Materiały źródłowe

• #1 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Age of onset of major depression may have both clinical and etiological implications. […] Etiological models for depression are largely diathesis-stress models in which stressful experiences trigger depression in those who may be vulnerable due to biological and psychosocial characteristics and circumstances. […] Biological, environmental, and personal vulnerabilities interact to contribute to the development of depression and also may be affected by depressive states in a bidirectional process. […] The purpose of this chapter is to review what is known or suspected about the causes of depression. […] The first topic to address is that not all depressions are alike; therefore, different etiological models and perspectives are likely to apply to different expressions of depressive disorder.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression

  Depression results from a complex interaction of social, psychological, and biological factors. […] People who have gone through adverse life events (unemployment, bereavement, traumatic events) are more likely to develop depression. […] Depression can, in turn, lead to more stress and dysfunction and worsen the affected persons life situation and the depression itself. […] Depression is closely related to and affected by physical health. Many of the factors that influence depression (such as physical inactivity or harmful use of alcohol) are also known risk factors for diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and respiratory diseases.

• #3 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  There is a certain correlation between the occurrence of MDD and social development. […] A survey reported that with the development of the economy and increased life pressure, MDD has begun to emerge at a younger age, and the incidence of MDD in women is approximately twice that in men. […] The clinical symptoms of MDD include a depressed mood, loss of interest, changes in weight or appetite, and increased likelihood of committing suicide. […] However, due to the lack of characteristic symptoms and objective diagnostic evidence for MDD, identification and early prevention are difficult in the clinic. […] Due to the complexity of the pathological mechanism of MDD, accurate diagnostic approaches and pharmacological therapeutic strategies are relatively limited. […] Several hypothesis were developed to explain MDD pathogenesis pathogenic including (i) the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction hypothesis, (ii) the monoamine hypothesis, (iii) the inflammatory hypothesis, (iv) the genetic and epigenetic anomaly hypothesis, (v) the structural and functional brain remodeling hypothesis, and (vi) the social psychological hypothesis.

• #4 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events.

• #5 Depression: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression

  Depression is a common mental health condition that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and changes in how you think, sleep, eat and act. […] Researchers don’t know the exact cause of depression. They think that several factors contribute to its development, including: […] An imbalance of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, contributes to the development of depression. […] If you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with depression, you’re about three times as likely to develop the condition as the general population. […] Difficult experiences, such as the death of a loved one, trauma, divorce, isolation and lack of support, can trigger depression. […] Chronic pain and chronic conditions like diabetes can lead to depression. […] Some medications can cause depression as a side effect. Substance use, including alcohol, can also cause depression or make it worse.

• #6 Psychiatry.org – What Is Depression?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression

  Depression (major depressive disorder) is a common and serious mental disorder that negatively affects how you feel, think, act, and perceive the world. […] Nearly three in ten adults (29%) have been diagnosed with depression at some point in their lives and about 18% are currently experiencing depression, according to a 2023 national survey. Women are more likely than men and younger adults are more likely than older adults to experience depression. While depression can occur at any time and at any age, on average it can first appear during ones late teens to mid-20s. […] Several factors can play a role in depression. Several factors can play a role in depression: […] Biochemical: Differences in certain chemicals in the brain (such as the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine) may contribute to symptoms of depression.

• #7 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  However, none of these hypotheses alone can fully explain the pathological basis of MDD, while many mechanisms proposed by these hypotheses interact with each other. […] In recent years, great progress has been made in identifying novel pharmacological therapies, diagnostic criteria, and nonpharmacological preventive measures for MDD, initiating related clinical trials. […] Specifically, increasing evidence suggests that astrocytic dysfunction plays a substantial role in MDD. […] Pharmacological ablation of astrocytes in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) causes depressive-like symptoms in experimental animals, and postmortem studies of patients with MDD have shown reduced densities of glial cells in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus and amygdala. […] The traditional monoamine theory contends that in addition to common pathogenic factors, deficiencies in monoamine neurotransmitters, such as serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), are the root cause of clinical depression.

• #8 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events.

• #9 Depression (major depressive disorder) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20356007

  Depression is a mood disorder that causes feelings of sadness that won’t go away. […] While there’s no single cause of depression, most experts believe there’s a combination of biological, social, and psychological factors that contribute to depression risk. […] Biologically, we think about genetics or a family history of depression, health conditions such as diabetes, heart disease or thyroid disorders, and even hormonal changes that happen over the lifespan, such as pregnancy and menopause. […] Changes in brain chemistry, especially disruptions in neurotransmitters like serotonin, that play an important role in regulating many bodily functions, including mood, sleep, and appetite, are thought to play a particularly important role in depression. […] Socially stressful and traumatic life events, limited access to resources such as food, housing, and health care, and a lack of social support all contribute to depression risk.

• #10 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events.

• #11 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a class of antidepressants that have been proven to successfully treat clinical depression, were developed in response to this hypothesis, which was derived primarily on the basis of the pharmacological mechanism of drug that were accidentally discovered to act as antidepressants. […] It is also crucial to note that astrocytes express NE transporter (NETT) and 5-HT transporter (SERT), which are the targets of some traditional antidepressants. […] A previous study suggested that the function of astrocytes can be directly regulated by SSRIs. […] The HPA axis, a component of the neuroendocrine system, is commonly associated with the stress response. […] Hyperactivity of the HPA axis is thought to be an important pathophysiological mechanism underlying depression.

• #12 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a class of antidepressants that have been proven to successfully treat clinical depression, were developed in response to this hypothesis, which was derived primarily on the basis of the pharmacological mechanism of drug that were accidentally discovered to act as antidepressants. […] It is also crucial to note that astrocytes express NE transporter (NETT) and 5-HT transporter (SERT), which are the targets of some traditional antidepressants. […] A previous study suggested that the function of astrocytes can be directly regulated by SSRIs. […] The HPA axis, a component of the neuroendocrine system, is commonly associated with the stress response. […] Hyperactivity of the HPA axis is thought to be an important pathophysiological mechanism underlying depression.

• #13 What causes depression? – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/what-causes-depression

  Research shows that the hippocampus is smaller in some depressed people. For example, in one fMRI study published in The Journal of Neuroscience, investigators studied 24 women who had a history of depression. On average, the hippocampus was 9% to 13% smaller in depressed women compared with those who were not depressed. The more bouts of depression a woman had, the smaller the hippocampus. Stress, which plays a role in depression, may be a key factor here, since experts believe stress can suppress the production of new neurons (nerve cells) in the hippocampus. […] Researchers are exploring possible links between sluggish production of new neurons in the hippocampus and low moods. An interesting fact about antidepressants supports this theory. These medications immediately boost the concentration of chemical messengers in the brain (neurotransmitters). Yet people typically don’t begin to feel better for several weeks or longer. Experts have long wondered why, if depression were primarily the result of low levels of neurotransmitters, people don’t feel better as soon as levels of neurotransmitters increase.

• #14 What causes depression? – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/what-causes-depression

  Research shows that the hippocampus is smaller in some depressed people. For example, in one fMRI study published in The Journal of Neuroscience, investigators studied 24 women who had a history of depression. On average, the hippocampus was 9% to 13% smaller in depressed women compared with those who were not depressed. The more bouts of depression a woman had, the smaller the hippocampus. Stress, which plays a role in depression, may be a key factor here, since experts believe stress can suppress the production of new neurons (nerve cells) in the hippocampus. […] Researchers are exploring possible links between sluggish production of new neurons in the hippocampus and low moods. An interesting fact about antidepressants supports this theory. These medications immediately boost the concentration of chemical messengers in the brain (neurotransmitters). Yet people typically don’t begin to feel better for several weeks or longer. Experts have long wondered why, if depression were primarily the result of low levels of neurotransmitters, people don’t feel better as soon as levels of neurotransmitters increase.

• #15 What causes depression? – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/what-causes-depression

  Research shows that the hippocampus is smaller in some depressed people. For example, in one fMRI study published in The Journal of Neuroscience, investigators studied 24 women who had a history of depression. On average, the hippocampus was 9% to 13% smaller in depressed women compared with those who were not depressed. The more bouts of depression a woman had, the smaller the hippocampus. Stress, which plays a role in depression, may be a key factor here, since experts believe stress can suppress the production of new neurons (nerve cells) in the hippocampus. […] Researchers are exploring possible links between sluggish production of new neurons in the hippocampus and low moods. An interesting fact about antidepressants supports this theory. These medications immediately boost the concentration of chemical messengers in the brain (neurotransmitters). Yet people typically don’t begin to feel better for several weeks or longer. Experts have long wondered why, if depression were primarily the result of low levels of neurotransmitters, people don’t feel better as soon as levels of neurotransmitters increase.

• #16 7.2 Causes of Depression – Nursing: Mental Health and Community Concepts

  https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/nursingmhcc/chapter/7-2-causes-of-depression/

  There are several possible causes of depression, including faulty mood regulation by the brain, genetic vulnerability, stressful life events, medications, and medical problems. Based on current research, it is believed that several of these forces interact to bring on depression. […] Researchers believe that nerve cell connections, nerve cell growth, the functioning of nerve circuits, and levels of specific brain chemicals (called neurotransmitters) have a major impact on depression. […] The hippocampus is smaller in some depressed people, and research suggests that ongoing exposure to the stress hormone impairs the growth of nerve cells in this part of the brain. […] Activity in the amygdala is higher when a person is sad or clinically depressed. This increased activity continues even after recovery from depression.

• #17 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events.

• #18 Depression: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression

  Depression is a common mental health condition that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and changes in how you think, sleep, eat and act. […] Researchers don’t know the exact cause of depression. They think that several factors contribute to its development, including: […] An imbalance of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, contributes to the development of depression. […] If you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with depression, you’re about three times as likely to develop the condition as the general population. […] Difficult experiences, such as the death of a loved one, trauma, divorce, isolation and lack of support, can trigger depression. […] Chronic pain and chronic conditions like diabetes can lead to depression. […] Some medications can cause depression as a side effect. Substance use, including alcohol, can also cause depression or make it worse.

• #19 Psychiatry.org – What Is Depression?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression

  Genetic: Depression can run in families. For example, if one identical twin has depression, the other has a 70 percent chance of having the illness sometime in life. […] Personality: People with low self-esteem, who are easily overwhelmed by stress, or who are generally pessimistic may be more likely to experience depression. […] Environmental: Continuous exposure to violence, neglect, abuse or poverty can also pose risks for developing depression.

• #20 Major depressive disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder

  Major depressive disorder is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors, with about 40% of the risk being genetic. […] Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, childhood traumas, environmental lead exposure, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance use disorders. […] The etiology of depression is not yet fully understood. […] The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. […] The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. […] Genes play a major role in the development of depression. […] Family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for nearly 40% of the variation in risk for major depressive disorder.

• #21 Psychiatry.org – What Is Depression?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression

  Genetic: Depression can run in families. For example, if one identical twin has depression, the other has a 70 percent chance of having the illness sometime in life. […] Personality: People with low self-esteem, who are easily overwhelmed by stress, or who are generally pessimistic may be more likely to experience depression. […] Environmental: Continuous exposure to violence, neglect, abuse or poverty can also pose risks for developing depression.

• #22 Causes of Depression: Genetics, Illness, Abuse, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/causes-depression

  Conflict. If you have frequent personal conflicts or disputes with family members or friends, it may make you biologically vulnerable to depression. […] Death or a loss. Sadness or grief after the death or loss of a loved one, though natural, can increase your risk of depression. […] Gender. Women are about twice as likely as men to become depressed. No one’s sure why. The hormonal changes that women go through at different times of their lives may play a role. […] Genes. A family history of depression may increase the risk. It’s thought that depression is a complex trait, meaning there are probably many different genes, with each exerting small effects, rather than a single gene leading to disease risk. […] Major events. Even good events such as starting a new job, graduating, or getting married can lead to depression. So can moving, losing a job or income, getting divorced, or retiring. However, the syndrome of clinical depression is never just a „normal” response to stressful life events.

• #23 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a class of antidepressants that have been proven to successfully treat clinical depression, were developed in response to this hypothesis, which was derived primarily on the basis of the pharmacological mechanism of drug that were accidentally discovered to act as antidepressants. […] It is also crucial to note that astrocytes express NE transporter (NETT) and 5-HT transporter (SERT), which are the targets of some traditional antidepressants. […] A previous study suggested that the function of astrocytes can be directly regulated by SSRIs. […] The HPA axis, a component of the neuroendocrine system, is commonly associated with the stress response. […] Hyperactivity of the HPA axis is thought to be an important pathophysiological mechanism underlying depression.

• #24 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  High HPA activity is among the most typical neurobiological alterations in depressed individuals. […] Some data suggest that HPA axis imbalance and high levels of GCs play a core role in the pathogenesis of MDD and suggest that GR may serve as an important target for treating depression. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). […] Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD. […] Higher levels of inflammation increase the chance of developing new-onset depression. […] Evidence suggests that MDD is associated with the immune response, as shown by increased levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6.

• #25 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  High HPA activity is among the most typical neurobiological alterations in depressed individuals. […] Some data suggest that HPA axis imbalance and high levels of GCs play a core role in the pathogenesis of MDD and suggest that GR may serve as an important target for treating depression. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). […] Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD. […] Higher levels of inflammation increase the chance of developing new-onset depression. […] Evidence suggests that MDD is associated with the immune response, as shown by increased levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6.

• #26 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Per cognitive theory, depression occurs as a result of cognitive distortions in persons who are susceptible to depression. […] Multiple adverse childhood experiences and trauma are associated with the development of depression later in life. […] Severe early stress can result in drastic alterations in neuroendocrine and behavioral responses, which can cause structural changes in the cerebral cortex, leading to severe depression later in life.

• #27 Major depressive disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder

  Major depressive disorder is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors, with about 40% of the risk being genetic. […] Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, childhood traumas, environmental lead exposure, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance use disorders. […] The etiology of depression is not yet fully understood. […] The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. […] The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. […] Genes play a major role in the development of depression. […] Family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for nearly 40% of the variation in risk for major depressive disorder.

• #28 Depression: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression

  Depression is a common mental health condition that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and changes in how you think, sleep, eat and act. […] Researchers don’t know the exact cause of depression. They think that several factors contribute to its development, including: […] An imbalance of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, contributes to the development of depression. […] If you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with depression, you’re about three times as likely to develop the condition as the general population. […] Difficult experiences, such as the death of a loved one, trauma, divorce, isolation and lack of support, can trigger depression. […] Chronic pain and chronic conditions like diabetes can lead to depression. […] Some medications can cause depression as a side effect. Substance use, including alcohol, can also cause depression or make it worse.

• #29 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  A major risk factor for depression is the experience of undesirable, negative life events. […] Gender differences in depression may be accounted for in part by womens greater exposure to interpersonal life events, as well as their greater likelihood, compared with men, of reacting to such events with depression. […] Although acute stress may precipitate depression in vulnerable individuals, the relationship is bidirectional: Those with depression or a history of depression experience significantly more acute stressors than those with no depression. […] Another source of depressionalthough not as commonly studiedis exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] In addition to recent negative events and chronically stressful conditions, increasing evidence focuses on the link between childhood exposure to adversity and the development of depression in adolescence or adulthood.

• #30 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  A major risk factor for depression is the experience of undesirable, negative life events. […] Gender differences in depression may be accounted for in part by womens greater exposure to interpersonal life events, as well as their greater likelihood, compared with men, of reacting to such events with depression. […] Although acute stress may precipitate depression in vulnerable individuals, the relationship is bidirectional: Those with depression or a history of depression experience significantly more acute stressors than those with no depression. […] Another source of depressionalthough not as commonly studiedis exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] In addition to recent negative events and chronically stressful conditions, increasing evidence focuses on the link between childhood exposure to adversity and the development of depression in adolescence or adulthood.

• #31

  https://www.healthshare.com.au/questions/2110-what-causes-depression/

  Most people assume that depression is caused simply by recent personal difficulties. Depression however, is often caused by the mix of recent events and other longer-term or personal risk factors such as genetics. […] Research indicates that ongoing difficulties, such as living in an abusive or uncaring relationship, or long-term unemployment are more likely to cause depression than recent life stressors. Depression can also run in families and some people will be at increased genetic risk. However, having a family history doesn’t mean that you will automatically become depressed if a parent or close relative has had the illness. Life circumstances are still likely to have an important influence on your chances of becoming ill. […] The causes of depression are different for everyone. Depression can be caused by changes in your current life or situation, past experiences (especially those that have been traumatic), relationships with other people, work, children and family, as well as genetics. Depression is commonly multifactorial, meaning that it is made up of several different things, rather than a single event.

• #32 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  A major risk factor for depression is the experience of undesirable, negative life events. […] Gender differences in depression may be accounted for in part by womens greater exposure to interpersonal life events, as well as their greater likelihood, compared with men, of reacting to such events with depression. […] Although acute stress may precipitate depression in vulnerable individuals, the relationship is bidirectional: Those with depression or a history of depression experience significantly more acute stressors than those with no depression. […] Another source of depressionalthough not as commonly studiedis exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] In addition to recent negative events and chronically stressful conditions, increasing evidence focuses on the link between childhood exposure to adversity and the development of depression in adolescence or adulthood.

• #33 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  A major risk factor for depression is the experience of undesirable, negative life events. […] Gender differences in depression may be accounted for in part by womens greater exposure to interpersonal life events, as well as their greater likelihood, compared with men, of reacting to such events with depression. […] Although acute stress may precipitate depression in vulnerable individuals, the relationship is bidirectional: Those with depression or a history of depression experience significantly more acute stressors than those with no depression. […] Another source of depressionalthough not as commonly studiedis exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] In addition to recent negative events and chronically stressful conditions, increasing evidence focuses on the link between childhood exposure to adversity and the development of depression in adolescence or adulthood.

• #34 7.2 Causes of Depression – Nursing: Mental Health and Community Concepts

  https://wtcs.pressbooks.pub/nursingmhcc/chapter/7-2-causes-of-depression/

  It is well-known that depressive and bipolar disorders run in families. Mood is affected by dozens of genes, and as our genes differ, so does depression. […] It is estimated that 61% of adults have experienced early adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) such as abuse, neglect, or growing up in a household with violence, mental illness, substance use, incarceration, or divorce. […] These elevated cortisol levels can contribute to problems such as high blood pressure, immune suppression, asthma, and depression. […] Certain medical problems are linked to up to 10% to 15% of all depressions. For example, hypothyroidism, a condition where the body produces too little thyroid hormone, often leads to exhaustion and depression, whereas hyperthyroidism (excess thyroid hormone) can trigger manic symptoms. […] If depression is caused by an underlying medical problem, the mood changes should disappear after the medical condition is treated.

• #35 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  The mechanisms by which specific childhood stressors, such as physical or sexual abuse, have their effects on later depression are not known directly. […] Neurobiological mechanisms may also be implicated, with the speculation that severe stress early in life alters the brains neuroregulatory processes, which promote susceptibility to depression.

• #36 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  The mechanisms by which specific childhood stressors, such as physical or sexual abuse, have their effects on later depression are not known directly. […] Neurobiological mechanisms may also be implicated, with the speculation that severe stress early in life alters the brains neuroregulatory processes, which promote susceptibility to depression.

• #37 Psychiatry.org – What Is Depression?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression

  Genetic: Depression can run in families. For example, if one identical twin has depression, the other has a 70 percent chance of having the illness sometime in life. […] Personality: People with low self-esteem, who are easily overwhelmed by stress, or who are generally pessimistic may be more likely to experience depression. […] Environmental: Continuous exposure to violence, neglect, abuse or poverty can also pose risks for developing depression.

• #38 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Per cognitive theory, depression occurs as a result of cognitive distortions in persons who are susceptible to depression. […] Multiple adverse childhood experiences and trauma are associated with the development of depression later in life. […] Severe early stress can result in drastic alterations in neuroendocrine and behavioral responses, which can cause structural changes in the cerebral cortex, leading to severe depression later in life.

• #39 What Causes Depression? How the Brain is Affected

  https://relevancerecovery.com/blog/comprehensive-guide-to-common-causes-of-depression/

  Multiple medical disorders can develop when neurotransmitters like dopamine or serotonin levels are abnormal. […] Some individuals may be more susceptible to depression due to their characteristics and personalities. […] Any chronic illness has the potential to lead to depression, but the risk rises the more serious the condition is and the more disruption it causes in the patient’s life. […] One prominent theory regarding the causes of depression revolves around chemical imbalances in the brain. […] Depression has been found to have a hereditary component, with studies suggesting that certain genetic variations may increase the risk of developing the condition. […] Adverse childhood experiences, such as abuse, neglect, or trauma, have been linked to an increased risk of depression later in life. […] Negative thinking patterns, low self-esteem, and a lack of effective coping strategies can contribute to the onset of depressive symptoms.

• #40 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events.

• #41 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Early childhood trauma. Some events affect the way your body reacts to fear and stressful situations. […] Brain structure. Theres a greater risk for depression if the frontal lobe of your brain is less active. However, scientists dont know if this happens before or after the onset of depressive symptoms. […] Medical conditions. Certain conditions may put you at higher risk, such as chronic illness, insomnia, chronic pain, Parkinsons disease, stroke, heart attack, and cancer. […] Substance use. A history of substance or alcohol misuse can affect your risk. […] Pain. People who feel emotional or chronic physical pain for long periods of time are significantly more likely to develop depression. […] Risk factors for depression can be biochemical, medical, social, genetic, or circumstantial. Common risk factors include: Sex. The prevalence of major depression is twice as high in females as in males.

• #42 Depression: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression

  Depression is a common mental health condition that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and changes in how you think, sleep, eat and act. […] Researchers don’t know the exact cause of depression. They think that several factors contribute to its development, including: […] An imbalance of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, contributes to the development of depression. […] If you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with depression, you’re about three times as likely to develop the condition as the general population. […] Difficult experiences, such as the death of a loved one, trauma, divorce, isolation and lack of support, can trigger depression. […] Chronic pain and chronic conditions like diabetes can lead to depression. […] Some medications can cause depression as a side effect. Substance use, including alcohol, can also cause depression or make it worse.

• #43 Causes of Depression: Genetics, Illness, Abuse, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/causes-depression

  One thing is certain depression is a complex illness with many contributing factors. […] We know that depression can sometimes run in families. This suggests that there’s at least a partial genetic link to depression. […] Heredity appears to play an even bigger role in more severe forms of depression. […] In certain people, drugs may lead to depression. […] In some people, a chronic illness can cause depression. […] Examples of chronic illnesses linked to depression include: Diabetes, Heart disease, Arthritis, Kidney disease, HIV and AIDS, Autoimmune disorders such as lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis, Multiple sclerosis (MS), Hypothyroidism, Cancer, Epilepsy, Stroke, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Migraines. […] Researchers believe that treating depression may sometimes also help improve the coexisting medical illness.

• #44 Depression in older people – causes, symptoms, treatment | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/depression-in-older-people

  Depression is a mental health condition that can affect people of any age. […] The 3 main causes of depression in older people are poor physical health, social isolation and loss. […] Physical illness can cause depression both directly and indirectly. Medical conditions such as vitamin deficiencies, cancer, thyroid disease and even infections can change the way your body works and trigger depression. […] People can sometimes become isolated from their friends, family or communities as they age. This may be due to friends and peers passing away, or it becomes harder to get around to visit people. […] As people age, they may experience intense periods of loss. This can be loss of a spouse, family members or friends and can also involve loss of your health, pets or your home. Loss of independence and dignity can sometimes trigger depression too.

• #45 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Genetics. You have an increased risk of depression if you have a family history of it. […] Socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status, including financial problems and perceived low social status, can increase your risk of depression. […] Certain medications. Certain drugs including some types of hormonal birth control, corticosteroids, and beta-blockers may be associated with an increased risk of depression. […] Vitamin D deficiency. Studies have linked depressive symptoms to low levels of vitamin D. […] Gender identity. The risk of depression for transgender people is nearly 4-fold that of cisgender people, according to a 2018 study. […] Substance misuse. About 21 percent of people who have a substance use disorder also experience depression. […] Medical illnesses. Depression is associated with other chronic medical illnesses. People with heart disease are about twice as likely to have depression as people who dont, while up to 1 in 4 people with cancer may also experience depression.

• #46 Causes of Depression: Genetics, Illness, Abuse, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/causes-depression

  One thing is certain depression is a complex illness with many contributing factors. […] We know that depression can sometimes run in families. This suggests that there’s at least a partial genetic link to depression. […] Heredity appears to play an even bigger role in more severe forms of depression. […] In certain people, drugs may lead to depression. […] In some people, a chronic illness can cause depression. […] Examples of chronic illnesses linked to depression include: Diabetes, Heart disease, Arthritis, Kidney disease, HIV and AIDS, Autoimmune disorders such as lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis, Multiple sclerosis (MS), Hypothyroidism, Cancer, Epilepsy, Stroke, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Migraines. […] Researchers believe that treating depression may sometimes also help improve the coexisting medical illness.

• #47 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  The relationship between the onset of MDD and several diseases is complex and potentially bidirectional in nature. […] The impact of depression on society and the economy is increased by the existence of comorbidities. […] Specifically, in 2018, comorbid disorders rather than MDD itself were responsible for 63% of all costs related to MDD in the United States. […] Additionally, the worsening of comorbidities could be a factor in the premature mortality of MDD patients.

• #48 Depression: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression

  Depression is a common mental health condition that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and changes in how you think, sleep, eat and act. […] Researchers don’t know the exact cause of depression. They think that several factors contribute to its development, including: […] An imbalance of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, contributes to the development of depression. […] If you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with depression, you’re about three times as likely to develop the condition as the general population. […] Difficult experiences, such as the death of a loved one, trauma, divorce, isolation and lack of support, can trigger depression. […] Chronic pain and chronic conditions like diabetes can lead to depression. […] Some medications can cause depression as a side effect. Substance use, including alcohol, can also cause depression or make it worse.

• #49 Types of Depression: Clinical, Major, Mild—and Their Causes

  https://www.helpguide.org/mental-health/depression/depression-types-causes-and-risk-factors

  Depression is often caused by a combination of factors—biological, psychological, and social—that can vary wildly from one person to another. […] Some types of depression may be caused by life events, stressful experiences such as bereavement, trauma, divorce, or financial worries. […] Your personality type can also play a role in depression, as can genetics, certain medications, and alcohol and drug abuse. […] Risk factors can range from trauma and life stressors to genetics, low self-worth, and neuroticism (a personality trait that involves a predisposition to negativity). […] Other causes of depression include medications, such as barbiturates, corticosteroids, benzodiazepines, opioid painkillers, hormonal birth control, and specific blood pressure medicine can trigger symptoms in some people—as can hypothyroidism (an underactive thyroid gland).

• #50 Depression: Causes, types, diagnosis, and treatment | therapist.com

  https://therapist.com/disorders/depression/

  Medications: Certain medications including beta blockers, corticosteroids, and benzodiazepines may trigger or worsen depressive symptoms. […] Substance abuse: Alcohol or drug abuse can increase your risk. One study found that nearly 64% of people who were dependent on alcohol also had depression. […] Lack of identity support: According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA), people who identify as LGBTQIA+ are 2.5 times more likely to experience depression than people who identify exclusively as heterosexual. Similarly, many people in marginalized racial and ethnic groups face discrimination, which is associated with increased depression risk.

• #51 Depression: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression

  Depression is a common mental health condition that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and changes in how you think, sleep, eat and act. […] Researchers don’t know the exact cause of depression. They think that several factors contribute to its development, including: […] An imbalance of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, contributes to the development of depression. […] If you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with depression, you’re about three times as likely to develop the condition as the general population. […] Difficult experiences, such as the death of a loved one, trauma, divorce, isolation and lack of support, can trigger depression. […] Chronic pain and chronic conditions like diabetes can lead to depression. […] Some medications can cause depression as a side effect. Substance use, including alcohol, can also cause depression or make it worse.

• #52 Causes of Depression: Genetics, Illness, Abuse, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/causes-depression

  Other personal problems. Problems such as social isolation due to other mental illnesses or being cast out of your family or social group can add to your risk for clinical depression. […] Serious illnesses. Sometimes, depression happens along with a major illness or may be triggered by another medical condition. […] Substance misuse. Nearly 30% of people with substance misuse problems also have major or clinical depression. Even if drugs or alcohol temporarily make you feel better, they ultimately will worsen your depression. […] Researchers have noted that the brains of people who have clinical depression differ from those of people who do not. […] Scientists don’t know why the hippocampus may be smaller in some people with depression. But some research shows that the stress hormone cortisol is produced in excess in depressed people, and cortisol has a toxic or „shrinking” effect on the hippocampus.

• #53 Causes of Depression: Genetics, Illness, Abuse, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/causes-depression

  Other personal problems. Problems such as social isolation due to other mental illnesses or being cast out of your family or social group can add to your risk for clinical depression. […] Serious illnesses. Sometimes, depression happens along with a major illness or may be triggered by another medical condition. […] Substance misuse. Nearly 30% of people with substance misuse problems also have major or clinical depression. Even if drugs or alcohol temporarily make you feel better, they ultimately will worsen your depression. […] Researchers have noted that the brains of people who have clinical depression differ from those of people who do not. […] Scientists don’t know why the hippocampus may be smaller in some people with depression. But some research shows that the stress hormone cortisol is produced in excess in depressed people, and cortisol has a toxic or „shrinking” effect on the hippocampus.

• #54 Depression (major depressive disorder) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20356007

  Psychologically, we think of how negative thoughts and problematic coping behaviors, such as avoidance and substance use, increase our vulnerability to depression. […] It’s not known exactly what causes depression. […] Biological differences. People with depression appear to have physical changes in their brains. […] Brain chemistry. Neurotransmitters are naturally occurring brain chemicals that likely play a role in depression. […] Hormones. Changes in the body’s balance of hormones may be involved in causing or triggering depression. […] Inherited traits. Depression is more common in people whose blood relatives also have this condition.

• #55 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Depression can be temporary or long-term. […] Depression is classified as a mood disorder. It may be described as feelings of sadness, loss, or anger that interfere with a persons everyday activities. […] There are several possible causes of depression. They can range from biological to circumstantial. […] Common causes include: Brain chemistry. There may be a chemical imbalance in parts of the brain that manage mood, thoughts, sleep, appetite, and behavior in people who have depression. […] Hormone levels. Changes in female hormones estrogen and progesterone during different periods of time like during the menstrual cycle, postpartum period, perimenopause, or menopause may all raise a persons risk for depression. […] Family history. Youre at a higher risk for developing depression if you have a family history of depression or another mood disorder.

• #56 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Evidence increasingly suggests that childhood, adolescent, adult, and older adult first onsets may reflect different causal factors. […] The dramatic hormonal changes a woman experiences during and after pregnancy have focused much attention on the biological and hormonal etiological factors of postpartum depression. […] However, there is widespread agreement that postpartum major depression is not distinct in terms of etiology from depression at other times. […] The course of depression may shed light on both treatment and prevention concerns and etiological issues. […] Early-onset recurrent depression may reflect a genetic etiology, but its progressive nature has also been speculated to indicate a neurobiological process in which early and successive episodes of depression alter the brain and neuroregulatory processes.

• #57 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Evidence increasingly suggests that childhood, adolescent, adult, and older adult first onsets may reflect different causal factors. […] The dramatic hormonal changes a woman experiences during and after pregnancy have focused much attention on the biological and hormonal etiological factors of postpartum depression. […] However, there is widespread agreement that postpartum major depression is not distinct in terms of etiology from depression at other times. […] The course of depression may shed light on both treatment and prevention concerns and etiological issues. […] Early-onset recurrent depression may reflect a genetic etiology, but its progressive nature has also been speculated to indicate a neurobiological process in which early and successive episodes of depression alter the brain and neuroregulatory processes.

• #58 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  High HPA activity is among the most typical neurobiological alterations in depressed individuals. […] Some data suggest that HPA axis imbalance and high levels of GCs play a core role in the pathogenesis of MDD and suggest that GR may serve as an important target for treating depression. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). […] Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD. […] Higher levels of inflammation increase the chance of developing new-onset depression. […] Evidence suggests that MDD is associated with the immune response, as shown by increased levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6.

• #59 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  High HPA activity is among the most typical neurobiological alterations in depressed individuals. […] Some data suggest that HPA axis imbalance and high levels of GCs play a core role in the pathogenesis of MDD and suggest that GR may serve as an important target for treating depression. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). […] Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD. […] Higher levels of inflammation increase the chance of developing new-onset depression. […] Evidence suggests that MDD is associated with the immune response, as shown by increased levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6.

• #60 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  High HPA activity is among the most typical neurobiological alterations in depressed individuals. […] Some data suggest that HPA axis imbalance and high levels of GCs play a core role in the pathogenesis of MDD and suggest that GR may serve as an important target for treating depression. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). […] Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD. […] Higher levels of inflammation increase the chance of developing new-onset depression. […] Evidence suggests that MDD is associated with the immune response, as shown by increased levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6.

• #61 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  High HPA activity is among the most typical neurobiological alterations in depressed individuals. […] Some data suggest that HPA axis imbalance and high levels of GCs play a core role in the pathogenesis of MDD and suggest that GR may serve as an important target for treating depression. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). […] Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD. […] Higher levels of inflammation increase the chance of developing new-onset depression. […] Evidence suggests that MDD is associated with the immune response, as shown by increased levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6.

• #62 Infections can trigger sudden onset depression and mood changes

  https://www.moleculera.com/sudden-onset-depression/

  Infection(s) can cause an autoimmune attack on the brain, resulting in inflammation and the onset of neuropsychiatric symptoms, including sudden onset depression, bipolar disorder, mood lability and sudden mood changes. […] New research indicates that infection(s) and immune dysfunction can play a role in triggering sudden changes in mood and behavior. Infection, immune dysfunction and neuroinflammation have all been implicated in chronic mental disorders such as major depressive disorder, anxiety, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. […] Mood disorders can be caused by a variety of factors including genetics, brain chemical imbalances, life stressors, and medical conditions, such as ADHD, thyroid disease, and dementia. […] Infections may be the driving force behind some mental health disorders including major depression and bipolar disorder.

• #63 Infections can trigger sudden onset depression and mood changes

  https://www.moleculera.com/sudden-onset-depression/

  A nationwide study found that people treated for a severe infection were 62% more likely to have developed a mood disorder than those who never had one. And multiple infections or the combination of a severe infection and having an autoimmune disease boosted the odds of developing depression, bipolar disorder, or another mood disorder even further. […] This attack can trigger brain inflammation and the onset of psychiatric symptoms, including sudden onset depression and mood and personality changes. […] Common infections can trigger an autoimmune attack. For instance, strep infections can trigger sudden mood changes in children and adolescents with Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorder Associated with Streptococcal infection (PANDAS). […] Other bacteria and viruses can trigger mood changes. In both children and adults, the herpes simplex virus, varicella zoster, Epstein-Barr virus, and possibly toxoplasmosis have been associated with sudden depression.

• #64 Infections can trigger sudden onset depression and mood changes

  https://www.moleculera.com/sudden-onset-depression/

  A nationwide study found that people treated for a severe infection were 62% more likely to have developed a mood disorder than those who never had one. And multiple infections or the combination of a severe infection and having an autoimmune disease boosted the odds of developing depression, bipolar disorder, or another mood disorder even further. […] This attack can trigger brain inflammation and the onset of psychiatric symptoms, including sudden onset depression and mood and personality changes. […] Common infections can trigger an autoimmune attack. For instance, strep infections can trigger sudden mood changes in children and adolescents with Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorder Associated with Streptococcal infection (PANDAS). […] Other bacteria and viruses can trigger mood changes. In both children and adults, the herpes simplex virus, varicella zoster, Epstein-Barr virus, and possibly toxoplasmosis have been associated with sudden depression.

• #65 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  However, none of these hypotheses alone can fully explain the pathological basis of MDD, while many mechanisms proposed by these hypotheses interact with each other. […] In recent years, great progress has been made in identifying novel pharmacological therapies, diagnostic criteria, and nonpharmacological preventive measures for MDD, initiating related clinical trials. […] Specifically, increasing evidence suggests that astrocytic dysfunction plays a substantial role in MDD. […] Pharmacological ablation of astrocytes in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) causes depressive-like symptoms in experimental animals, and postmortem studies of patients with MDD have shown reduced densities of glial cells in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus and amygdala. […] The traditional monoamine theory contends that in addition to common pathogenic factors, deficiencies in monoamine neurotransmitters, such as serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), are the root cause of clinical depression.

• #66 Major depressive disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder

  Major depressive disorder is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors, with about 40% of the risk being genetic. […] Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, childhood traumas, environmental lead exposure, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance use disorders. […] The etiology of depression is not yet fully understood. […] The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. […] The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. […] Genes play a major role in the development of depression. […] Family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for nearly 40% of the variation in risk for major depressive disorder.

• #67 Major depressive disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder

  Major depressive disorder is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors, with about 40% of the risk being genetic. […] Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, childhood traumas, environmental lead exposure, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance use disorders. […] The etiology of depression is not yet fully understood. […] The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression. […] The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. […] Genes play a major role in the development of depression. […] Family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors account for nearly 40% of the variation in risk for major depressive disorder.

• #68 Depression: Causes, symptoms, treatment, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/8933

  Interactions among factors can increase the risk of depression. For instance, a person with a family history or a genetic risk of depression may experience symptoms of depression after a traumatic event. […] Some people have a higher risk of depression than others. […] Risk factors include: certain life events, such as bereavement, work difficulties, relationship changes, financial problems, and medical concerns, acute stress, a lack of helpful coping strategies, a history of depression in close relatives, use of some prescription drugs, such as corticosteroids, certain beta-blockers, and interferon, use of recreational drugs, such as alcohol or amphetamines, head injuries, neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease, previous episodes of major depression, chronic health conditions, such as diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cardiovascular disease, chronic pain, a lack of social support.

• #69 Causes of depression | MGH Depression Clinical and Research Program

  https://depressionmgh.org/learn-about-depression/causes-depression

  Physical illness can directly affect the brains neurotransmitter systems and may increase the risk of developing depression. […] About twice as many females as males develop depression overall, although rates of certain forms of depression, such as bipolar depression, are about equal across sexes. Increased risk of depression among females may be due to a number of factors, such as brain biology and hormones. […] Individuals who grow up with relatives suffering from depression are at an increased risk for developing depression later in life. This is likely due to a combination of genetic and environmental risk factors. […] Socioeconomic stressors can also affect the prevalence of depression. Differences in wealth/income, education, racial/ethnic minority status, and location can all affect an individual’s risk for developing the disorder.

• #70 Psychiatry.org – What Is Depression?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression

  Depression (major depressive disorder) is a common and serious mental disorder that negatively affects how you feel, think, act, and perceive the world. […] Nearly three in ten adults (29%) have been diagnosed with depression at some point in their lives and about 18% are currently experiencing depression, according to a 2023 national survey. Women are more likely than men and younger adults are more likely than older adults to experience depression. While depression can occur at any time and at any age, on average it can first appear during ones late teens to mid-20s. […] Several factors can play a role in depression. Several factors can play a role in depression: […] Biochemical: Differences in certain chemicals in the brain (such as the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine) may contribute to symptoms of depression.

• #71 Depression | Mental Health America

  https://mhanational.org/conditions/depression/

  People with negative thinking patterns and low self-esteem are more likely to develop clinical depression. […] More women experience depression than men. While the reasons for this are still unclear, they may include the hormonal changes women go through during menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause. Other reasons may include the stress caused by the multiple responsibilities that women have. […] Depression is more likely to occur along with certain illnesses, such as heart disease, cancer, Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, Multiple Sclerosis, and hormonal disorders. […] A family history of depression increases the risk of developing the illness. Some studies also suggest that a combination of genes and environmental factors work together to increase risk for depression. […] Difficult life events, including divorce, financial problems, or the death of a loved one can contribute to depression.

• #72 Untreated ADHD in Adults Causes Depression, AnxietyFooterLogo

  https://www.additudemag.com/untreated-adhd-in-adults-causes-depression-anxiety/?srsltid=AfmBOop8Am5PkE6LMX2LrZb10w_VhKJsZlWfaAQwS14os-T-RFJfe9-a

  Living with ADHD and depression, of course, creates its own set of challenges. […] ADHD does not disappear with age for most people, and the longer ADHD goes undiagnosed, the more problems it potentially creates as life’s demands and responsibilities evolve in complexity. […] This may explain why females with ADHD — who tend to be diagnosed later than males — are more than twice as likely to develop depression compared to females without ADHD. […] Depression also appears to take a greater toll on women with ADHD, as depression has an earlier age of onset, lasts longer, comes with more severe symptoms, a higher rate of suicidality, and a greater likelihood of requiring psychiatric hospitalization in this group compared to women without ADHD. […] Yes, there is significant comorbidity between ADHD, depression, and anxiety. But even together, these conditions are treatable. […] Complete, thorough evaluations are a must to identify and properly manage these conditions in patients as early as possible. […] As epigenetics research tells us, we cannot ignore our environment, and adverse life events do appear to be linked to a whole host of conditions, including ADHD.

• #73 Psychiatry.org – What Is Depression?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression

  Depression (major depressive disorder) is a common and serious mental disorder that negatively affects how you feel, think, act, and perceive the world. […] Nearly three in ten adults (29%) have been diagnosed with depression at some point in their lives and about 18% are currently experiencing depression, according to a 2023 national survey. Women are more likely than men and younger adults are more likely than older adults to experience depression. While depression can occur at any time and at any age, on average it can first appear during ones late teens to mid-20s. […] Several factors can play a role in depression. Several factors can play a role in depression: […] Biochemical: Differences in certain chemicals in the brain (such as the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine) may contribute to symptoms of depression.

• #74 What Causes Depression? | JED

  https://jedfoundation.org/resource/what-causes-depression/

  Teens and young adults are the most likely age group to report having major depression, and three-quarters of them have symptoms that make it hard to get through their usual daily activities. […] Girls and young women are nearly three times as likely as boys and young men to report that they struggle with depression. […] Native and multiracial teens report experiencing more depressive episodes than their peers of other races. […] Gay, lesbian, and bisexual teens are twice as likely to experience ongoing sadness or hopelessness than their straight peers. […] Transgender youth are twice as likely to report symptoms of depression, and are more likely to have suicidal thoughts or attempt suicide than their cisgender peers. […] Different groups also experience depression in different ways.

• #75 6 Typical and Uncommon Causes of Depression – Affinity Psychological ServicesLink to: 5 Indicators that Your Child May Need Some Help with DepressionLink to: How To Tell If You Are Feeding A Narcissist’s SupplyScroll to top

  https://affinitypsych.com/6-typical-and-uncommon-causes-of-depression/

  The older we get, the higher our risk of depression. For the elderly, therefore, the risk is highest — perhaps due to isolation and failing health. […] In a male-dominated culture, it may come as no surprise that women are twice as likely as men to suffer from depression. As #3 explains, this incidence increases with age. […] There are some chronic illnesses that cannot be controlled via lifestyle choices like exercise and diet. Dealing with such a frustrating condition has predictably been found to cause depression in some patients. […] Unlike like #2 above, these events may actually be positive (relocation, promotion, the birth of a child, etc.). The key is that they are major and thus, capable of overwhelming us. […] Lack of sleep negatively impacts brain function. In turn, this puts you at risk for depression.

• #76 Depression in older people – causes, symptoms, treatment | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/depression-in-older-people

  Depression is a mental health condition that can affect people of any age. […] The 3 main causes of depression in older people are poor physical health, social isolation and loss. […] Physical illness can cause depression both directly and indirectly. Medical conditions such as vitamin deficiencies, cancer, thyroid disease and even infections can change the way your body works and trigger depression. […] People can sometimes become isolated from their friends, family or communities as they age. This may be due to friends and peers passing away, or it becomes harder to get around to visit people. […] As people age, they may experience intense periods of loss. This can be loss of a spouse, family members or friends and can also involve loss of your health, pets or your home. Loss of independence and dignity can sometimes trigger depression too.

• #77 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Early childhood trauma. Some events affect the way your body reacts to fear and stressful situations. […] Brain structure. Theres a greater risk for depression if the frontal lobe of your brain is less active. However, scientists dont know if this happens before or after the onset of depressive symptoms. […] Medical conditions. Certain conditions may put you at higher risk, such as chronic illness, insomnia, chronic pain, Parkinsons disease, stroke, heart attack, and cancer. […] Substance use. A history of substance or alcohol misuse can affect your risk. […] Pain. People who feel emotional or chronic physical pain for long periods of time are significantly more likely to develop depression. […] Risk factors for depression can be biochemical, medical, social, genetic, or circumstantial. Common risk factors include: Sex. The prevalence of major depression is twice as high in females as in males.

• #78 Symptoms and causes of depression and its diagnosis and management | Nursing Times

  https://www.nursingtimes.net/mental-health/symptoms-and-causes-of-depression-and-its-diagnosis-and-management-30-03-2020/

  Ongoing research suggests that people who have experienced adverse childhood events, trauma or abuse have increased symptoms of depression compared with the general population. […] Depression has also been found to be more prevalent in people with a lower socio-economic status and a lower subjective social status. […] There is also evidence suggesting an association between social deprivation and depression: Fiske et al (2009) found that people in areas of great deprivation are four times more likely than the general population to experience depressive symptoms. […] The life expectancy of people who are diagnosed with severe depression is 10 years lower than that of the general population; one reason for this is the higher suicide rate in this group, but it is also because depression elevates the risk of the onset, persistence and severity of a wide range of physical disorders.

• #79 Causes of depression | MGH Depression Clinical and Research Program

  https://depressionmgh.org/learn-about-depression/causes-depression

  Physical illness can directly affect the brains neurotransmitter systems and may increase the risk of developing depression. […] About twice as many females as males develop depression overall, although rates of certain forms of depression, such as bipolar depression, are about equal across sexes. Increased risk of depression among females may be due to a number of factors, such as brain biology and hormones. […] Individuals who grow up with relatives suffering from depression are at an increased risk for developing depression later in life. This is likely due to a combination of genetic and environmental risk factors. […] Socioeconomic stressors can also affect the prevalence of depression. Differences in wealth/income, education, racial/ethnic minority status, and location can all affect an individual’s risk for developing the disorder.

• #80 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Age of onset of major depression may have both clinical and etiological implications. […] Etiological models for depression are largely diathesis-stress models in which stressful experiences trigger depression in those who may be vulnerable due to biological and psychosocial characteristics and circumstances. […] Biological, environmental, and personal vulnerabilities interact to contribute to the development of depression and also may be affected by depressive states in a bidirectional process. […] The purpose of this chapter is to review what is known or suspected about the causes of depression. […] The first topic to address is that not all depressions are alike; therefore, different etiological models and perspectives are likely to apply to different expressions of depressive disorder.

• #81 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Age of onset of major depression may have both clinical and etiological implications. […] Etiological models for depression are largely diathesis-stress models in which stressful experiences trigger depression in those who may be vulnerable due to biological and psychosocial characteristics and circumstances. […] Biological, environmental, and personal vulnerabilities interact to contribute to the development of depression and also may be affected by depressive states in a bidirectional process. […] The purpose of this chapter is to review what is known or suspected about the causes of depression. […] The first topic to address is that not all depressions are alike; therefore, different etiological models and perspectives are likely to apply to different expressions of depressive disorder.

• #82 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Evidence increasingly suggests that childhood, adolescent, adult, and older adult first onsets may reflect different causal factors. […] The dramatic hormonal changes a woman experiences during and after pregnancy have focused much attention on the biological and hormonal etiological factors of postpartum depression. […] However, there is widespread agreement that postpartum major depression is not distinct in terms of etiology from depression at other times. […] The course of depression may shed light on both treatment and prevention concerns and etiological issues. […] Early-onset recurrent depression may reflect a genetic etiology, but its progressive nature has also been speculated to indicate a neurobiological process in which early and successive episodes of depression alter the brain and neuroregulatory processes.

• #83 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Evidence increasingly suggests that childhood, adolescent, adult, and older adult first onsets may reflect different causal factors. […] The dramatic hormonal changes a woman experiences during and after pregnancy have focused much attention on the biological and hormonal etiological factors of postpartum depression. […] However, there is widespread agreement that postpartum major depression is not distinct in terms of etiology from depression at other times. […] The course of depression may shed light on both treatment and prevention concerns and etiological issues. […] Early-onset recurrent depression may reflect a genetic etiology, but its progressive nature has also been speculated to indicate a neurobiological process in which early and successive episodes of depression alter the brain and neuroregulatory processes.

• #84 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Evidence increasingly suggests that childhood, adolescent, adult, and older adult first onsets may reflect different causal factors. […] The dramatic hormonal changes a woman experiences during and after pregnancy have focused much attention on the biological and hormonal etiological factors of postpartum depression. […] However, there is widespread agreement that postpartum major depression is not distinct in terms of etiology from depression at other times. […] The course of depression may shed light on both treatment and prevention concerns and etiological issues. […] Early-onset recurrent depression may reflect a genetic etiology, but its progressive nature has also been speculated to indicate a neurobiological process in which early and successive episodes of depression alter the brain and neuroregulatory processes.

• #85 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Depression can be temporary or long-term. […] Depression is classified as a mood disorder. It may be described as feelings of sadness, loss, or anger that interfere with a persons everyday activities. […] There are several possible causes of depression. They can range from biological to circumstantial. […] Common causes include: Brain chemistry. There may be a chemical imbalance in parts of the brain that manage mood, thoughts, sleep, appetite, and behavior in people who have depression. […] Hormone levels. Changes in female hormones estrogen and progesterone during different periods of time like during the menstrual cycle, postpartum period, perimenopause, or menopause may all raise a persons risk for depression. […] Family history. Youre at a higher risk for developing depression if you have a family history of depression or another mood disorder.

• #86 Depression | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/mental-health/depression/

  Depression doesn’t have one single cause it can have a range of triggers, and there are many different reasons a person can develop the condition. Some people are affected after a stressful life event, like a bereavement or divorce. Other people experience depression related to illness, job loss, or money worries. […] Different reasons can combine and trigger depression. If you’re feeling low after a job loss or health issues, and then experience something traumatic, like a bereavement, you can develop depression. […] It’s common to hear about depression being brought on by a downward spiral one thing causing other problems that combine to cause depression. For example, losing your job could make you feel sad, so you spend less time with family and friends and maybe drink more alcohol. These things all make you feel worse, which triggers depression.

• #87 What Is Depression? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/depression/guide/

  Depression can occur spontaneously, without any obvious cause. And its well documented that once youve had one depressive episode, your risk of having another later in life increases. […] Psychiatrists today generally look at depression in bio-psycho-social terms, meaning that they see it as a complex disorder most likely triggered by overlapping biological, psychological, and social (also referred to as environmental) factors. […] Among the potential contributors to depression are: Genetics Many studies suggest that depression can spring from a genetic predisposition, including one international study involving more than 807,000 people, that linked 269 genes to depression. […] Neurotransmitters The long-held idea that depression is caused by low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin (a chemical messenger that communicates between neurons) has been debunked, according to one review.

• #88 What Causes Depression? | JED

  https://jedfoundation.org/resource/what-causes-depression/

  What Causes Depression? […] Researchers are still sorting out what causes depression, but we do know there’s not one set cause for depression and sometimes there is no specific or obvious reason for it. There are, however, some things that can increase the chances someone will experience it, including: […] Biology: There are chemicals in your brain—such as serotonin and dopamine—that directly affect your mood and how you process emotions. How brains produce and use these chemicals is different for different people, and it can increase the chance you could have depression. […] Family history: Having parents or siblings with depression can put you at higher risk. […] Feeling isolated or rejected from friends or family: LGBTQ teens, for example, are more likely to experience isolation or a lack of acceptance from friends and family—which puts them at risk of developing depression and other mood disorders.

• #89 What causes depression? – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/what-causes-depression

  It’s often said that depression results from a chemical imbalance, but that figure of speech doesn’t capture how complex the disease is. Research suggests that depression doesn’t spring from simply having too much or too little of certain brain chemicals. Rather, there are many possible causes of depression, including faulty mood regulation by the brain, genetic vulnerability, and stressful life events. It’s believed that several of these forces interact to bring on depression. […] Scientists have learned much about the biology of depression, but their understanding of the biology of depression is far from complete. Major advances in the biology of depression include finding links between specific parts of the brain and depression effects, discovering how chemicals called neurotransmitters make communication between brains cells possible, and learning the impact of genetics and lifestyle events on risk and symptoms of depression.

• #90 Causes of depression – Beyond Blue

  https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/depression/causes-of-depression

  We dont know exactly what causes depression. However, we do know there are a number of things linked to its development. […] Depression usually develops because of a combination of life events, personal factors and changes in the brain. It doesnt usually develop because of one issue or event. […] Depression can run in families and some people will be at an increased genetic risk. […] Some people may be more at risk of depression because of their personality. […] The stress and worry of coping with a serious illness can lead to depression, especially if its long-term or youre dealing with chronic pain. […] Drug and alcohol use can lead to depression. Many people with depression also have drug and alcohol problems. […] Research suggests that continuing difficulties are more likely to cause depression than recent life stresses.

• #91 Causes of depression – Beyond Blue

  https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/depression/causes-of-depression

  Depression isnt simply the result of a chemical imbalance, like having too much or not enough of a particular brain chemical. […] The way your brain regulates your moods can be affected by genetic vulnerability, severe life stressors, some medications, drugs and alcohol, and medical conditions. […] Most modern antidepressants affect your brains chemical transmitters (serotonin and noradrenaline), which relay messages between brain cells. […] Effective treatment can stimulate the growth of new nerve cells in circuits that regulate your mood. This may help you recover from severe depression.

• #92 Causes of Depression: Genetics, Illness, Abuse, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/causes-depression

  When pain lingers for weeks to months, it’s called „chronic.” Not only does chronic pain hurt, but it also disturbs your sleep, your ability to exercise and be active, your relationships, and your productivity at work. Chronic pain may also leave you feeling sad, isolated, and depressed. […] Researchers aren’t sure how the link between chronic pain and depression works. […] Grief is a common, normal response to loss. […] Researchers know that a loss can lead to a bout of major depression. […] Depression is a complicated condition that has many causes. Researchers have found links to brain structures, family history, medications, other illnesses, and chronic pain. […] Researchers suggest that the causes of depression include genetic, biological, psychological, and environmental factors. If you’re dealing with depression, it probably stems from a combination of factors rather than just one thing. […] Depression usually doesn’t have one single cause. It’s usually the result of several factors.

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