near 100% chance of being born with undescended testicles.

• #18 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  The etiology of cryptorchidism is multifactorial. Extensive research and clinical observations have elucidated some of the factors involved, but the exact mechanism of cryptorchidism has proved elusive. […] Birth weight is the principal determining factor for undescended testes at birth to age 1 year, independent of the length of gestation. […] One study found that almost 23% of index patients with undescended testes had a positive family history of cryptorchidism, as opposed to 7.5% of a control group without cryptorchidism. […] The familial cluster is 3.6-fold overall, 6.9 if a brother is affected and 4.6 if the father. Mutations in the homeobox gene HOXA10, which plays a pivotal role in regulation of testicular descent, may be involved in select cases. […] Transabdominal descent of the testis involves differential growth of vertebrae and pelvis until 23 weeks gestation. Afterward, further descent is facilitated by the development of the gubernaculum, processus vaginalis, spermatic vessels, and scrotum.

• #19 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism, the most prevalent congenital condition involving male genitalia, is characterized by the absence of at least one testicle from the scrotum; this often manifests unilaterally or bilaterally, with a higher frequency of involvement observed in the right testicle. Approximately 3% of full-term and 30% of premature male infants are born with undescended testicles, necessitating a nuanced understanding among healthcare professionals. […] The cause of cryptorchidism is often indeterminate in full-term infants, rendering it a common yet sporadic, idiopathic congenital abnormality. Experts believe that a combination of genetics, maternal factors, and environmental influences may disrupt the hormonal and physical processes that influence testicular development and descent. […] Birth weight is the primary risk factor for undescended testes, followed by family history. Furthermore, other potential contributing risk factors include: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy (5 or more drinks per week, which can increase the risk up to 3 times), Chemical endocrine disruptors interfering with normal fetal hormone balance, Cigarette smoking, Congenital malformation syndromes such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome, Cosmetics use, Exposure to phthalate (di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate or DEHP), Family history of cryptorchidism, Ibuprofen use, In vitro fertilization, Maternal diabetes, Maternal exposure to diethylstilbestrol, Maternal obesity, Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome, Pesticide exposure, Preeclampsia (especially in its more severe forms, poses an increased risk of cryptorchidism), Premature infants born before the descent of the testicles, Small for gestational-age infants, Smaller placental weight.

• #20 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  Severely premature infants can be born before descent of testes. Low birth weight is also a known factor. A contributing role of environmental chemicals called endocrine disruptors that interfere with normal fetal hormone balance has been proposed. The Mayo Clinic lists „parents’ exposure to some pesticides” as a known risk factor. Risk factors may include exposure to regular alcohol consumption during pregnancy, cigarette smoking, family history of undescended testicles or other problems of genital development. […] Cryptorchidism occurs at a much higher rate in a large number of congenital malformation syndromes. Among the more common are Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome. In vitro fertilization, use of cosmetics by the mother, and pre-eclampsia have also been recognized as risk factors for development of cryptorchidism.

• #21 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism is associated with male infertility in adulthood, primarily due to poor semen quality, which can be linked to compromised Sertoli cell function and its impact on Leydig cell function. […] A normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is a prerequisite for normal testicular descent, as it coordinates hormonal signals necessary for the developmental process. The absence of an appendix testis has been associated with abdominal and cryptorchid testes, mainly when located proximal to the external ring. However, the exact role of the appendix testis in testicular descent remains unclear.

• #22 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism): Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17594-undescended-testicles

  During pregnancy, testicles develop in the abdominal cavity. In most cases, they drop into the scrotum before birth. Undescended testicles dont drop before birth. It isnt clear what causes undescended testicles. […] Healthcare providers and medical researchers arent sure why some babies have undescended testicles at birth. In some cases, they think a testosterone deficiency during fetal development may interfere with how the testicles develop. […] There isnt any evidence that anything you do while pregnant causes your baby to have undescended testicles. […] If testicles dont drop into the scrotum, they may not function properly or produce healthy sperm. They can cause infertility later in life.

• #23 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  A normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is a prerequisite for testicular descent. […] Furthermore, testosterone and its conversion to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) are also necessary for continued migration, especially during the inguinoscrotal phase. […] Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals may contribute to cryptorchidism, and may account for the increasing incidence rate of cryptorchidism seen in some regions. […] Synthetic chemicals identified as endocrine disruptors include phthalates, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, diethylstilbestrol, and dioxins. […] Different studies have found conflicting data regarding the involvement of mullerian-inhibiting substance, prenatal estrogen exposure, and descendin (a specific gubernacular growth factor) in the pathophysiology of cryptorchidism.

• #24 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  In 2008, a study was published that investigated the possible relationship between cryptorchidism and prenatal exposure to a chemical called phthalate (DEHP), which is used in the manufacture of plastics. The researchers found a significant association between higher levels of DEHP metabolites in pregnant mothers and several sex-related changes, including incomplete descent of the testes in their sons. […] A 2010 study examined the prevalence of congenital cryptorchidism among offspring whose mothers had taken mild analgesics, primarily over-the-counter pain medications including ibuprofen and paracetamol. The study found that pregnant women who had been exposed to mild analgesics had a higher prevalence of baby boys born with congenital cryptorchidism. […] New insight into the testicular descent mechanism has been hypothesized by the concept of a male programming window derived from animal studies. According to this concept, testicular descent status is „set” during the period from 8 to 14 weeks of gestation in humans. Undescended testis is a result of disruption in androgen levels only during this programming window.

• #25 Cryptorchidism (undescended testicle): Symptoms, risk factors, and ca

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/184604

  An undescended testicle has not moved into the scrotum, the bag of skin that hangs behind the penis, during the development of a fetus. […] The more formal medical term for testicles that do not descend is cryptorchidism. […] Scientists maintain that the testicles might begin to develop incorrectly. […] Abnormal genital development may also stem from androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), a genetic disorder in which XY fetuses do not respond to male hormones, such as testosterone. […] Experts believe that most cases of undescended testicles occur when a combination of genetics, maternal health, and some environmental factors disrupt the hormones, cause physical changes, and interrupt the nerve activity involved in the testicles development. […] However, the exact cause of cryptorchidism remains unclear.

• #26 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  A normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is a prerequisite for testicular descent. […] Furthermore, testosterone and its conversion to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) are also necessary for continued migration, especially during the inguinoscrotal phase. […] Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals may contribute to cryptorchidism, and may account for the increasing incidence rate of cryptorchidism seen in some regions. […] Synthetic chemicals identified as endocrine disruptors include phthalates, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, diethylstilbestrol, and dioxins. […] Different studies have found conflicting data regarding the involvement of mullerian-inhibiting substance, prenatal estrogen exposure, and descendin (a specific gubernacular growth factor) in the pathophysiology of cryptorchidism.

• #27 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  A normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is a prerequisite for testicular descent. […] Furthermore, testosterone and its conversion to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) are also necessary for continued migration, especially during the inguinoscrotal phase. […] Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals may contribute to cryptorchidism, and may account for the increasing incidence rate of cryptorchidism seen in some regions. […] Synthetic chemicals identified as endocrine disruptors include phthalates, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, diethylstilbestrol, and dioxins. […] Different studies have found conflicting data regarding the involvement of mullerian-inhibiting substance, prenatal estrogen exposure, and descendin (a specific gubernacular growth factor) in the pathophysiology of cryptorchidism.

• #28 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  In 2008, a study was published that investigated the possible relationship between cryptorchidism and prenatal exposure to a chemical called phthalate (DEHP), which is used in the manufacture of plastics. The researchers found a significant association between higher levels of DEHP metabolites in pregnant mothers and several sex-related changes, including incomplete descent of the testes in their sons. […] A 2010 study examined the prevalence of congenital cryptorchidism among offspring whose mothers had taken mild analgesics, primarily over-the-counter pain medications including ibuprofen and paracetamol. The study found that pregnant women who had been exposed to mild analgesics had a higher prevalence of baby boys born with congenital cryptorchidism. […] New insight into the testicular descent mechanism has been hypothesized by the concept of a male programming window derived from animal studies. According to this concept, testicular descent status is „set” during the period from 8 to 14 weeks of gestation in humans. Undescended testis is a result of disruption in androgen levels only during this programming window.

• #29 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  In 2008, a study was published that investigated the possible relationship between cryptorchidism and prenatal exposure to a chemical called phthalate (DEHP), which is used in the manufacture of plastics. The researchers found a significant association between higher levels of DEHP metabolites in pregnant mothers and several sex-related changes, including incomplete descent of the testes in their sons. […] A 2010 study examined the prevalence of congenital cryptorchidism among offspring whose mothers had taken mild analgesics, primarily over-the-counter pain medications including ibuprofen and paracetamol. The study found that pregnant women who had been exposed to mild analgesics had a higher prevalence of baby boys born with congenital cryptorchidism. […] New insight into the testicular descent mechanism has been hypothesized by the concept of a male programming window derived from animal studies. According to this concept, testicular descent status is „set” during the period from 8 to 14 weeks of gestation in humans. Undescended testis is a result of disruption in androgen levels only during this programming window.

• #30 Undescended testicle – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/undescended-testicle/symptoms-causes/syc-20351995

  A testicle that doesn’t move down into its proper place in the scrotum before birth is called an undescended testicle. It’s also known as cryptorchidism (krip-TOR-kih-diz-um). […] The exact cause of an undescended testicle isn’t known. Genes, the health of the baby’s mother and other factors might have a combined effect. Together they may disrupt the hormones, physical changes and nerve activity that play roles in how the testicles develop. […] Things that might raise the risk of an undescended testicle in a newborn include: Premature birth or low birth weight. Family history of undescended testicles. Health conditions in the baby, such as cerebral palsy or a problem with the wall of the abdomen. The mother having diabetes before or during pregnancy. Alcohol use during pregnancy. Smoking cigarettes or exposure to secondhand smoke during pregnancy. Exposure to some pesticides during pregnancy.

• #31 Undescended Testicle: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/what-is-an-undescended-testicle

  But sometimes, one or both testicles dont fall into place. Thats called an undescended testicle. It can happen to any baby boy, but its more common for those born earlier than expected. […] Doctors arent sure why it happens. They think its related to genes, the mothers health, and outside influences that change how hormones and nerves normally work. […] Even though the cause isnt clear, certain factors might make an undescended testicle more likely: An earlier-than-expected birth, Family history of them or other problems with how genitals develop, Health conditions, such as Down syndrome, that affect how a fetus grows, Low birth weight, Contact by the parents with certain chemicals (pesticides) that kill bugs — these are often used on farms. […] It may also be more likely if the mother: Has diabetes (type 1, type 2, or gestational), Is obese, Smoked cigarettes or drank alcohol during pregnancy.

• #32 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism, the most prevalent congenital condition involving male genitalia, is characterized by the absence of at least one testicle from the scrotum; this often manifests unilaterally or bilaterally, with a higher frequency of involvement observed in the right testicle. Approximately 3% of full-term and 30% of premature male infants are born with undescended testicles, necessitating a nuanced understanding among healthcare professionals. […] The cause of cryptorchidism is often indeterminate in full-term infants, rendering it a common yet sporadic, idiopathic congenital abnormality. Experts believe that a combination of genetics, maternal factors, and environmental influences may disrupt the hormonal and physical processes that influence testicular development and descent. […] Birth weight is the primary risk factor for undescended testes, followed by family history. Furthermore, other potential contributing risk factors include: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy (5 or more drinks per week, which can increase the risk up to 3 times), Chemical endocrine disruptors interfering with normal fetal hormone balance, Cigarette smoking, Congenital malformation syndromes such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome, Cosmetics use, Exposure to phthalate (di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate or DEHP), Family history of cryptorchidism, Ibuprofen use, In vitro fertilization, Maternal diabetes, Maternal exposure to diethylstilbestrol, Maternal obesity, Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome, Pesticide exposure, Preeclampsia (especially in its more severe forms, poses an increased risk of cryptorchidism), Premature infants born before the descent of the testicles, Small for gestational-age infants, Smaller placental weight.

• #33 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism, the most prevalent congenital condition involving male genitalia, is characterized by the absence of at least one testicle from the scrotum; this often manifests unilaterally or bilaterally, with a higher frequency of involvement observed in the right testicle. Approximately 3% of full-term and 30% of premature male infants are born with undescended testicles, necessitating a nuanced understanding among healthcare professionals. […] The cause of cryptorchidism is often indeterminate in full-term infants, rendering it a common yet sporadic, idiopathic congenital abnormality. Experts believe that a combination of genetics, maternal factors, and environmental influences may disrupt the hormonal and physical processes that influence testicular development and descent. […] Birth weight is the primary risk factor for undescended testes, followed by family history. Furthermore, other potential contributing risk factors include: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy (5 or more drinks per week, which can increase the risk up to 3 times), Chemical endocrine disruptors interfering with normal fetal hormone balance, Cigarette smoking, Congenital malformation syndromes such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome, Cosmetics use, Exposure to phthalate (di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate or DEHP), Family history of cryptorchidism, Ibuprofen use, In vitro fertilization, Maternal diabetes, Maternal exposure to diethylstilbestrol, Maternal obesity, Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome, Pesticide exposure, Preeclampsia (especially in its more severe forms, poses an increased risk of cryptorchidism), Premature infants born before the descent of the testicles, Small for gestational-age infants, Smaller placental weight.

• #34 Undescended Testicle: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/what-is-an-undescended-testicle

  But sometimes, one or both testicles dont fall into place. Thats called an undescended testicle. It can happen to any baby boy, but its more common for those born earlier than expected. […] Doctors arent sure why it happens. They think its related to genes, the mothers health, and outside influences that change how hormones and nerves normally work. […] Even though the cause isnt clear, certain factors might make an undescended testicle more likely: An earlier-than-expected birth, Family history of them or other problems with how genitals develop, Health conditions, such as Down syndrome, that affect how a fetus grows, Low birth weight, Contact by the parents with certain chemicals (pesticides) that kill bugs — these are often used on farms. […] It may also be more likely if the mother: Has diabetes (type 1, type 2, or gestational), Is obese, Smoked cigarettes or drank alcohol during pregnancy.

• #35 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism, the most prevalent congenital condition involving male genitalia, is characterized by the absence of at least one testicle from the scrotum; this often manifests unilaterally or bilaterally, with a higher frequency of involvement observed in the right testicle. Approximately 3% of full-term and 30% of premature male infants are born with undescended testicles, necessitating a nuanced understanding among healthcare professionals. […] The cause of cryptorchidism is often indeterminate in full-term infants, rendering it a common yet sporadic, idiopathic congenital abnormality. Experts believe that a combination of genetics, maternal factors, and environmental influences may disrupt the hormonal and physical processes that influence testicular development and descent. […] Birth weight is the primary risk factor for undescended testes, followed by family history. Furthermore, other potential contributing risk factors include: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy (5 or more drinks per week, which can increase the risk up to 3 times), Chemical endocrine disruptors interfering with normal fetal hormone balance, Cigarette smoking, Congenital malformation syndromes such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome, Cosmetics use, Exposure to phthalate (di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate or DEHP), Family history of cryptorchidism, Ibuprofen use, In vitro fertilization, Maternal diabetes, Maternal exposure to diethylstilbestrol, Maternal obesity, Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome, Pesticide exposure, Preeclampsia (especially in its more severe forms, poses an increased risk of cryptorchidism), Premature infants born before the descent of the testicles, Small for gestational-age infants, Smaller placental weight.

• #36 Undescended Testicle Causes and Treatment | UPMC

  https://www.upmc.com/services/urology/conditions/undescended-testicle

  An undescended testicle, sometimes called a cryptorchidism testicle, is a common problem in young boys. Up to 30 percent of premature boys, up to five percent of boys born at term, and up to one percent of one-year-old boys will have at least one undescended testis. […] The testicle originally forms in the back of the abdominal cavity, similar to the position of the ovaries in girls. Near the end of pregnancy, the testis begins to descend to the scrotum. A path is cleared for the testis by a structure called the processus vaginalis essentially a groin or inguinal hernia. If the process is incomplete, the testicle might end up anywhere from inside the abdomen to just above the scrotum. Sometimes, the testis tries to descend but follows the wrong path and ends up in an „ectopic” location, usually not far from the scrotum.

• #37 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  Although its exact mechanism of action is unclear, the gubernaculum has significant importance in undescended testes. In patients with cryptorchidism, the gubernaculum is not firmly attached to the scrotum, and the testis is not pulled into the scrotum. […] Both hormonal and mechanical factors appear to mediate the aid of the gubernaculum and descent of the testis. […] The genitofemoral nerve may also aid in descent and gubernacular differentiation, which may be mediated by calcitonin gene-related peptide. […] Intra-abdominal pressure also appears to play a role in testicular descent. Conditions associated with decreased pressure include prune belly syndrome, omphalocele, and gastroschisis, among other various syndromes. Each is associated with an increased risk of undescended testes.

• #38 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  Although its exact mechanism of action is unclear, the gubernaculum has significant importance in undescended testes. In patients with cryptorchidism, the gubernaculum is not firmly attached to the scrotum, and the testis is not pulled into the scrotum. […] Both hormonal and mechanical factors appear to mediate the aid of the gubernaculum and descent of the testis. […] The genitofemoral nerve may also aid in descent and gubernacular differentiation, which may be mediated by calcitonin gene-related peptide. […] Intra-abdominal pressure also appears to play a role in testicular descent. Conditions associated with decreased pressure include prune belly syndrome, omphalocele, and gastroschisis, among other various syndromes. Each is associated with an increased risk of undescended testes.

• #39 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  Although its exact mechanism of action is unclear, the gubernaculum has significant importance in undescended testes. In patients with cryptorchidism, the gubernaculum is not firmly attached to the scrotum, and the testis is not pulled into the scrotum. […] Both hormonal and mechanical factors appear to mediate the aid of the gubernaculum and descent of the testis. […] The genitofemoral nerve may also aid in descent and gubernacular differentiation, which may be mediated by calcitonin gene-related peptide. […] Intra-abdominal pressure also appears to play a role in testicular descent. Conditions associated with decreased pressure include prune belly syndrome, omphalocele, and gastroschisis, among other various syndromes. Each is associated with an increased risk of undescended testes.

• #40 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  Although its exact mechanism of action is unclear, the gubernaculum has significant importance in undescended testes. In patients with cryptorchidism, the gubernaculum is not firmly attached to the scrotum, and the testis is not pulled into the scrotum. […] Both hormonal and mechanical factors appear to mediate the aid of the gubernaculum and descent of the testis. […] The genitofemoral nerve may also aid in descent and gubernacular differentiation, which may be mediated by calcitonin gene-related peptide. […] Intra-abdominal pressure also appears to play a role in testicular descent. Conditions associated with decreased pressure include prune belly syndrome, omphalocele, and gastroschisis, among other various syndromes. Each is associated with an increased risk of undescended testes.

• #41 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  The effect of decreased intra-abdominal pressure is most significant during transinguinal migration to the scrotum, probably in conjunction with androgens and a patent processus vaginalis. […] Epididymal abnormalities often accompany undescended testes, but the causal relationship has not been established. […] A Japanese study found that nationwide, the discharge rate of cryptorchidism increased by 14.3% after the Fukushima nuclear accident. Rates of other risk factors for cryptorchidism (ie, low-weight babies, preterm births) remained almost constant during the study period, and age distribution of cryptorchidism surgery also did not change.

• #42 Undescended testes

  https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/undescended_testes/

  In babies born early (premature babies), the testes may not have had time to move down into the scrotum by the time the baby is born. […] Sometimes a child is born with the testes in the scrotum, but they develop undescended testes later. As the child grows, the spermatic cord fails to grow at the same rate. It ends up too short, and pulls the testis back up into the groin. This can happen between one and 10 years of age. […] There may be several reasons for undescended testes. Usually the cause is unknown.

• #43 Undescended testes

  https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/undescended_testes/

  In babies born early (premature babies), the testes may not have had time to move down into the scrotum by the time the baby is born. […] Sometimes a child is born with the testes in the scrotum, but they develop undescended testes later. As the child grows, the spermatic cord fails to grow at the same rate. It ends up too short, and pulls the testis back up into the groin. This can happen between one and 10 years of age. […] There may be several reasons for undescended testes. Usually the cause is unknown.

• #44 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  infertility testicles are housed in the scrotum because sperm production requires a temperature a few degrees lower than the body. Undescended testicles that are not brought into the scrotum from a young age will not produce sperm. Even with surgical correction, there are higher rates of infertility in men who had undescended testicles when they were young […] the risk of testicular cancer is five to 10 times higher for males with undescended testicles than for the general male population. This risk may remain even after corrective surgery, particularly if surgery is delayed to later in childhood. Testicular cancer usually occurs between the ages of 25 and 40 years. […] Acquired undescended testis may also occur in boys who were treated for undescended testis at birth. Up to 50 per cent of boys who are treated for undescended testis as a small infant, will develop acquired undescended testis later in childhood.

• #45 Undescended testes (cryptorchidism) in children: Clinical features and evaluation – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/undescended-testes-cryptorchidism-in-children-clinical-features-and-evaluation

  Cryptorchidism is the most common congenital abnormality of the genitourinary tract. Most cryptorchid testes are undescended, but some are absent (due to agenesis or atrophy). […] Absent testis – An absent testis may be due to agenesis or atrophy secondary to intrauterine vascular compromise (eg, prenatal testicular torsion), also known as the „vanishing testis syndrome” or testicular regression syndrome. […] Undescended testes – True undescended testes stop short along their normal path of descent into the scrotum. They may remain in the abdominal cavity or they may be palpable in the inguinal canal (intracanalicular) or just outside the external ring (suprascrotal).

• #46 Undescended testicle: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000973.htm

  Undescended testicle occurs when one or both testicles fail to move into the scrotum before birth. […] Most of the time, a boy’s testicles descend into the scrotum by the time he is 6 months old. Undescended testicles are common in infants who are born early. The problem occurs less in full-term infants. […] Testicles that do not naturally descend into the scrotum are considered abnormal. An undescended testicle is more likely to develop cancer, even if it is brought into the scrotum with surgery. […] In other cases, no testicle may be found, even during surgery. This may be due to a problem that occurred while the baby was still developing before birth. […] An undescended testicle that is found later in life may need to be removed. This is because the testicle is not likely to function well and could pose a risk for cancer.

• #47 Undescended Testicle Causes and Treatment | UPMC

  https://www.upmc.com/services/urology/conditions/undescended-testicle

  An undescended testicle, sometimes called a cryptorchidism testicle, is a common problem in young boys. Up to 30 percent of premature boys, up to five percent of boys born at term, and up to one percent of one-year-old boys will have at least one undescended testis. […] The testicle originally forms in the back of the abdominal cavity, similar to the position of the ovaries in girls. Near the end of pregnancy, the testis begins to descend to the scrotum. A path is cleared for the testis by a structure called the processus vaginalis essentially a groin or inguinal hernia. If the process is incomplete, the testicle might end up anywhere from inside the abdomen to just above the scrotum. Sometimes, the testis tries to descend but follows the wrong path and ends up in an „ectopic” location, usually not far from the scrotum.

• #48 Undescended testes

  https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/undescended_testes/

  In babies born early (premature babies), the testes may not have had time to move down into the scrotum by the time the baby is born. […] Sometimes a child is born with the testes in the scrotum, but they develop undescended testes later. As the child grows, the spermatic cord fails to grow at the same rate. It ends up too short, and pulls the testis back up into the groin. This can happen between one and 10 years of age. […] There may be several reasons for undescended testes. Usually the cause is unknown.

• #49 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  infertility testicles are housed in the scrotum because sperm production requires a temperature a few degrees lower than the body. Undescended testicles that are not brought into the scrotum from a young age will not produce sperm. Even with surgical correction, there are higher rates of infertility in men who had undescended testicles when they were young […] the risk of testicular cancer is five to 10 times higher for males with undescended testicles than for the general male population. This risk may remain even after corrective surgery, particularly if surgery is delayed to later in childhood. Testicular cancer usually occurs between the ages of 25 and 40 years. […] Acquired undescended testis may also occur in boys who were treated for undescended testis at birth. Up to 50 per cent of boys who are treated for undescended testis as a small infant, will develop acquired undescended testis later in childhood.

• #50 Cryptorchidism – Pathophysiology – Managment – TeachMePaediatrics

  https://teachmepaediatrics.com/surgery/urology/cryptorchidism/

  Cryptorchidism is a congenital absence of one or both testes in the scrotum due to a failure of the testes to descend during development. […] Cryptorchidism, or the failure of testicular descent into the scrotum, is a surgical condition found in 6% of newborns, but drops to 1.5-3.5% of males at 3 months. […] Under normal embryological development the testis descends from the abdomen to the scrotum, pulled by the gubernaculum, within the processes vaginalis. This process is incomplete in the context of true undescended testis; or tracks to an abnormal position in an ectopic testis. However, particularly with bilateral cryptorchidism, hormonal causes such as androgen insensitivity syndrome or disorder of sex development must also be excluded. […] Risk factors include: prematurity, low birth weight, having other abnormalities of genitalia (i.e. hypospadias) having a first degree relative with cryptorchidism.

• #51 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism is associated with male infertility in adulthood, primarily due to poor semen quality, which can be linked to compromised Sertoli cell function and its impact on Leydig cell function. […] A normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is a prerequisite for normal testicular descent, as it coordinates hormonal signals necessary for the developmental process. The absence of an appendix testis has been associated with abdominal and cryptorchid testes, mainly when located proximal to the external ring. However, the exact role of the appendix testis in testicular descent remains unclear.

• #52 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  infertility testicles are housed in the scrotum because sperm production requires a temperature a few degrees lower than the body. Undescended testicles that are not brought into the scrotum from a young age will not produce sperm. Even with surgical correction, there are higher rates of infertility in men who had undescended testicles when they were young […] the risk of testicular cancer is five to 10 times higher for males with undescended testicles than for the general male population. This risk may remain even after corrective surgery, particularly if surgery is delayed to later in childhood. Testicular cancer usually occurs between the ages of 25 and 40 years. […] Acquired undescended testis may also occur in boys who were treated for undescended testis at birth. Up to 50 per cent of boys who are treated for undescended testis as a small infant, will develop acquired undescended testis later in childhood.

• #53 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/undescended-testes-cryptorchidism

  Undescended testicles, also known as cryptorchidism, is a fairly common and normally painless congenital condition in which one or both of a baby’s testicles (testes) have not moved into the proper position. […] Experts have yet to identify any single cause of undescended testicles. The following factors may interfere with the normal descent and development of the testicles: Abnormal anatomy, Hormonal problems, Environmental influences. […] Undescended testicles can increase the risk of infertility. Normally, when the testicles are in the scrotum, they’re about three to five degrees cooler than they would be if they remained inside the body’s abdominal cavity. The warmer temperatures inside the body may impair the development of the testicles and may affect the production of healthy sperm when the boy is older.

• #54 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/undescended-testes-cryptorchidism

  Warmer temperatures inside the body can impair the development of the testes and may affect the production of healthy sperm. Orcheopexy moves the testicles into the scrotum, where they’re about three to five degrees cooler than they would be if they remained inside the abdominal cavity. This improves the chances of fertility later in life.

• #55 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/undescended-testes-cryptorchidism

  Boys born with undescended testicles are also slightly more prone to testicular cancer, even after corrective surgery. The advantage of surgery, however, is that it moves the testes into a place that allows for routine self-examination, which could lead to early detection of any abnormalities later in life. […] Undescended testicles may increase the risk of infertility, especially if both testicles are affected. However, boys who have one undescended testicle tend to father children at the same rate as those who are not affected by the condition at all. […] Boys who have two undescended testicles a much lower percentage of patients do have a significantly lower fertility rate. A child with undescended testicles is slightly more prone to develop testicular cancer, even after corrective surgery. However, surgery performed before puberty may reduce the risk of developing cancer.

• #56 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  infertility testicles are housed in the scrotum because sperm production requires a temperature a few degrees lower than the body. Undescended testicles that are not brought into the scrotum from a young age will not produce sperm. Even with surgical correction, there are higher rates of infertility in men who had undescended testicles when they were young […] the risk of testicular cancer is five to 10 times higher for males with undescended testicles than for the general male population. This risk may remain even after corrective surgery, particularly if surgery is delayed to later in childhood. Testicular cancer usually occurs between the ages of 25 and 40 years. […] Acquired undescended testis may also occur in boys who were treated for undescended testis at birth. Up to 50 per cent of boys who are treated for undescended testis as a small infant, will develop acquired undescended testis later in childhood.

• #57 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  infertility testicles are housed in the scrotum because sperm production requires a temperature a few degrees lower than the body. Undescended testicles that are not brought into the scrotum from a young age will not produce sperm. Even with surgical correction, there are higher rates of infertility in men who had undescended testicles when they were young […] the risk of testicular cancer is five to 10 times higher for males with undescended testicles than for the general male population. This risk may remain even after corrective surgery, particularly if surgery is delayed to later in childhood. Testicular cancer usually occurs between the ages of 25 and 40 years. […] Acquired undescended testis may also occur in boys who were treated for undescended testis at birth. Up to 50 per cent of boys who are treated for undescended testis as a small infant, will develop acquired undescended testis later in childhood.

• #58 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  infertility testicles are housed in the scrotum because sperm production requires a temperature a few degrees lower than the body. Undescended testicles that are not brought into the scrotum from a young age will not produce sperm. Even with surgical correction, there are higher rates of infertility in men who had undescended testicles when they were young […] the risk of testicular cancer is five to 10 times higher for males with undescended testicles than for the general male population. This risk may remain even after corrective surgery, particularly if surgery is delayed to later in childhood. Testicular cancer usually occurs between the ages of 25 and 40 years. […] Acquired undescended testis may also occur in boys who were treated for undescended testis at birth. Up to 50 per cent of boys who are treated for undescended testis as a small infant, will develop acquired undescended testis later in childhood.

• #59 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  When one identical twin is born with cryptorchidism, his identical twin also has the trait only 25% of the time, despite sharing their genes and prenatal hormonal environment. Animal studies have found that androgen antagonists during early fetal development cause elevated rates of hypospadias and cryptorchidism, however, in humans these traits rarely occur together. […] The most common type of testicular cancer occurring in undescended testes is seminoma. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develops testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The risk of malignancy in the undescended testis is 4 to 10 ten times higher than that in the general population and is about one in 80 with a unilateral undescended testis and one in 40 to one in 50 for bilateral undescended testes.

• #60 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  When one identical twin is born with cryptorchidism, his identical twin also has the trait only 25% of the time, despite sharing their genes and prenatal hormonal environment. Animal studies have found that androgen antagonists during early fetal development cause elevated rates of hypospadias and cryptorchidism, however, in humans these traits rarely occur together. […] The most common type of testicular cancer occurring in undescended testes is seminoma. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develops testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The risk of malignancy in the undescended testis is 4 to 10 ten times higher than that in the general population and is about one in 80 with a unilateral undescended testis and one in 40 to one in 50 for bilateral undescended testes.

• #61 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  When one identical twin is born with cryptorchidism, his identical twin also has the trait only 25% of the time, despite sharing their genes and prenatal hormonal environment. Animal studies have found that androgen antagonists during early fetal development cause elevated rates of hypospadias and cryptorchidism, however, in humans these traits rarely occur together. […] The most common type of testicular cancer occurring in undescended testes is seminoma. About one in 500 men born with one or both testes undescended develops testicular cancer, roughly a four- to 40-fold increased risk. The risk of malignancy in the undescended testis is 4 to 10 ten times higher than that in the general population and is about one in 80 with a unilateral undescended testis and one in 40 to one in 50 for bilateral undescended testes.

• #62 Undescended Testicle: Causes, Treatment and Surgery

  https://dreminozbek.com/en/undescended-testicle-causes-treatment-and-surgery/

  Undescended testis (chriptorchidism) is one of the congenital anomalies (developmental disorder) of the urogenital system that is common in boys. The causes of undescended testis are not known exactly. Some of the factors put forward as causes are: Genetic causes, Maternal health problems: Causes hormonal disorders, Environmental factors: Hormonal factors and ultimately can cause undescended testicles, Physical causes and problems with nerve function. Undescended testis is an important disease. Families should be very careful in this regard. If timely measures are not taken, the undescended testis will have serious complications in the future. These complications are: Development of testicular cancer: Testicular cancer is common in men with undescended testicles at advanced ages. The development of cancer in a displaced testis is related to the location of the testis. The higher the testicle, the higher the rate of cancer development. In other words, the rate of cancer development is less in the testicles in a region close to the scrotum (the bag in which the testicles are normally contained). On the other hand, in the case of an undescended testis remaining in the abdomen, cancer development is more likely. Infertility: The testicles have two most important tasks: producing testosterone (male hormone) and making sperm. In undescended testicles, sperm production cannot fully develop and infertility is seen in these people in the future. In this respect, early diagnosis and treatment are very important to prevent infertility in the future. Testicular torsion: Testicular torsion is the rotation of the structure called the spermatic cord, which contains the vessels and nerves of the testicle, around itself. As a result of this, the blood supply of the testis is disturbed and the testis loses its functions. Testicular torsion is common in cases of undescended testicles. Development of inguinal hernia: Inguinal hernia can be seen in children with undescended testicles. In such cases, the hernia is corrected by surgery. The ideal age for surgery in these children is between 6-12 months. If the operation period is delayed, testicular development cannot be complete and serious problems will arise in the future. The most important of these is the development of testicular cancer and the problem of infertility. Orchiopexy surgery reduces the risk of testicular cancer, but does not completely eliminate it. Therefore, these patients should be checked at regular intervals. The success rate in orchiopexy surgery is high. It is successful around 95%, complications are extremely low, around 1%. If left untreated, it causes serious problems such as testicular cancer and infertility in the future.

• #63 Undescended Testicle Causes and Treatment | UPMC

  https://www.upmc.com/services/urology/conditions/undescended-testicle

  Testicles that are undescended have a higher risk of developing testicular cancer than those that descend spontaneously. The overall risk of cancer is probably only one in 2,500, but this is still higher than the general population. […] Undescended testicles are almost always associated with hernias. A hernia forms as a path for the testis to follow. If the testis does not descend completely, the hernia does not close and carries the same risks as any other hernia in the groin (or inguinal hernia).

• #64 Undescended Testicle: Causes, Treatment and Surgery

  https://dreminozbek.com/en/undescended-testicle-causes-treatment-and-surgery/

  Undescended testis (chriptorchidism) is one of the congenital anomalies (developmental disorder) of the urogenital system that is common in boys. The causes of undescended testis are not known exactly. Some of the factors put forward as causes are: Genetic causes, Maternal health problems: Causes hormonal disorders, Environmental factors: Hormonal factors and ultimately can cause undescended testicles, Physical causes and problems with nerve function. Undescended testis is an important disease. Families should be very careful in this regard. If timely measures are not taken, the undescended testis will have serious complications in the future. These complications are: Development of testicular cancer: Testicular cancer is common in men with undescended testicles at advanced ages. The development of cancer in a displaced testis is related to the location of the testis. The higher the testicle, the higher the rate of cancer development. In other words, the rate of cancer development is less in the testicles in a region close to the scrotum (the bag in which the testicles are normally contained). On the other hand, in the case of an undescended testis remaining in the abdomen, cancer development is more likely. Infertility: The testicles have two most important tasks: producing testosterone (male hormone) and making sperm. In undescended testicles, sperm production cannot fully develop and infertility is seen in these people in the future. In this respect, early diagnosis and treatment are very important to prevent infertility in the future. Testicular torsion: Testicular torsion is the rotation of the structure called the spermatic cord, which contains the vessels and nerves of the testicle, around itself. As a result of this, the blood supply of the testis is disturbed and the testis loses its functions. Testicular torsion is common in cases of undescended testicles. Development of inguinal hernia: Inguinal hernia can be seen in children with undescended testicles. In such cases, the hernia is corrected by surgery. The ideal age for surgery in these children is between 6-12 months. If the operation period is delayed, testicular development cannot be complete and serious problems will arise in the future. The most important of these is the development of testicular cancer and the problem of infertility. Orchiopexy surgery reduces the risk of testicular cancer, but does not completely eliminate it. Therefore, these patients should be checked at regular intervals. The success rate in orchiopexy surgery is high. It is successful around 95%, complications are extremely low, around 1%. If left untreated, it causes serious problems such as testicular cancer and infertility in the future.

• #65 Understanding Undescended Testicles in Children | Ochsner Health

  https://blog.ochsner.org/articles/understanding-undescended-testicles-in-children

  While undescended testicles may not cause immediate harm, the condition can lead to complications if left untreated: […] Fertility Issues: Testicles are designed to function best at the cooler temperature of the scrotum. When a testicle stays in the abdomen or groin, the higher temperature can affect its ability to produce sperm, which could lead to infertility later in life. […] Testicular Cancer: Boys with undescended testicles have a slightly higher risk of developing testicular cancer in adulthood, though this risk is still relatively low. Early treatment can reduce this risk. […] Inguinal Hernia: Children with undescended testicles are more likely to develop an inguinal hernia, a condition where a part of the intestine pushes through the abdominal wall. […] Testicular Torsion: Testicular torsion, which occurs when the testicle twists and cuts off its blood supply, is a serious condition that can cause pain and may require emergency surgery.

• #66 Cryptorchidism – Pathophysiology – Managment – TeachMePaediatrics

  https://teachmepaediatrics.com/surgery/urology/cryptorchidism/

  Cryptorchidism is a congenital absence of one or both testes in the scrotum due to a failure of the testes to descend during development. […] Cryptorchidism, or the failure of testicular descent into the scrotum, is a surgical condition found in 6% of newborns, but drops to 1.5-3.5% of males at 3 months. […] Under normal embryological development the testis descends from the abdomen to the scrotum, pulled by the gubernaculum, within the processes vaginalis. This process is incomplete in the context of true undescended testis; or tracks to an abnormal position in an ectopic testis. However, particularly with bilateral cryptorchidism, hormonal causes such as androgen insensitivity syndrome or disorder of sex development must also be excluded. […] Risk factors include: prematurity, low birth weight, having other abnormalities of genitalia (i.e. hypospadias) having a first degree relative with cryptorchidism.

• #67 Undescended Testes and Retractile Testes – Children’s Health Issues – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/children-s-health-issues/birth-defects-of-the-urinary-tract-and-genitals/undescended-testes-and-retractile-testes

  Undescended testes can impair sperm production later in life and increase the risk of testicular cancer. Undescended testes in the abdomen can become twisted (testicular torsion), causing severe pain. […] If the testis has not descended by about 6 months of age in full-term infants and by 1 year of age in premature infants, surgery is needed. […] Because children who have had undescended testes are at an increased risk of developing testicular cancer, after puberty, all males should examine their testes for lumps every month.

• #68 Comprehending Undescended Testes: Causes, Treatment and Fertility Considerations

  https://oasisindia.in/blog/undescended-testicles/

  Undescended testis is the most common birth defect of the male genital tract. The descent of testes is controlled by hormonal balance during the development of the baby. No definite cause can be attributed to the disruption of this delicate balance. Though various factors have been associated with it, birth weight and family history have the strongest correlation. The following conditions may increase the likelihood of an undescended testicle: Alcohol and smoking during pregnancy, premature and low birth weight babies, diabetes, high blood pressure and obesity in mother during pregnancy, genetic disorders like downs syndrome, parents exposure to specific chemicals like pesticides, phthalates etc. […] Early treatment is the first step in preventing complications from undescended testicles. Long-term risks like infertility and testicular cancer are greatly decreased when surgery is scheduled before your child turns 12 months old. […] If detected at a later age, a urosurgeon should be consulted for further evaluation. A fertility evaluation is also needed in case of bilateral undescended testes. […] Early treatment of undescended testes is crucial for preventing long-term complications like infertility or testicular cancer.

• #69 Undescended Testicle Symptoms and Treatment – Assoc. Prof. A. Kadir Tepeler

  https://www.drtepeler.com/en/undescended-testicle-symptoms-and-treatment/

  Normally, some developmental problems may occur in babies born prematurely. One of the most common problems is that one or both testicles have not descended, and this is called an undescended testis. […] Undescended testis is more common in babies born prematurely or with low birth weight. It occurs in approximately one in 100 newborn boys. […] The absence of the testicle can also be called an empty bag. It is possible for the undescended testis to develop due to 6 different reasons. […] In the cases of undescended testis encountered to date, no other reason other than these reasons has been encountered. […] The risks that this situation may bring may be decreased sperm quality, infertility and cancer. […] Under normal conditions, the testis is expected to descend within 1 year at the latest. However, it is recommended to treat the testicles that do not fall into place during this period. The treatment option is surgery. […] The ideal age for surgery for children with undescended testicles is 6-18 months. As the age of treatment is delayed, the probability of damage to the testis increases.

• #70 Undescended Testicle Symptoms and Treatment – Assoc. Prof. A. Kadir Tepeler

  https://www.drtepeler.com/en/undescended-testicle-symptoms-and-treatment/

  Normally, some developmental problems may occur in babies born prematurely. One of the most common problems is that one or both testicles have not descended, and this is called an undescended testis. […] Undescended testis is more common in babies born prematurely or with low birth weight. It occurs in approximately one in 100 newborn boys. […] The absence of the testicle can also be called an empty bag. It is possible for the undescended testis to develop due to 6 different reasons. […] In the cases of undescended testis encountered to date, no other reason other than these reasons has been encountered. […] The risks that this situation may bring may be decreased sperm quality, infertility and cancer. […] Under normal conditions, the testis is expected to descend within 1 year at the latest. However, it is recommended to treat the testicles that do not fall into place during this period. The treatment option is surgery. […] The ideal age for surgery for children with undescended testicles is 6-18 months. As the age of treatment is delayed, the probability of damage to the testis increases.

• #71 The Undescended Testicle: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/1101/p2037.html

  Early diagnosis and management of the undescended testicle are needed to preserve fertility and improve early detection of testicular malignancy. […] Observation is not recommended beyond one year of age because it delays treatment, lowers the rate of surgical success and probably impairs spermatogenesis. […] The rationale for treatment of the undescended testicle is the prevention of potential sequelae. The most common problems associated with undescended testicles are testicular neoplasm, subfertility, testicular torsion and inguinal hernia. […] It has been well documented that men with a history of undescended testicle have a higher-than-expected incidence of testicular germ cell cancers. […] As a group, men who have had an undescended testicle have lower sperm counts, poorer quality sperm and lower fertility rates than men whose testicles descended normally.

• #72 Undescended testicle – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/undescended-testicle/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352000

  The timing for when your baby gets surgery will depend on many factors. These include the baby’s health and how hard the procedure might be to do. Your surgeon will likely suggest doing the surgery when your baby is somewhere between 6 and 18 months old. Early treatment with surgery seems to lower the risk of later health problems. […] In some cases, the testicle might be damaged or made of dead tissue. The surgeon should remove this tissue. […] Orchiopexy is the most common surgery to fix a single undescended testicle. It has a success rate of nearly 100%. Most of the time, the risk of fertility problems goes away after surgery for a single undescended testicle. Surgery with two undescended testicles brings less of an improvement. Surgery also might lower the risk of testicular cancer, but it doesn’t get rid of the risk.

• #73 Undescended Testicles: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment | Qwark

  https://qwarkhealth.com/conditions/undescended-testicles

  Undescended testicles, also known as cryptorchidism, is a medical condition in which one or both of the testicles don`t descend into the scrotum, the sac beneath the penis, during fetal development. […] Some potential causes of undescended testicles include abnormal fetal development, hormonal imbalances, and genetic factors. Additionally, certain environmental factors such as maternal smoking during pregnancy or exposure to certain chemicals may increase the likelihood of undescended testicles. […] There may be genetic factors that contribute to undescended testicles. According to a study published in the journal Human Genetics, certain genes may play a role in the development of the condition. […] Hormonal therapy can be a viable option for managing undescended testicles. Hormonal therapy involves using hormones, such as testosterone or human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), to stimulate the testicles to descend. However, hormonal therapy is typically not as effective as surgery and is only recommended in certain cases, such as when surgery is not an option or when the child is not yet ready for surgery.

• #74 The Undescended Testicle: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/1101/p2037.html

  The likelihood of subfertility increases with bilateral involvement and increasing age at the time of orchiopexy. […] Although there is little solid evidence, the incidence of testicular torsion is thought to be higher in undescended testes than in normal scrotal testes. […] Most true cases of undescended testicles are associated with a patent processus vaginalis. […] Approximately 20 percent of infants who present with cryptorchidism have at least one nonpalpable testicle. […] The vanishing testicle is thought to be caused by intrauterine testicular torsion. […] Treatment for cryptorchidism can be hormonal, surgical or a combination of the two. […] Administration of systemic testosterone is minimally effective in achieving testicular descent because the process depends on a paracrine effecthigh local levels of testosterone that cannot be achieved systemically. […] The inguinal orchiopexy is a well-established operation for the palpable undescended testicle. […] The most significant complication of orchiopexy is testicular atrophy. […] Surgery for the nonpalpable testicle is diagnostic and potentially therapeutic.

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