Infekcja wirusem cytomegalii
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Wirus cytomegalii (CMV), należący do rodziny herpeswirusów, infekuje znaczną część populacji dorosłych, z częstością około 60% w krajach rozwiniętych i ponad 90% w krajach rozwijających się. U osób z prawidłową odpornością infekcja przebiega zwykle bezobjawowo, natomiast u pacjentów z immunosupresją może prowadzić do ciężkich chorób narządowych. CMV charakteryzuje się złożonym cyklem replikacyjnym z kaskadową ekspresją genów natychmiastowo wczesnych (IE), wczesnych (E) i późnych (L), infekując różne typy komórek, w tym fibroblasty, komórki nabłonkowe, makrofagi, neurony i hepatocyty. Latencja wirusa utrzymuje się głównie w komórkach mieloidalnych, a reaktywacja, indukowana m.in. przez TNF-α, jest kontrolowana przez odpowiedź komórkową limfocytów T cytotoksycznych. CMV wykorzystuje liczne mechanizmy unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej, w tym modulację receptorów NK (np. UL16 wiążące ligandy ULBP1, ULBP2, MICB) oraz tłumienie produkcji interferonu typu I, co umożliwia mu przetrwanie i replikację w organizmie gospodarza.

Patogeneza infekcji wirusem cytomegalii (CMV)

Wirus cytomegalii (CMV) jest herpeswirusem, który infekuje około 60% dorosłych w krajach rozwiniętych i ponad 90% w krajach rozwijających się. Mimo że u osób z prawidłowym układem immunologicznym infekcja zwykle przebiega bezobjawowo, u pacjentów z obniżoną odpornością CMV może replikować się do wysokich poziomów i powodować poważne choroby narządowe12. Zrozumienie złożonych mechanizmów patogenezy infekcji CMV jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii diagnostycznych i terapeutycznych.

Cykl replikacyjny i tropizm komórkowy CMV

Wirus cytomegalii charakteryzuje się złożonym cyklem replikacyjnym, który przebiega w ściśle kontrolowany, kaskadowy sposób z ekspresją genów natychmiastowo wczesnych (immediate early, IE), wczesnych (early, E) i późnych (late, L)1. Po wniknięciu do komórki gospodarza, kapsyd wirusa jest transportowany wzdłuż mikrotubul do poru jądrowego, gdzie DNA wirusa zostaje uwolnione do jądra2.

Replikacja DNA wirusa i morfogeneza kapsydu zachodzą w jądrze komórkowym. Po dojrzewaniu kapsydu, nowo zsyntetyzowane wirusowe DNA jest cięte przez enzym, co prowadzi do pakowania liniowego genomu. Następnie kapsydy zawierające DNA wirusowe nabywają wewnętrzną warstwę białek tegumentu podczas wyjścia z jądra, co stabilizuje interakcję między kapsydem a wewnętrzną warstwą tegumentu. Cząsteczka wirusowa jest następnie transportowana wzdłuż cytoszkieletu, aż zostanie otoczona osłonką i uwolniona z komórki1.

CMV infekuje różne typy komórek, w tym komórki nabłonkowe, makrofagi, neutrofile, neurony i hepatocyty. Wniknięcie wirusa do komórek fibroblastów odbywa się poprzez mechanizm niezależny od pH, obejmujący fuzję z błoną komórkową, przy udziale kompleksów glikoprotein osłonkowych złożonych z gB, gH/gL i/lub gH/gL/gO. Z kolei wniknięcie do komórek nabłonkowych, śródbłonkowych i neuronalnych zachodzi poprzez mechanizm fuzji zależny od pH, pośredniczony przez endocytozę, wymagający dodatkowego kompleksu pentamerowego glikoprotein12.

Mechanizmy latencji i reaktywacji CMV

Zdolność do ustanowienia długotrwałych infekcji latentnych jest charakterystyczną cechą zakażeń herpeswirusami1. Latencja definiowana jest jako utrzymywanie się genomu wirusowego przy braku replikacji litycznej i produkcji cząstek wirusowych, z zachowaniem zdolności do reaktywacji w określonych warunkach2.

Po pierwotnej infekcji CMV pozostaje w stanie uśpienia w komórkach mieloidalnych. Replikacja wirusa i reaktywacja są kontrolowane głównie przez odporność komórkową zależną od limfocytów T cytotoksycznych1. Gdy dochodzi do reaktywacji, wiriony są uwalniane do krwiobiegu i innych płynów ustrojowych, prowadząc do pojawienia się objawów, głównie u pacjentów z obniżoną odpornością2.

Reaktywacja CMV z latencji występuje w określonych warunkach, takich jak odrzucenie przeszczepu, sepsa czy podanie terapii przeciwbiałkowych (ALA). Te kliniczne stany upośledzenia odporności prowadzą do uwolnienia cytokin i innych mediatorów prozapalnych, które odgrywają rolę w reaktywacji wirusa z latencji1. Czynnik martwicy nowotworu alfa (TNF-α) jest główną cytokiną odpowiedzialną za reaktywację CMV. TNF-α wiąże się z receptorem TNF na komórkach zakażonych latentnie i aktywuje kinazę białkową C oraz czynnik jądrowy κB (NF-κB), który następnie działa na promotor natychmiastowo wczesny wirusa, aktywując replikację2.

Aktywność cytokin prozapalnych jako induktorów ekspresji genów MIE i reaktywacji CMV może być istotna w procesie przeszczepiania narządów, któremu towarzyszy znaczny stan zapalny3. CMV wykazuje szczególne powinowactwo do komórek mieloidalno-monocytarnych podczas ostrej infekcji, gdzie kontrolują rozprzestrzenianie się wirusa, a także podczas latencji, gdzie prekursory są ważnymi miejscami długotrwałego przebywania genomu wirusowego1.

Interakcje CMV z układem odpornościowym

Strategie unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej

CMV rozwinął wyrafinowane mechanizmy unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej gospodarza, celując zarówno w odporność wrodzoną, jak i adaptacyjną1. Wirus koduje liczne białka i mikroRNA, które celują w szlaki sygnałowe receptorów rozpoznających wzorce (PRR), co jest kluczową strategią unikania wrodzonego rozpoznawania immunologicznego2.

CMV wykorzystuje wiele strategii do tłumienia produkcji interferonu typu I (IFN-I) i jego sygnalizacji3. Dodatkowo, wirus opracował różne mechanizmy regulujące funkcję limfocytów T4. Zakażenie CMV może prowadzić do produkcji przeciwciał autoreaktywnych, zakłócających prawidłowe odpowiedzi przeciwciał1.

CMV koduje białko UL16, które uczestniczy w unikaniu odpowiedzi komórek NK. Wiąże się ono z ligandami ULBP1, ULBP2 i MICB receptora aktywującego komórki NK – NKG2D, co zapobiega ich ekspresji powierzchniowej. Te ligandy są zwykle regulowane w górę w czasach stresu komórkowego, takiego jak infekcja wirusowa, a poprzez zapobieganie ich regulacji w górę, CMV może zapobiec śmierci komórki gospodarza z powodu działania komórek NK1.

Wirus wykorzystuje również mechanizmy modulujące funkcję komórek dendrytycznych (DC), pośrednio regulując odpowiedzi limfocytów T i B2. Białka dostarczane z zakaźnym wirionem (np. pp65 [UL83], pp71 [UL82], pTRS1 i pIRS1) oraz wytwarzane bardzo wcześnie po zakażeniu (UL36, UL37, IE1 i IE2) blokują wrodzone mechanizmy obronne komórek, w tym indukcję apoptozy, produkcję interferonu i genów stymulowanych interferonem oraz zahamowanie syntezy białek1.

Rola immunopatologii w patogenezie CMV

Patogeneza ostrych zakażeń CMV może być łatwo wyjaśniona przez kontrolę replikacji wirusa i ustąpienie cytopatologii wywołanej przez wirusa. Wykazano związek między poziomami replikacji wirusa, dysfunkcją narządów i chorobą u pacjentów, a także w eksperymentalnych modelach ostrych zakażeń CMV1.

W przeciwieństwie do tego, przewlekłe zakażenia CMV mają jako główny element patogenezy dwukierunkową relację między ekspresją genów wirusowych a odpowiedzią zapalną gospodarza, tak że przetrwanie wirusa jest ułatwione przez odpowiedź zapalną gospodarza, a odpowiedź zapalna gospodarza jest napędzana obecnością wirusa. W tych przypadkach choroba może być przypisana zarówno funkcjom wirusa, jak i gospodarza2.

Pierwotne i latentne zakażenia CMV wywołują przewlekłe, ogólnoustrojowe odpowiedzi zapalne typu 1. Taka długotrwała aktywacja immunologiczna może zwiększać odpowiedzi alloimmunologiczne poprzez wzmacnianie ekspansji i funkcji alloreaktywnych limfocytów T po przeszczepieniu1.

Patogeneza CMV w określonych grupach pacjentów

Pacjenci z obniżoną odpornością

U pacjentów z obniżoną odpornością CMV jest główną przyczyną zachorowalności i śmiertelności. Choroba często wynika z reaktywacji latentnego wirusa1. Jeśli gospodarz ma upośledzoną odpowiedź komórek T, wirus namnaża się, wywołując reakcje zapalne. Jeśli gospodarz ma głęboko obniżoną odporność, wirus namnaża się wyłącznie, powodując chorobę inwazyjną tkankową, a możliwie śmierć3.

Najcięższe infekcje rozwijają się u biorców allogenicznego szpiku kostnego i komórek macierzystych (alloSCT) oraz u pacjentów z AIDS z niską liczbą CD4+1. Zajęte mogą być płuca, przewód pokarmowy, ośrodkowy układ nerwowy (OUN) lub siatkówka2.

W badaniach przełomowych wykazano, że zakażenie CMV u pacjentów w stanie krytycznym było konsekwentnie związane z niewykrywalnymi odpowiedziami limfocytów T wytwarzających IFN-γ w ciągu pierwszych 2 dni przyjęcia na OIT, a miano wirusa było odwrotnie proporcjonalne do odpowiedzi limfocytów T wytwarzających IFN-γ1.

Choroba CMV została również powiązana z burzą cytokinową związaną z ciężkimi chorobami, szczególnie z czynnikiem martwicy nowotworów alfa, który aktywuje czynnik jądrowy κB, co zwiększa replikację uśpionego DNA CMV wewnątrz leukocytów, jednocześnie zwiększając produkcję cytokin i innych białek1.

Noworodki i infekcja wrodzona

Wrodzone zakażenie CMV pozostaje poważnym zagrożeniem dla noworodków. Około 1 na 200 noworodków rodzi się z wrodzonym zakażeniem CMV, którego leczenie jest trudne1. Mechanizmy, za pomocą których CMV uszkadza płód, są złożone i prawdopodobnie obejmują kombinację bezpośredniego uszkodzenia płodu wywołanego przez patologiczne produkty genów kodowanych przez wirusa, niezdolność odpowiedzi immunologicznej matki do kontrolowania zakażenia oraz bezpośredni wpływ zakażenia na funkcję łożyska1.

CMV koduje produkty genowe, które funkcjonują zarówno na poziomie RNA, jak i białka, zakłócając wiele procesów komórkowych. Należą do nich produkty genowe, które modyfikują cykl komórkowy; zakłócają apoptozę; wywołują odpowiedź zapalną; pośredniczą w uszkodzeniu naczyń; wywołują specyficzne dla miejsc pęknięcia chromosomów; promują onkogenezę; zaburzają proliferację komórkową; i ułatwiają unikanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej gospodarza2.

Podczas wrodzonego zakażenia CMV, konwencjonalne limfocyty CD8+ zwiększają ekspresję markerów komórek NK, w tym receptorów Fc (szczególnie receptora Fc III: FcRIII) i NKG2C. Zaobserwowane przeprogramowanie limfocytów CD8+ może być eleganckim mechanizmem, za pomocą którego liczba komórek odpornościowych dostępnych do kontroli CMV jest dramatycznie zwiększona1.

Rola CMV w chorobach układu sercowo-naczyniowego

Coraz więcej dowodów z badań zarówno na zwierzętach, jak i na ludziach wskazuje, że wywołany przez CMV stan zapalny w naczyniach krwionośnych może odgrywać rolę w miażdżycy1. Zakażenie CMV związane jest z podwyższonym ryzykiem choroby wieńcowej u biorców przeszczepów narządów2.

W badaniach wykazano, że zakażenie CMV powoduje zwiększenie ciśnienia tętniczego krwi, niezależnie od tworzenia się blaszek miażdżycowych w aorcie. CMV znacząco zwiększał ekspresję cytokin prozapalnych IL-6, TNF-α i MCP-1 w surowicy myszy. Ponadto stwierdzono, że CMV stymuluje ekspresję reniny w komórkach mysich i ludzkich w sposób zależny od dawki infekcji1.

Wyniki badań pokazują, że zakażenie CMV jest czynnikiem ryzyka zwiększonego ciśnienia tętniczego, a także czynnikiem współistniejącym w miażdżycy aorty. Przetrwałe zakażenie CMV komórek śródbłonka i zwiększona ekspresja cytokin prozapalnych, w tym reniny i angiotensyny II, mogą stanowić molekularny mechanizm, za pomocą którego zakażenie CMV wywołuje wzrost ciśnienia krwi1.

Rola CMV w chorobach autoimmunologicznych

Choroby autoimmunologiczne, a w szczególności toczeń rumieniowaty układowy (SLE), są związane z odpowiedzią na antygeny wirusowe. Mechanizmy, za pomocą których wirus i choroba autoimmunologiczna są powiązane, obejmują aktywację choroby, jej łagodzenie oraz podatność gospodarza na zakażenie wirusowe podczas zaostrzeń choroby autoimmunologicznej1.

Wirusy, podobnie jak inne czynniki mikrobiologiczne, mogą być integralnymi czynnikami wyzwalającymi rozwój chorób autoimmunologicznych. Bezpośrednie zakażenie może aktywować odpowiedź immunologiczną poprzez reakcję krzyżową między węglowodanami, białkami, peptydami lub kwasami nukleinowymi patogenu a receptorami struktury molekularnej gospodarza2.

Indukcja produkcji autoprzeciwciał podczas zakażenia CMV może opierać się na kilku możliwych mechanizmach. Jednym z opisanych mechanizmów jest indukcja autoantigenów na powierzchni komórek po zakażeniu CMV, a podobne epitopy powierzchniowe komórek indukują następnie autoprzeciwciała1.

Toczeń rumieniowaty układowy (SLE) jest jedną z częściej związanych z CMV chorób autoimmunologicznych. W szczególności postać naczyniowa SLE bez zajęcia nerek może się ujawnić po zakażeniu CMV. SLE charakteryzuje się produkcją specyficznych autoprzeciwciał skierowanych przeciwko białkom jądrowym. Wykazano, że zakażenie CMV wyzwala produkcję autoprzeciwciał i objawy kliniczne SLE2.

Mechanistyczne powiązania między reaktywacją CMV a zaostrzeniem SLE nadal nie są jasne. Istnieje kilka proponowanych mechanizmów, w tym: (i) SLE może prowadzić do reaktywacji CMV, (ii) terapia immunosupresyjna SLE predysponuje do CMV, (iii) reaktywacja CMV prowadzi do zaostrzenia SLE1.

Podsumowanie mechanizmów patogenezy CMV

Wirus cytomegalii jest złożonym patogenem, który ewoluował razem z ludźmi przez miliony lat, co pozwoliło mu doskonale przystosować się do swojego gospodarza1. Infekcja CMV wpływa na różne narządy i systemy organizmu poprzez:

  • Złożony cykl replikacyjny z kaskadową ekspresją genów1
  • Zdolność do infekowania różnych typów komórek i tkanek1
  • Mechanizmy latencji i reaktywacji zależne od stanu układu immunologicznego1
  • Wyrafinowane strategie unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej1
  • Zdolność do modulowania odpowiedzi zapalnej gospodarza na korzyść wirusa1
  • Mechanizmy patogenetyczne specyficzne dla grup wysokiego ryzyka, takich jak pacjenci z obniżoną odpornością i noworodki12
  • Potencjalny udział w patogenezie chorób układu sercowo-naczyniowego i autoimmunologicznych12

Zrozumienie złożonych mechanizmów patogenezy CMV jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii terapeutycznych i profilaktycznych, w tym leków przeciwwirusowych i szczepionek1. Szczególnie istotne jest zrozumienie mechanizmów interakcji CMV z układem odpornościowym, co może prowadzić do opracowania celowanych terapii immunomodulujących1.

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Pathogenesis of human cytomegalovirus in the immunocompromised host | Nature Reviews Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-021-00582-z
    Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a herpesvirus that infects ~60% of adults in developed countries and more than 90% in developing countries. […] However, if the immune system is compromised, HCMV can replicate to high levels and cause serious end organ disease. […] Substantial progress is being made in understanding the natural history and pathogenesis of HCMV infection and disease in the immunocompromised host. […] They are also used as pharmacodynamic read-outs to evaluate prototype vaccines that may protect against HCMV replication and to define immune correlates of this protection. […] In this Review, we discuss immune responses to HCMV and countermeasures deployed by the virus, the establishment of latency and reactivation from it, exogenous reinfection with additional strains, pathogenesis, development of end organ disease, indirect effects of infection, immune correlates of control of replication, current treatment strategies and the evaluation of novel vaccine candidates.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    High-resolution structural studies have revealed the intricate architecture of viral glycoprotein complexes and their interactions with host cell receptors. […] Meanwhile, advances in immunology have illuminated the sophisticated mechanisms by which HCMV evades host immune responses. […] These insights have opened new avenues for therapeutic intervention, including the development of novel antiviral compounds, vaccines, and immunotherapeutic approaches. […] The HCMV life cycle is characterized by a temporal cascade of gene expression, categorized into immediate early (IE), early (E), and late (L) genes. […] Upon entry into the host cell, the viral capsid is transported along microtubules to the nuclear pore, where the viral DNA is released into the nucleus. […] The tegument protein pp71 plays a crucial role in initiating the lytic cycle by promoting the degradation of the cellular repressor Daxx, thereby derepressing viral IE gene expression.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/215702-overview
    Both replication of CMV DNA and morphogenesis of the virion capsid take place in the nucleus. Following maturation of the capsid, newly synthesized viral DNA is cleaved by an enzyme that results in packaging of linear genomic DNA. Subsequently, viral DNA-containing capsids acquire an inner layer of tegument proteins during their egress from the nucleus, including essential interactions between proteins and capsid protein, that stabilize the interaction between the capsid and the inner tegument layer of the virion. This then is transported along the cytoskeleton until the particle is enveloped. After this, the virus is released from the cell.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    HCMV entry into fibroblasts occurs through a pH-independent mechanism involving plasma membrane fusion, mediated by the envelope glycoprotein complexes comprising gB, gH/gL, and/or gH/gL/gO. […] In contrast, HCMV entry into epithelial, endothelial, and neuronal cells occurs through a pH-dependent fusion mechanism mediated by endocytosis, which requires an additional pentamer glycoprotein complex. […] HCMV has evolved sophisticated mechanisms to evade host immune responses, targeting both innate and adaptive immunity. […] HCMV encodes multiple proteins and microRNAs to target and inhibit PRR signaling pathways, which is a key strategy for viral evasion of innate immune recognition. […] HCMV employs multiple strategies to suppress IFN-I production and signaling. […] HCMV has evolved various mechanisms to regulate T cell function.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of human cytomegalovirus in the immunocompromised host
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8223196/
    Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is ordinarily controlled by a vigorous immune response; however, HCMV can replicate to high levels and cause end organ disease when the immune system is compromised. […] The natural history of HCMV infection is complex, with three different subtypes of infection. […] The ability to establish lifelong latent infections of the host is a defining characteristic of herpesvirus infections. […] Latency can be defined as the persistence of the viral genome in an absence of lytic replication and virus production coupled with the retention of a capacity to reactivate when specific conditions are met. […] The activity of inflammatory cytokines as inducers of MIE gene expression and HCMV reactivation may be important in the process of organ transplantation which is associated with substantial inflammation.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459185/
    Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a wide-spread virus, with manifestations ranging from asymptomatic to severe end-organ dysfunction in immunocompromised patients with congenital CMV disease. […] Human cytomegalovirus infections commonly are associated with the salivary glands. CMV infection may be asymptomatic in healthy people, but it can be life-threatening in an immunocompromised patient. […] After infection, CMV often remains latent, but it can reactivate at any time. Eventually, it causes mucoepidermoid carcinoma, and it may be responsible for prostate cancer. […] Once CMV is transmitted, and the primary infection clears, the virus remains dormant in myeloid cells. Vital replication and reactivation are contained primarily by cytotoxic T-cell immunity. However, when reactivation occurs, virions are released into the bloodstream and other body fluids, leading to the presence of symptoms, predominantly in immunocompromised patients.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-Replication, Transmission, Pathogenesis, Diseases, diagnosis and treatment – Online Biology Notes
    https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/cytomegalovirus-cmv-replication-transmission-pathogenesis-diseases-diagnosis-and-treatment/
    Reactivation of CMV infection from latency occurs in conditions, such as allograft rejection, sepsis, administration of Anti-leucocyte antibody (ALA) therapies. […] These clinical immune compromising conditions result in the release of cytokines and other pro-inflammatory mediators that play a role in the reactivation of virus from latency. […] Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- is the primary cytokine responsible for reactivation of CMV from latency. […] TNF- binds to the TNF receptor on latently infected cells and activates protein kinase C and nuclear factor B (NF-B). […] In turn, NF-B acts on the immediate early promotor of the virus to activate virus replication. […] If the host cellular immune response is functioning properly, virus will be eliminated and host will recover. […] If the host T-cell response is impaired, virus multiplies causing inflammatory reactions. […] If the host is profoundly immune-compromised, virus multiplies exclusively causing tissue invasive disease and possibly death.
  • #1 Cytomegaloviruses: Molecular Biology and Immunology
    https://www.caister.com/cmv
    Cytomegaloviruses have an association with myelomonocytic cells during acute infection, where they control viral dissemination, and latency, where progenitors are important sites for life-long viral genome residence. […] The viral genome persists for the lifetime of its host in the presence of a fully developed, protective antiviral immune memory. […] The study of viral genes has been facilitated by the availability of the cloned GPCMV genome, maintained as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) in E. coli, which has proven amenable to mutagenesis studies. […] Insights from the ongoing characterization of the GPCMV should prove germane to the understanding of the correlates of protective immunity for the fetus, through vaccine studies in this model.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    HCMV infection may lead to the production of autoreactive antibodies, interfering with normal antibody responses. […] HCMV has evolved multiple strategies to modulate DC function, indirectly regulating T and B cell responses. […] The prevention and treatment of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection remain a key challenge in modern medical research. […] HCMVs immune evasion strategies demonstrate the result of long-term co-evolution between the virus and the host immune system. […] Future research needs to delve deeper into the molecular basis of these immune evasion mechanisms and how they coordinate with each other. […] Overall, the field of HCMV research is at an exciting juncture, with new molecular and structural insights driving the development of innovative therapeutic strategies.
  • #1 Human cytomegalovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_cytomegalovirus
    Lytically replicating viruses disrupt the cytoskeleton, causing massive cell enlargement, which is the source of the virus’ name. […] A study published in 2009 links infection with CMV to high blood pressure in mice, and suggests that the result of CMV infection of blood vessel endothelium in humans is a major cause of atherosclerosis. Researchers also found that when the cells were infected with CMV, they created renin, a protein known to contribute to high blood pressure. […] Human CMV causes cellular senescence, which could contribute to chronic inflammation (inflammaging). Human CMV is also linked to age-associated T cell dysfunction, contributing to immunosenescence. […] CMV encodes a protein, UL16, which is involved in the immune evasion of NK cell responses. It binds to ligands ULBP1, ULBP2 and MICB of NK cell activating receptor NKG2D, which prevents their surface expression. These ligands are normally upregulated in times of cellular stress, such as in viral infection, and by preventing their upregulation, CMV can prevent its host cell from dying due to NK cells.
  • #1
    https://www.jci.org/articles/view/45449
    Among the important recent advances has been the characterization of a previously unrecognized CMV entry pathway. […] Following initial infection, a complex set of host responses conspires to limit CMV replication. […] Proteins delivered with infecting virion (e.g., pp65 [UL83], pp71 [UL82], pTRS1, and pIRS1) and made very early after infection (UL36, UL37, IE1, and IE2) block intrinsic cellular defenses, including induction of apoptosis, production of interferon and interferon-stimulated genes, and shutoff of protein synthesis. […] Millions of years of evolution have led CMV to establish an apparently benign relationship with its host, at least most of the time. […] However, CMV replication is poised in a delicate balance with host immune system controls, and even relatively minor perturbations, such as pregnancy or admission to an intensive care unit (ICU), allow CMV reactivation, often without overt CMV disease.
  • #1 Human Cytomegalovirus Infections and Mechanisms of Disease
    https://www.caister.com/hsp/abstracts/cmv/01.html
    The pathogenesis of infections with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) have been modeled in small animals and primates utilizing the respective CMVs. In most cases, acute infection is associated with significant levels of virus replication and dissemination to multiple organs. […] The pathogenesis of acute HCMV infections can be readily explained by the control of virus replication and the resolution of virus-induced cytopathology. There appears to be a linkage between levels of virus replication, organ dysfunction, and disease in patients as well as in experimental models with acute CMV infections. […] In contrast, chronic infections with CMV have as a major component of their pathogenesis a bi-directional relationship between viral gene expression and the host inflammatory response such that viral persistence is facilitated by the host inflammatory response and the host inflammatory response is fueled by the presence of the virus. In these cases, disease can be attributed to both viral and host functions. The viral gene products that appear to play a role in chronic inflammation have evolved with CMVs and are likely unimportant for replication in vitro.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus-induced immunopathology and its clinical consequences | Herpesviridae | Full Text
    https://herpesviridae.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2042-4280-2-6
    The mechanisms by which CMV interacts with the immune response to induce autoimmune phenomena are unknown. […] One possibility is viral mimicry. The CMV genome harbors a series of genes that are homologous to cellular genes; consequently, the host response to viral determinants can crossreact with host tissues, leading to autoimmunity. […] Primary and latent CMV infections induce chronic, systemic type 1 inflammatory responses. […] Such sustained immune activation can augment alloimmune responses by enhancing the expansion and function of alloreactive T cells after transplantation. […] CMV can productively infect endothelial cells in vitro and CMV-infected endothelial cells are dysfunctional, due to diminished expression and activity of endothelial nitric oxide synthase; augmented release of IL-8, a regulator of neutrophil migration; increased secretion of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1; and upregulation of adhesion molecules that promote leukocyte adhesion. […] CMV infection can modulate the activity of the endothelium—from anticoagulant to procoagulant—and induce platelet adherence and aggregation in infected endothelium.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/herpesviruses/cytomegalovirus-cmv-infection
    Cytomegalovirus (CMV, human herpesvirus type 5) can cause infections that have a wide range of severity. Severe focal disease, including retinitis, can develop in HIV-infected patients and in organ transplant recipients and other patients who are immunocompromised. Severe systemic disease can develop in neonates and patients who are immunocompromised. […] In patients who are immunocompromised, CMV is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Disease often results from reactivation of latent virus. The lungs, gastrointestinal tract, or CNS may be involved. […] CMV infection is suspected in patients who are immunocompromised and have gastrointestinal, lung, CNS, or retinal symptoms. […] Seroconversion can be demonstrated by development of CMV antibodies and indicates new CMV infection. However, CMV disease can also result from reactivation of latent disease in immunocompromised hosts.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus-induced immunopathology and its clinical consequences | Herpesviridae | Full Text
    https://herpesviridae.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2042-4280-2-6
    CMV infection promotes allograft rejection and graft-versus-host disease in solid organ and bone marrow transplant recipients, respectively, further implicating CMV in the genesis and maintenance of immunopathological phenomena. […] The effects of CMV infection in transplant patients can be divided into 2 categories: direct effects of the infection that cause mononucleosis-like syndrome or tissue-invasive disease, and indirect effects. […] CMV infections are among the most common infections that follow transplantation. […] The most severe infections develop in allogeneic bone marrow and allogeneic stem cell transplant (alloSCT) recipients and in AIDS patients with low CD4+ counts. […] CMV promotes classical rejection and vasculopathy of an allograft, which impacts its longevity. […] Several cohort studies have shown that CMV infection is associated with an increased risk of graft rejection in renal, liver, and lung transplant patients.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus infection in immunocompetent critically ill adults: literature review | Annals of Intensive Care | Full Text
    https://annalsofintensivecare.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13613-016-0207-8
    Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is increasingly recognized in critically ill immunocompetent patients. […] Some studies have demonstrated an association between CMV disease and increased mortality rates, prolonged intensive care unit and hospital length of stay, prolonged mechanical ventilation, and nosocomial infections. […] However, there is a considerable controversy whether such association represents a causal relationship between CMV disease and unfavorable outcomes or just a marker of the severity of the critical illness. […] CMV disease occurs as a result of immunosuppression associated with critical illness. […] A landmark study by Clari showed that CMV infection in critically ill patients was consistently associated with undetectable IFN- T cell responses within the first 2 days of admission to the ICU, and that viral load was inversely related to IFN- T cell responses.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus infection in immunocompetent critically ill adults: literature review | Annals of Intensive Care | Full Text
    https://annalsofintensivecare.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13613-016-0207-8
    CMV disease has also been linked to the cytokine storm associated with critical illness, specifically tumor necrosis factor alpha that activates nuclear factor B, which enhances the replication of the dormant CMV DNA inside leukocytes, while enhancing the production of cytokines and other proteins. […] Under such critical conditions observed during sepsis, burns, trauma, or major surgery, the CMV genes are expressed and viral replication is initiated, invading cells in the lung, kidney, liver, bone marrow, and intestine, and exerts direct cytotoxic effects. […] In addition, when CMV starts to replicate within leukocytes, it has inherent escape mechanisms from the host immune system, and the CMV unique short (US 2, 3, 6, 10, and 11) proteins down-regulate the surface expression levels of HLA-1 and HLA-2 on leukocytes that mark these cells to be attacked by CD8+ T lymphocytes.
  • #1
    https://www.jci.org/articles/view/187789
    Congenital CMV infection remains a threat to newborns. Approximately 1 in 200 newborns are born with congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, treatment of which is difficult. To date, the only available option for neonates is the use of antivirals. During pregnancy, antivirals and hyperimmune globulin can reduce the rate of transmission. However, after transmission occurs, such treatments do not prevent CMV-dependent complications. In addition, preexisting immunity of the mother does not always confer complete protection: although fetuses of CMV-seropositive mothers are protected from CMV infection, a subset can still be congenitally infected and develop complications, including hearing loss. […] A possible angle to develop new therapeutic concepts is to focus on the congenital infections that are successfully controlled. Despite the high prevalence of congenital CMV infection, only 10%20% of newborns show clinical signs and even fewer are impacted by CMV-related complications such as neurodevelopmental delays or sensorineural hearing loss. This finding suggests that in many neonates congenital CMV infection is successfully controlled by the maternal and neonatal immune system. Understanding the mechanisms behind this protection could lead to the development of more successful therapies.
  • #1 Congenital cytomegalovirus infection: molecular mechanisms mediating viral pathogenesis | Health & Environmental Research Online (HERO) | US EPA
    https://hero.epa.gov/hero/index.cfm/reference/details/reference_id/4093909
    Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is responsible for approximately 40,000 congenital infections in the United States each year. […] The mechanisms by which CMV injures the fetus are complex and likely include a combination of direct fetal injury induced by pathologic virally-encoded gene products, an inability of the maternal immune response to control infection, and the direct impact of infection on placental function. […] CMV encodes gene products that function, both at the RNA and the protein level, to interfere with many cellular processes. These include gene products that modify the cell cycle; interfere with apoptosis; induce an inflammatory response; mediate vascular injury; induce site-specific breakage of chromosomes; promote oncogenesis; dysregulate cellular proliferation; and facilitate evasion of host immune responses. […] This minireview summarizes current concepts regarding these aspects of the molecular virology of CMV and the potential pathogenic impact of viral gene expression on the developing fetus.
  • #1
    https://www.jci.org/articles/view/187789
    During congenital CMV infection, conventional CD8+ T cells upregulated NK cell markers, including Fc receptors (specifically, Fc receptor III: FcRIII) and NKG2C. The observed reprogramming of CD8+ T cells may be an elegant mechanism by which the number of immune cells available for CMV control is dramatically increased. […] Mechanistically, Semmes and colleagues showed that Fc receptor-expressing CD8+ T cells upregulated transcription factors highly expressed in NK cells, such as EOMES and T-bet. Moreover, these cells had lower expression of the transcription factor BCL11B, which has been observed in adult innate-like CD8+ T cells responding to HCMV. Together, the data suggest that congenital CMV infection leads to innate-like differentiation of conventional CD8+ T cells, which assist Fc receptor-dependent viral control.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection: Symptoms, Treatment, Pregnancy
    https://www.medicinenet.com/cytomegalovirus_cmv/article.htm
    The contagious period when the virus is being shed in body fluids may last for months in an infected individual, and the virus may be shed without symptoms at intermittent periods throughout life. […] Latent CMV infection only rarely reactivates in healthy adults. Adults at risk for life-threatening reactivation with CMV disease include those who are immunosuppressed due to advanced HIV disease, those who receive intensive chemotherapy or immune-suppressing drugs, or those who receive organ or bone marrow transplants. […] There is increasing evidence from both animal and human studies that CMV-induced inflammation in blood vessels may play a role in atherosclerosis, or „hardening of the arteries.” […] CMV may cause either a viral syndrome or tissue invasive disease in these patients. CMV syndrome occurs within the first four months and includes fever, malaise, and upper gastrointestinal pain most commonly. […] CMV also has been associated with ischemic heart disease in organ transplant recipients.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus Infection Causes an Increase of Arterial Blood Pressure | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1000427
    Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is a common infection in adults (seropositive 6099% globally), and is associated with cardiovascular diseases, in line with risk factors such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. […] The mechanisms of how viral infection contributes to hypertension or increased blood pressure are not defined. In this report, the role of CMV infection as a cause of increased blood pressure and in forming aortic atherosclerotic plaques is examined. […] This increase in blood pressure by mouse CMV (MCMV) was independent of atherosclerotic plaque formation in the aorta, defined by histological analyses. […] MCMV significantly increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-, and MCP-1 in mouse serum by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). […] Using quantitative real time reverse transcriptase PCR (Q-RT-PCR) and Western blot, we find that CMV stimulated expression of renin in mouse and human cells in an infectious dose-dependent manner.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus Infection Causes an Increase of Arterial Blood Pressure | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1000427
    These results show that CMV infection is a risk factor for increased arterial blood pressure, and is a co-factor in aortic atherosclerosis. […] Control of CMV infection can be developed to restrict hypertension and atherosclerosis in the cardiovascular system. […] The mechanisms underlying how viruses contribute to hypertension have not been identified. […] Our studies have defined that CMV infection alone leads to an increase in blood pressure, whereas CMV acts as a co-factor, along with high cholesterol diet to induce atherosclerosis in the mouse aorta. […] A persistent CMV infection of EC and an increased pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, including renin and AngII, may underlie the molecular mechanism by which CMV infection induced an increase of blood pressure. […] Our experimental results show that CMV infection is a risk factor to cause cardiovascular diseases, specifically an increase of blood pressure or hypertension. A non-lytic CMV infection and the perturbed cellular gene expression, specifically the components of RAS, underlie a molecular mechanism by which CMV infection causes an increase of blood pressure.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection: A Role in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE)
    https://www.sciforschenonline.org/journals/autoimmune-infectious/AIDOA-2-115.php
    Autoimmune Diseases and in particular Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE) are associated with responses to viral antigenemia. The mechanisms by which the virus and autoimmune disease are related include disease activation, mitigation and susceptibility of the host to the viral infection during exacerbations of autoimmune disease. This paper will review the cellular, molecular and disease associations between SLE and Cytomegalovirus infection. […] Viruses, like other microbial agents may be integral triggering factors in the development of autoimmune disease. Many specific viruses have been implicated in the modulation of local and systemic environmental factors that lead to the formulation of organ specific and circulating autoantibodies. Direct infection may activate an immune response by cross reaction between carbohydrate, proteins, peptides or nucleic acids of the pathogen and the hosts molecular structural receptors.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection: A Role in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE)
    https://www.sciforschenonline.org/journals/autoimmune-infectious/AIDOA-2-115.php
    Viruses with pathogen specific epitopes with similarity to the host might activate auto reactive lymphocytes, which is termed molecular mimicry. Transfer of viral specific epitopes to the host then initiates the process of disease pathogenesis. […] Induction of the production of autoantibodies during CMV infection may be based on a number of possible mechanisms. Autoantigens present on the surface of cells following CMV infection. One described mechanism is that there is an induction of autoantigens on the surface of cells following CMV infection, and similar cell surface epitopes then induce autoantibodies. […] Systemic Lupus Erythematosus or SLE is one of the more frequently CMV associated autoimmune diseases. In particular, non-renal vascular SLE may manifest after CMV infection. It therefore may be useful in the study of the complex relationship between infection and autoimmunity. SLE is characterized by production of specific autoantibodies directed against nuclear proteins. CMV infection has been shown to trigger the production of autoantibodies and the clinical symptoms of SLE.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection: A Role in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE)
    https://www.sciforschenonline.org/journals/autoimmune-infectious/AIDOA-2-115.php
    The mechanistic links between CMV reactivation and SLE flare up is still unclear. There are several proposed mechanisms including i) SLE can lead to CMV reactivation, ii) SLE immunosuppressive therapy predisposes to CMV, iii) CMV reactivation leads to an SLE flare. […] Post-infection autoimmunity may be induced by the following molecular mechanisms: Molecular mimicry: This is one of the most likely mechanisms of autoimmunity following CMV infection. As the name suggests, there is a crossreactivity between epitopes (i.e. protein, carbohydrate or DNA) shared by the pathogen and the host. In the host, to establish this mechanism, the pathogen must provoke an immune response that crossreacts with host antigen after preceding the development of autoimmune disease. […] In conclusion, there are multiple mechanisms of SLE pathogenesis, and viral infection of host cells may lead to specific pathways of disease initiation and clinical worsening. SLE is a polygenic multifactorial disease in which there is heterogeneity in its phenotypic presentation. Viral infections may initiate and amplify autoimmune disease.
  • #1 Pathogens | Special Issue : Pathogenesis of Human Cytomegalovirus Infection
    https://www.mdpi.com/journal/pathogens/special_issues/Human_Cytomegalovirus_Infection
    After the primary infection and throughout the life of the host, HCMV maintains a state of latency, the control of which continuously involves the immune system and threatens the vascular system. Thus, HCMV is suspected of playing a key role in immunosenescence or vasculosenescence. HCMV has also been associated with certain cancers and autoimmunity. […] HCMV is a fascinating pathogen. It has already been associated with our lineage millions of years ago, which has allowed it to adapt admirably to its host. The latency and reactivation of HCMV are far from being fully understood. From the expression of its vast genome to the formation of its tegument and envelope, HCMV combines innumerable molecular tools to subvert the immune response, and control the host cell from its membrane receptors to epigenetic dynamics. Thus, HCMV also has much to teach us about the functioning of our own cells. […] Manuscripts highlighting topics such as, for example, HCMV evolution, infection, latency, pathophysiology, the connection to the host immune response, as well as prognoses or therapy are very welcome.
  • #1 Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-Replication, Transmission, Pathogenesis, Diseases, diagnosis and treatment – Online Biology Notes
    https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/cytomegalovirus-cmv-replication-transmission-pathogenesis-diseases-diagnosis-and-treatment/
    CMV is a complex virus that appear to employ multiple strategies to evade the host immune system. […] When CMV enters the human body, it infects and penetrate virtually all types of cells, including monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, neurons and hepatocytes. […] CMV also infect epithelial and endothelial cells it occurs through endocytosis. […] Primary CMV infection usually occurs during the first decades of life. […] Primary infection is followed by a latent infection that can persist throughout the life of the host. […] The primary infection results in the most severe disease especially when the host immunity is compromised. […] During latency, CMV cannot be eliminated by host defence but the immune system keeps the virus under close surveillance, giving it little chance to reactivate and cause symptomatic disease.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection remains a significant global health challenge, particularly for immunocompromised individuals and newborns. […] We examine the molecular mechanisms of HCMV entry, focusing on the structure and function of key envelope glycoproteins (gB, gH/gL/gO, gH/gL/pUL128-131) and their interactions with cellular receptors such as PDGFR, NRP2, and THBD. […] The review explores HCMVs sophisticated immune evasion strategies, including interference with pattern recognition receptor signaling, modulation of antigen presentation, and regulation of NK and T cell responses. […] This genetic complexity underlies the viruss sophisticated mechanisms for host cell entry, immune evasion, and persistence, which have been gradually unveiled through decades of research. […] Recent years have witnessed remarkable advances in our understanding of HCMV biology and pathogenesis, driven by technological breakthroughs in structural biology, immunology, and molecular virology.
  • #2 Pathogenesis of human cytomegalovirus in the immunocompromised host
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8223196/
    Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a herpesvirus that infects ~60% of adults in developed countries and more than 90% in developing countries. […] However, if the immune system is compromised, HCMV can replicate to high levels and cause serious end organ disease. […] Substantial progress is being made in understanding the natural history and pathogenesis of HCMV infection and disease in the immunocompromised host. […] In this Review, we discuss immune responses to HCMV and countermeasures deployed by the virus, the establishment of latency and reactivation from it, exogenous reinfection with additional strains, pathogenesis, development of end organ disease, indirect effects of infection, immune correlates of control of replication, current treatment strategies and the evaluation of novel vaccine candidates.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    High-resolution structural studies have revealed the intricate architecture of viral glycoprotein complexes and their interactions with host cell receptors. […] Meanwhile, advances in immunology have illuminated the sophisticated mechanisms by which HCMV evades host immune responses. […] These insights have opened new avenues for therapeutic intervention, including the development of novel antiviral compounds, vaccines, and immunotherapeutic approaches. […] The HCMV life cycle is characterized by a temporal cascade of gene expression, categorized into immediate early (IE), early (E), and late (L) genes. […] Upon entry into the host cell, the viral capsid is transported along microtubules to the nuclear pore, where the viral DNA is released into the nucleus. […] The tegument protein pp71 plays a crucial role in initiating the lytic cycle by promoting the degradation of the cellular repressor Daxx, thereby derepressing viral IE gene expression.
  • #2 Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-Replication, Transmission, Pathogenesis, Diseases, diagnosis and treatment – Online Biology Notes
    https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/cytomegalovirus-cmv-replication-transmission-pathogenesis-diseases-diagnosis-and-treatment/
    CMV is a complex virus that appear to employ multiple strategies to evade the host immune system. […] When CMV enters the human body, it infects and penetrate virtually all types of cells, including monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, neurons and hepatocytes. […] CMV also infect epithelial and endothelial cells it occurs through endocytosis. […] Primary CMV infection usually occurs during the first decades of life. […] Primary infection is followed by a latent infection that can persist throughout the life of the host. […] The primary infection results in the most severe disease especially when the host immunity is compromised. […] During latency, CMV cannot be eliminated by host defence but the immune system keeps the virus under close surveillance, giving it little chance to reactivate and cause symptomatic disease.
  • #2 Pathogenesis of human cytomegalovirus in the immunocompromised host
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8223196/
    Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is ordinarily controlled by a vigorous immune response; however, HCMV can replicate to high levels and cause end organ disease when the immune system is compromised. […] The natural history of HCMV infection is complex, with three different subtypes of infection. […] The ability to establish lifelong latent infections of the host is a defining characteristic of herpesvirus infections. […] Latency can be defined as the persistence of the viral genome in an absence of lytic replication and virus production coupled with the retention of a capacity to reactivate when specific conditions are met. […] The activity of inflammatory cytokines as inducers of MIE gene expression and HCMV reactivation may be important in the process of organ transplantation which is associated with substantial inflammation.
  • #2 Cytomegalovirus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459185/
    Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a wide-spread virus, with manifestations ranging from asymptomatic to severe end-organ dysfunction in immunocompromised patients with congenital CMV disease. […] Human cytomegalovirus infections commonly are associated with the salivary glands. CMV infection may be asymptomatic in healthy people, but it can be life-threatening in an immunocompromised patient. […] After infection, CMV often remains latent, but it can reactivate at any time. Eventually, it causes mucoepidermoid carcinoma, and it may be responsible for prostate cancer. […] Once CMV is transmitted, and the primary infection clears, the virus remains dormant in myeloid cells. Vital replication and reactivation are contained primarily by cytotoxic T-cell immunity. However, when reactivation occurs, virions are released into the bloodstream and other body fluids, leading to the presence of symptoms, predominantly in immunocompromised patients.
  • #2 Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-Replication, Transmission, Pathogenesis, Diseases, diagnosis and treatment – Online Biology Notes
    https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/cytomegalovirus-cmv-replication-transmission-pathogenesis-diseases-diagnosis-and-treatment/
    Reactivation of CMV infection from latency occurs in conditions, such as allograft rejection, sepsis, administration of Anti-leucocyte antibody (ALA) therapies. […] These clinical immune compromising conditions result in the release of cytokines and other pro-inflammatory mediators that play a role in the reactivation of virus from latency. […] Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- is the primary cytokine responsible for reactivation of CMV from latency. […] TNF- binds to the TNF receptor on latently infected cells and activates protein kinase C and nuclear factor B (NF-B). […] In turn, NF-B acts on the immediate early promotor of the virus to activate virus replication. […] If the host cellular immune response is functioning properly, virus will be eliminated and host will recover. […] If the host T-cell response is impaired, virus multiplies causing inflammatory reactions. […] If the host is profoundly immune-compromised, virus multiplies exclusively causing tissue invasive disease and possibly death.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    HCMV entry into fibroblasts occurs through a pH-independent mechanism involving plasma membrane fusion, mediated by the envelope glycoprotein complexes comprising gB, gH/gL, and/or gH/gL/gO. […] In contrast, HCMV entry into epithelial, endothelial, and neuronal cells occurs through a pH-dependent fusion mechanism mediated by endocytosis, which requires an additional pentamer glycoprotein complex. […] HCMV has evolved sophisticated mechanisms to evade host immune responses, targeting both innate and adaptive immunity. […] HCMV encodes multiple proteins and microRNAs to target and inhibit PRR signaling pathways, which is a key strategy for viral evasion of innate immune recognition. […] HCMV employs multiple strategies to suppress IFN-I production and signaling. […] HCMV has evolved various mechanisms to regulate T cell function.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    HCMV infection may lead to the production of autoreactive antibodies, interfering with normal antibody responses. […] HCMV has evolved multiple strategies to modulate DC function, indirectly regulating T and B cell responses. […] The prevention and treatment of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection remain a key challenge in modern medical research. […] HCMVs immune evasion strategies demonstrate the result of long-term co-evolution between the virus and the host immune system. […] Future research needs to delve deeper into the molecular basis of these immune evasion mechanisms and how they coordinate with each other. […] Overall, the field of HCMV research is at an exciting juncture, with new molecular and structural insights driving the development of innovative therapeutic strategies.
  • #2 Human Cytomegalovirus Infections and Mechanisms of Disease
    https://www.caister.com/hsp/abstracts/cmv/01.html
    The pathogenesis of infections with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) have been modeled in small animals and primates utilizing the respective CMVs. In most cases, acute infection is associated with significant levels of virus replication and dissemination to multiple organs. […] The pathogenesis of acute HCMV infections can be readily explained by the control of virus replication and the resolution of virus-induced cytopathology. There appears to be a linkage between levels of virus replication, organ dysfunction, and disease in patients as well as in experimental models with acute CMV infections. […] In contrast, chronic infections with CMV have as a major component of their pathogenesis a bi-directional relationship between viral gene expression and the host inflammatory response such that viral persistence is facilitated by the host inflammatory response and the host inflammatory response is fueled by the presence of the virus. In these cases, disease can be attributed to both viral and host functions. The viral gene products that appear to play a role in chronic inflammation have evolved with CMVs and are likely unimportant for replication in vitro.
  • #2 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/herpesviruses/cytomegalovirus-cmv-infection
    Cytomegalovirus (CMV, human herpesvirus type 5) can cause infections that have a wide range of severity. Severe focal disease, including retinitis, can develop in HIV-infected patients and in organ transplant recipients and other patients who are immunocompromised. Severe systemic disease can develop in neonates and patients who are immunocompromised. […] In patients who are immunocompromised, CMV is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Disease often results from reactivation of latent virus. The lungs, gastrointestinal tract, or CNS may be involved. […] CMV infection is suspected in patients who are immunocompromised and have gastrointestinal, lung, CNS, or retinal symptoms. […] Seroconversion can be demonstrated by development of CMV antibodies and indicates new CMV infection. However, CMV disease can also result from reactivation of latent disease in immunocompromised hosts.
  • #2 Congenital cytomegalovirus infection: molecular mechanisms mediating viral pathogenesis | Health & Environmental Research Online (HERO) | US EPA
    https://hero.epa.gov/hero/index.cfm/reference/details/reference_id/4093909
    Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is responsible for approximately 40,000 congenital infections in the United States each year. […] The mechanisms by which CMV injures the fetus are complex and likely include a combination of direct fetal injury induced by pathologic virally-encoded gene products, an inability of the maternal immune response to control infection, and the direct impact of infection on placental function. […] CMV encodes gene products that function, both at the RNA and the protein level, to interfere with many cellular processes. These include gene products that modify the cell cycle; interfere with apoptosis; induce an inflammatory response; mediate vascular injury; induce site-specific breakage of chromosomes; promote oncogenesis; dysregulate cellular proliferation; and facilitate evasion of host immune responses. […] This minireview summarizes current concepts regarding these aspects of the molecular virology of CMV and the potential pathogenic impact of viral gene expression on the developing fetus.
  • #2 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection: Symptoms, Treatment, Pregnancy
    https://www.medicinenet.com/cytomegalovirus_cmv/article.htm
    The contagious period when the virus is being shed in body fluids may last for months in an infected individual, and the virus may be shed without symptoms at intermittent periods throughout life. […] Latent CMV infection only rarely reactivates in healthy adults. Adults at risk for life-threatening reactivation with CMV disease include those who are immunosuppressed due to advanced HIV disease, those who receive intensive chemotherapy or immune-suppressing drugs, or those who receive organ or bone marrow transplants. […] There is increasing evidence from both animal and human studies that CMV-induced inflammation in blood vessels may play a role in atherosclerosis, or „hardening of the arteries.” […] CMV may cause either a viral syndrome or tissue invasive disease in these patients. CMV syndrome occurs within the first four months and includes fever, malaise, and upper gastrointestinal pain most commonly. […] CMV also has been associated with ischemic heart disease in organ transplant recipients.
  • #2 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection: A Role in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE)
    https://www.sciforschenonline.org/journals/autoimmune-infectious/AIDOA-2-115.php
    Autoimmune Diseases and in particular Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE) are associated with responses to viral antigenemia. The mechanisms by which the virus and autoimmune disease are related include disease activation, mitigation and susceptibility of the host to the viral infection during exacerbations of autoimmune disease. This paper will review the cellular, molecular and disease associations between SLE and Cytomegalovirus infection. […] Viruses, like other microbial agents may be integral triggering factors in the development of autoimmune disease. Many specific viruses have been implicated in the modulation of local and systemic environmental factors that lead to the formulation of organ specific and circulating autoantibodies. Direct infection may activate an immune response by cross reaction between carbohydrate, proteins, peptides or nucleic acids of the pathogen and the hosts molecular structural receptors.
  • #2 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection: A Role in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE)
    https://www.sciforschenonline.org/journals/autoimmune-infectious/AIDOA-2-115.php
    Viruses with pathogen specific epitopes with similarity to the host might activate auto reactive lymphocytes, which is termed molecular mimicry. Transfer of viral specific epitopes to the host then initiates the process of disease pathogenesis. […] Induction of the production of autoantibodies during CMV infection may be based on a number of possible mechanisms. Autoantigens present on the surface of cells following CMV infection. One described mechanism is that there is an induction of autoantigens on the surface of cells following CMV infection, and similar cell surface epitopes then induce autoantibodies. […] Systemic Lupus Erythematosus or SLE is one of the more frequently CMV associated autoimmune diseases. In particular, non-renal vascular SLE may manifest after CMV infection. It therefore may be useful in the study of the complex relationship between infection and autoimmunity. SLE is characterized by production of specific autoantibodies directed against nuclear proteins. CMV infection has been shown to trigger the production of autoantibodies and the clinical symptoms of SLE.
  • #2
    https://www.jci.org/articles/view/187789
    Congenital CMV infection remains a threat to newborns. Approximately 1 in 200 newborns are born with congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, treatment of which is difficult. To date, the only available option for neonates is the use of antivirals. During pregnancy, antivirals and hyperimmune globulin can reduce the rate of transmission. However, after transmission occurs, such treatments do not prevent CMV-dependent complications. In addition, preexisting immunity of the mother does not always confer complete protection: although fetuses of CMV-seropositive mothers are protected from CMV infection, a subset can still be congenitally infected and develop complications, including hearing loss. […] A possible angle to develop new therapeutic concepts is to focus on the congenital infections that are successfully controlled. Despite the high prevalence of congenital CMV infection, only 10%20% of newborns show clinical signs and even fewer are impacted by CMV-related complications such as neurodevelopmental delays or sensorineural hearing loss. This finding suggests that in many neonates congenital CMV infection is successfully controlled by the maternal and neonatal immune system. Understanding the mechanisms behind this protection could lead to the development of more successful therapies.
  • #2 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Infection: A Role in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosis (SLE)
    https://www.sciforschenonline.org/journals/autoimmune-infectious/AIDOA-2-115.php
    The mechanistic links between CMV reactivation and SLE flare up is still unclear. There are several proposed mechanisms including i) SLE can lead to CMV reactivation, ii) SLE immunosuppressive therapy predisposes to CMV, iii) CMV reactivation leads to an SLE flare. […] Post-infection autoimmunity may be induced by the following molecular mechanisms: Molecular mimicry: This is one of the most likely mechanisms of autoimmunity following CMV infection. As the name suggests, there is a crossreactivity between epitopes (i.e. protein, carbohydrate or DNA) shared by the pathogen and the host. In the host, to establish this mechanism, the pathogen must provoke an immune response that crossreacts with host antigen after preceding the development of autoimmune disease. […] In conclusion, there are multiple mechanisms of SLE pathogenesis, and viral infection of host cells may lead to specific pathways of disease initiation and clinical worsening. SLE is a polygenic multifactorial disease in which there is heterogeneity in its phenotypic presentation. Viral infections may initiate and amplify autoimmune disease.
  • #3 Pathogenesis of human cytomegalovirus in the immunocompromised host
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8223196/
    Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is ordinarily controlled by a vigorous immune response; however, HCMV can replicate to high levels and cause end organ disease when the immune system is compromised. […] The natural history of HCMV infection is complex, with three different subtypes of infection. […] The ability to establish lifelong latent infections of the host is a defining characteristic of herpesvirus infections. […] Latency can be defined as the persistence of the viral genome in an absence of lytic replication and virus production coupled with the retention of a capacity to reactivate when specific conditions are met. […] The activity of inflammatory cytokines as inducers of MIE gene expression and HCMV reactivation may be important in the process of organ transplantation which is associated with substantial inflammation.
  • #3
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    HCMV entry into fibroblasts occurs through a pH-independent mechanism involving plasma membrane fusion, mediated by the envelope glycoprotein complexes comprising gB, gH/gL, and/or gH/gL/gO. […] In contrast, HCMV entry into epithelial, endothelial, and neuronal cells occurs through a pH-dependent fusion mechanism mediated by endocytosis, which requires an additional pentamer glycoprotein complex. […] HCMV has evolved sophisticated mechanisms to evade host immune responses, targeting both innate and adaptive immunity. […] HCMV encodes multiple proteins and microRNAs to target and inhibit PRR signaling pathways, which is a key strategy for viral evasion of innate immune recognition. […] HCMV employs multiple strategies to suppress IFN-I production and signaling. […] HCMV has evolved various mechanisms to regulate T cell function.
  • #3 Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-Replication, Transmission, Pathogenesis, Diseases, diagnosis and treatment – Online Biology Notes
    https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/cytomegalovirus-cmv-replication-transmission-pathogenesis-diseases-diagnosis-and-treatment/
    Reactivation of CMV infection from latency occurs in conditions, such as allograft rejection, sepsis, administration of Anti-leucocyte antibody (ALA) therapies. […] These clinical immune compromising conditions result in the release of cytokines and other pro-inflammatory mediators that play a role in the reactivation of virus from latency. […] Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- is the primary cytokine responsible for reactivation of CMV from latency. […] TNF- binds to the TNF receptor on latently infected cells and activates protein kinase C and nuclear factor B (NF-B). […] In turn, NF-B acts on the immediate early promotor of the virus to activate virus replication. […] If the host cellular immune response is functioning properly, virus will be eliminated and host will recover. […] If the host T-cell response is impaired, virus multiplies causing inflammatory reactions. […] If the host is profoundly immune-compromised, virus multiplies exclusively causing tissue invasive disease and possibly death.
  • #4
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s43556-024-00226-7
    HCMV entry into fibroblasts occurs through a pH-independent mechanism involving plasma membrane fusion, mediated by the envelope glycoprotein complexes comprising gB, gH/gL, and/or gH/gL/gO. […] In contrast, HCMV entry into epithelial, endothelial, and neuronal cells occurs through a pH-dependent fusion mechanism mediated by endocytosis, which requires an additional pentamer glycoprotein complex. […] HCMV has evolved sophisticated mechanisms to evade host immune responses, targeting both innate and adaptive immunity. […] HCMV encodes multiple proteins and microRNAs to target and inhibit PRR signaling pathways, which is a key strategy for viral evasion of innate immune recognition. […] HCMV employs multiple strategies to suppress IFN-I production and signaling. […] HCMV has evolved various mechanisms to regulate T cell function.