Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Epidemiology, presentation, and diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-presentation-and-diagnosis-of-type-1-diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents/print

  Epidemiology, presentation, and diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents […] Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), one of the most common chronic diseases in childhood, is caused by insulin deficiency following destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells. It most commonly presents in childhood, but one-fourth of cases are diagnosed in adults. T1DM remains the most common form of diabetes in childhood, despite the increasing rate of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). […] The epidemiology, presentation, and diagnosis of T1DM in children and adolescents are presented here.

• #1 Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/1202136

  The prevalence of diabetes mellitus is increasing globally. […] In 2021, it was estimated that over 1.2 million children and adolescents were living with type 1 diabetes. […] The incidence and prevalence estimates of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents (ages 0-14 and 0-19) were provided by the 10th Edition of the IDF Diabetes Atlas Type 1 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents Special Interest Group. […] According to this atlas, the total number of children and adolescents aged 0-19 living with type 1 diabetes is 1.2 million, with 184,100 new diagnoses each year. […] The incidence and prevalence of T1DM are increasing each year due to rising incidence in many countries and reductions in mortality. […] Global estimates for type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents (0-14 years and 0-19 years) in 2021, according to IDF Atlas 10th edition, are written in Table 1.

• #1

  https://consensus.app/questions/type-1-diabetes-in-children/

  Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is one of the most common chronic diseases affecting children and adolescents. The incidence and prevalence of T1D have been steadily increasing worldwide. Studies have shown that the incidence rate varies significantly by region, with the highest rates observed in Finland and high-income North America. The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) estimates that there are approximately 98,200 new cases annually in children under 15 years old, with a total prevalence of 600,900 cases globally. The incidence rates are particularly high in Europe and North America, while lower rates are observed in sub-Saharan Africa and some parts of Asia. […] Type 1 diabetes in children aged 0-19 years is increasing, with genetic and environmental factors playing a significant role in its increasing incidence.

• #1 Diabetes in America: Prevalence, Statistics, and Economic Impact

  https://diabetes.org/about-diabetes/statistics/about-diabetes

  2 million Americans have type 1 diabetes, including about 304,000 children and adolescents. […] In 2017-2018, the annual incidence of diagnosed diabetes in youth was estimated at 18,200 with type 1 diabetes.

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-021-05571-8

  Data on type 1 diabetes incidence and prevalence are limited, particularly for adults. This study aims to estimate global numbers of incident and prevalent cases of type 1 diabetes in 2017 for all age groups, by country and areas defined by income and region. […] Global numbers of incident and prevalent cases of type 1 diabetes were estimated to be 234,710 and 9,004,610, respectively, in 2017. […] Type 1 diabetes is among the most common chronic diseases in children. […] The aim of this study is to provide country, regional and global estimates of numbers of new cases of type 1 diabetes (incident cases) and numbers of people living with type 1 diabetes (prevalent cases) for 2017, covering all age groups. […] The number of people who developed type 1 diabetes in 2017 (incident cases) was estimated to be 234,710.

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-021-05571-8

  There were an estimated 9,004,610 prevalent cases of type 1 diabetes in 2017 globally. […] Age-standardised prevalence was highest in North America (4.4 per 1000), followed by Oceania, which is dominated by Australia and New Zealand (3.4 per 1000), and Europe (3.0 per 1000), and lowest in Africa (0.8 per 1000) and Asia (0.6 per 1000). […] Our estimates find substantial variations in the number of both incident and prevalent cases of type 1 diabetes between countries, country income levels and geographical areas. […] These findings suggest that global responses targeted at improving type 1 diabetes care should ensure these older populations are included.

• #1 Pediatric Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/919999-overview

  Type 1 diabetes mellitus has wide geographic variation in incidence and prevalence. Annual incidence varies from 0.61 cases per 100,000 population in China to 41.4 cases per 100,000 population in Finland. Substantial variations are observed between nearby countries with differing lifestyles, such as Estonia and Finland, and between genetically similar populations, such as those in Iceland and Norway. […] Different environmental effects on type 1 diabetes mellitus development complicate the influence of race, but racial differences are evident. Whites have the highest reported incidence, whereas Chinese individuals have the lowest. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is 1.5 times more likely to develop in American Whites than in American Blacks or Hispanics. […] Type 1 diabetes mellitus can occur at any age, but incidence rates generally increase with age until midpuberty and then decline. Onset in the first year of life, although unusual, can occur. Type 1 diabetes mellitus must be considered in any infant or toddler, because these children have the greatest risk for mortality if diagnosis is delayed. […] In areas with high prevalence rates, a bimodal variation of incidence has been reported that shows a definite peak in early childhood (ie, ages 4-6 y) and a second, much greater peak of incidence during early puberty (ie, ages 10-14 y).

• #1 Epidemiology and phenotypes of diabetes in children and adolescents in non-European-origin populations in or from Western Pacific region

  https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v11/i2/173.htm

  Type 1 diabetes (T1D) incidence varies substantially between countries/territories, with most studies indicating increasing incidence. […] In Western Pacific region (WPR), reported rates are much lower than European-origin populations. […] A deeper understanding of T1D and T2D in the WPR may illuminate factors important in pathogenesis of these conditions. […] The objective of this systematic review is to compile and summarise current published epidemiologic and phenotypic data on childhood diabetes in non-European populations in and from the Western Pacific. […] T1D incidence ranged from 1-7.3/100000 individuals/year, rates were highest in emigrant/mixed populations and lowest in South-East Asia, with most countries/territories (71.4%) having no data since 1999. […] Incidence was increasing in all six countries/territories with data (annual increases 0.5%-14.2%, highest in China). […] T1D is less common, but generally has a classic phenotype. […] Some countries/territories have rapidly increasing incidence. […] Registries and studies are needed to fill many information gaps.

• #1 Type 1 Diabetes in Children – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441918/

  Type 1 diabetes may be diagnosed at nearly any age, though peaks in presentation occur between ages 5 to 7 and around puberty. There appears to be seasonal variation with more cases diagnosed in fall and winter. Unlike most autoimmune disorders, type 1 diabetes is slightly more common in boys and men. In the past several decades, type 1 diabetes incidence and prevalence has increased in most age, sex, and race/ethnic groups with some of the fastest growth in young children. There is significant variability in incidence based on geography and ethnicity. For example, the incidence in Finland is 60 per 100,000 person-years, while in China it is 0.1 per 100,000. In the United States, there are approximately 20 to 30 new diagnoses per 100,000 person-years. These incidences have increased by 200% to 300% in the past several decades. In the United States, there are now more than 1.25 million people living with type 1 diabetes, and around 500,000 are children.

• #1 Epidemiology of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes in Gran Canaria (2006–2018) | Endocrinología, Diabetes y Nutrición (English ed.)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-endocrinologia-diabetes-nutricion-english-ed–413-articulo-epidemiology-childhood-onset-type-1-diabetes-S2530018020301566

  Epidemiology of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes in Gran Canaria (20062018) […] To study the incidence of type 1 diabetes (T1D) in children 14 years in the island of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain) during the 20062018 period and to evaluate its temporal trend, seasonality, age and sex distribution. […] 453 new T1D cases were observed during the 13-year period. The overall incidence of T1D between 2006 and 2018 was 30.48/100,000 (95% CI: 27.7433.42). […] Our study shows that the Island of Gran Canaria has one of the highest childhood incidences of T1D reported worldwide: among the highest rates in Europe, and higher than the rates published for the neighbouring African countries. […] We present the incidence of childhood-onset T1D in the island of Gran Canaria during a 13-year period (20062018).

• #1 Type 1 diabetes – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_diabetes

  Type 1 diabetes makes up an estimated 10-15% of all diabetes cases or 9 million cases worldwide. Symptoms can begin at any age, but onset is most common in children, with diagnoses slightly more common in 5 to 7 year olds, and much more common around the age of puberty. In 2006, type 1 diabetes affected 440,000 children under 14 years of age and was the primary cause of diabetes in those less than 15 years of age. Rates vary widely by country and region. Incidence is highest in Scandinavia, at 30-60 new cases per 100,000 children per year, intermediate in the U.S. and Southern Europe at 10-20 cases per 100,000 per year, and lowest in China, much of Asia, and South America at 1-3 cases per 100,000 per year. In the United States, type 1 and 2 diabetes affected about 208,000 youths under the age of 20 in 2015. Over 18,000 youths are diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes every year. Every year about 234,051 Americans die due to diabetes (type I or II) or diabetes-related complications, with 69,071 having it as the primary cause of death. In Australia, about one million people have been diagnosed with diabetes and of this figure 130,000 people have been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes. Australia ranks 6th-highest in the world with children under 14 years of age. Between 2000 and 2013, 31,895 new cases were established, with 2,323 in 2013, a rate of 10-13 cases per 100,000 people each year. Since the 1950s, the incidence of type 1 diabetes has been gradually increasing across the world by an average 3-4% per year. The increase is more pronounced in countries that began with a lower incidence of type 1 diabetes. A single 2023 study suggested a relationship between COVID-19 infection and the incidence of type 1 diabetes in children; confirmatory studies have not appeared to date.

• #1 Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes | Johns Hopkins Diabetes Guide

  https://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/view/Johns_Hopkins_Diabetes_Guide/547048/all/Epidemiology_of_Type_1_Diabetes?q=1+Diabetes+Epidemiology+Type+of

  Incidence and prevalence of type 1 diabetes (T1DM) in the U.S. (SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study Group) […] Between 2002 and 2009 there was an increase in the incidence of T1DM, from 24.4/100,000 in 2002 to 27.4/100,000 in 2009 (annual increase 2.7%). […] Significant increases in incidence were present in boys and girls, and all age groups except for children aged 0-4 years of age. The incidence was highest among youth aged 5-9 years (38.7 per 100,000 person years) and lowest among youth aged 15-19 years (14.8 per 100,000 person years) in 2009. […] Prevalence of T1DM has also increased: 0.15% in 2001 to 0.19% in 2009 (30% increase). Significant increases in prevalence were seen among boys and girls, in all age groups, and all race/ethnic groups except for Asian Pacific Islanders and American Indians. […] In 2009, the prevalence of T1DM was highest among children 15-19 (0.32%) and non-Hispanic Whites (0.25%). The lowest prevalence is observed among very young children aged 0-4 (0.03%) and American Indian (0.04%).

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00592-024-02339-5

  Type 1 diabetes is one of the fastest-growing chronic health conditions. Estimating the incidence rate of childhood type 1 diabetes will allow to aid in adequate planning of health care resources. The study’s aim was to assess the incidence rate of type 1 diabetes in children below 15 years of age from Greater Poland (Poland) between 2006 and 2018, and then to compare obtained data to records collected between 1998 and 2003 in pediatric population aged 0-14 years from the same area. […] Over a 20-year period, the incidence rate of type 1 diabetes in children aged 0-14 years rose around 3.6-fold, from 8.4/100,000 in 1998 to 30.8/100,000 in 2018, with the peak incidence recorded in last year of the study. […] The incidence of type 1 diabetes in children aged 0-14 years is rapidly increasing in Greater Poland.

• #1 Epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents: A 50‐year, single‐center experience

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11045915/

  Global variations in epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) exist. This study is designed to examine demographic and clinical features of T1DM over the past 3 decades as well as evolving trends in epidemiology over last 50 years. Mean age at diagnosis decreased from 9.5 ± 4.0 to 7.1 ± 3.6 years within the past 50 years (p < 0.001). Age at diagnosis peaked at 12-14 years between 1969 and 1990, then fell to 10-11.9 years between 1990 and 1999, and to 4-5.9 years between 2000-2009 and 2010-2019 (p = 0.005). Although the percentage of patients diagnosed under 6 years of age is gradually increasing, the percentage diagnosed between ages of 6 and 11.9 years is decreasing, and the percentage diagnosed at 12 years remained stable. A total of 47.5% of patients had ketoacidosis, 38.2% had ketosis, and 14.3% had only hyperglycemia. 23% of patients had severe diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), whereas 42% had moderate. Over the last 3 decades, there has been no change in frequency of ketoacidosis at presentation, but there has been significant decline in severity (p = 0.865, and p < 0.001, respectively). Although the frequency of patients with mild DKA increased over time, frequency of patients with moderate DKA decreased; however, no significant difference was observed among patients with severe ketoacidosis. DKA was more frequent and severe in patients under 6 years of age (p = 0.005, and p < 0.001, respectively). Age at diagnosis shifted to younger ages in T1DM in the past 50 years. Half of patients had ketoacidosis at diagnosis and frequency of presentation with DKA did not decrease, but severity decreased slightly. Increase in prevalence of T1DM in the younger age group and the fact that half of patients present with DKA indicate that awareness should be increased in terms of early diagnosis and treatment.

• #1 Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/1202136

  Recent studies indicate that more adults than children are diagnosed with T1DM each year (316,000 vs. 194,000 incident cases globally in 2021), with an average diagnosis age of 32 years. […] Additionally, there appears to be an age-dependent pattern of T1DM incidence, with the incidence increasing as age rises. […] Autoimmune diseases, including T1DM, are more frequently diagnosed in females. […] However, some studies show a predominance of T1DM in males, with differences emerging after puberty. […] Generally, populations with higher incidences of T1DM tend to show a greater male predominance. […] Because genetic factors alone cannot explain the rapid increase in T1DM incidence, various environmental and socioeconomic factors have been implicated.

• #1 Epidemiology | Children’s Mercy Kansas City

  https://www.childrensmercy.org/health-care-providers/evidence-based-practice/cpgs-cpms-and-eras-pathways/diabetic-ketoacidosis-dka-clinical-practice-guideline/epidemiology/

  In most western countries, type 1 diabetes accounts for over 90% of childhood and adolescent diabetes, although less than half of individuals with type 1 diabetes are diagnosed before the age of 15 years. […] Type 1 diabetes incidence varies greatly between different countries, within countries, and between different ethnic populations. Annual incidence rate for childhood type 1 diabetes in the United States is 19 per 100,000. There has been a well documented rise in the incidence within the United States, with a disproportionately greater increase in those under the age of 5 years. […] Despite familial aggregation, which accounts for approximately 10% of cases of type 1 diabetes, there is no recognizable pattern of inheritance. The risk of diabetes to an identical twin of a patient with type 1 diabetes is about 36%; for a sibling the risk is approximately 4% by age 20 years and 9.6% by age 60 years; compared with 0.5 % for the general population. Type 1 diabetes is 2-3 times more common in the offspring of diabetic men (3.6-8.5%) compared with diabetic women (1.3-3.6%).

• #1 Type 1 Diabetes in Children – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441918/

  If a child has type 1 diabetes, concordance in another sibling is around 5%. In fraternal twins, it is around 10% to 30%, and with identical twins, it is 40% to 50%. Children of adults with type 1 diabetes are at an approximately 5% to 8% risk. In the United States, the general population risk is approximately 0.3%.

• #1 Changes in the Global Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes in an Evolving Landscape of Environmental Factors: Causes, Challenges, and Opportunities

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/668

  The worldwide incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) has increased in recent decades. […] In 2021, the number of individuals living with T1DM was estimated to be approximately 8.4 million worldwide, with 500,000 new cases that year. […] The prevalence of T1DM increases annually by 0.34%. […] The contribution of environmental factors to the initiation of the autoimmune process that results in the destruction of β-cells has been thoroughly investigated. […] The epidemic of obesity, which leads to insulin resistance and lipid disorders, has been suggested to accelerate the presentation of T1DM in genetically predisposed individuals. […] Several early life factors have been associated with the development of T1DM later in life. […] The cesarean section has been associated in many studies with an increased risk of developing T1DM.

• #1 Changes in the Global Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes in an Evolving Landscape of Environmental Factors: Causes, Challenges, and Opportunities

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/668

  The hygiene hypothesis proposes that childhood exposure to microbes helps the immune system mature and develop, and thus in the absence of such exposure, the risk of autoimmune diseases increases. […] Exposure to increased concentrations of ozone in the air, both after birth and in utero, has been associated with an increased risk of developing T1DM. […] The incidence of T1DM has recently been shown to increase as one moves closer to the sea. […] In support of the notion that the environment mediates the risk of the presentation of T1DM, several migrant studies demonstrated differences in the incidence of the disease between genetically “identical” populations living in different environments. […] By understanding the exact mechanisms through which environmental factors play a role in the development of T1DM, we can shed light on the complex pathogenesis of the disease, identify new risk factors that are still unknown, and finally figure out what public health measures are required to halt the increase in new T1DM cases.

• #1 P06 The epidemiology of type 1 diabetes in children from Northeast England | Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health

  https://jech.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_1/A36.1

  Objective Environmental factors are involved in the aetiology of type 1 diabetes. A particular role for infectious exposures has been postulated. Temporal and spatial variation in incidence would be consistent with this hypothesis. We aimed to test predictions of increasing incidence and spatial variation occurring among cases of type 1 diabetes in children (aged 014years) that might arise as a result of environmental mechanisms. […] Age-standardised incidence rates increased from 15.7 per 100000 population in 19901995 to 27.9 per 100000 population in 20022007. Furthermore, there was a regular 6-year cyclical pattern of plus or minus 25% in incidence rates (RR 1.25; 95% CI 1.11 to 1.41) and an overall increase of 4.8% per annum (95% CI 3.1 to 6.6). […] The results are consistent with the involvement of one or more environmental exposures in aetiology. A possible role for a specific infectious agent should be considered.

• #1

  https://journals.lww.com/epidem/fulltext/2010/11000/cyclical_variation_in_type_1_childhood_diabetes.28.aspx

  We investigated the temporal patterns and trends in incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes with the aim of better understanding its etiology. […] A total of 526 cases (261 boys, 265 girls) were diagnosed. The overall age-standardized incidence rate over the study period was 20.5 per 100,00019.9 for boys and 21.2 for girls. […] The overall incidence increased over time from 14.6 per 100,000 in 19901995 to 27.4 per 100,000 in 20022007. […] A cyclical pattern in incidence is, however, consistent with the involvement of an infectious agent that itself displays a regular pattern in the environment. […] This analysis suggests a direct role for an environmental agent such as infection. […] We believe that a rising incidence of type 1 diabetes together with a 6-year cyclical pattern, supports the role of an infectious agent in the evolution of the disease in northeast England.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes

  Type 1 diabetes (previously known as insulin-dependent, juvenile or childhood-onset) is characterized by deficient insulin production and requires daily administration of insulin. In 2017 there were 9 million people with type 1 diabetes; the majority of them live in high-income countries. Neither its cause nor the means to prevent it are known. […] WHO aims to stimulate and support the adoption of effective measures for the surveillance, prevention and control of diabetes and its complications, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. […] In April 2021 WHO launched the Global Diabetes Compact, a global initiative aiming for sustained improvements in diabetes prevention and care, with a particular focus on supporting low- and middle-income countries.

• #1 Altering Trends in the Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/24097

  Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is one of the most common endocrine metabolic disorders in children and adolescence worldwide with serious acute and chronic complications. […] The prevalence of T1DM greatly varies between different countries, within countries, and between different ethnic populations. […] A number of 37 studies from 27 countries confirmed the increased incidence for the period 1960-96 in T1DM with an upward tendency in another 12 countries. […] The need for rigorous epidemiological studies to monitor the trends of T1DM in children less than 15 year of age led to the creation of the World Health Organization (WHO) -sponsored Diabetes Mondiale (DIAMOND) Project and the EURODIAB study. […] The data from the WHO project for the incidence of T1DM worldwide DIAMOND showed a large geographic variability.

• #1 Diabetes surveillance – Children and adolescents – Prevalence of type 1 diabetes

  https://diabsurv.rki.de/Webs/Diabsurv/EN/diabetes-in-germany/child/2-11_Prevalence_of_type_1_diabetes.html

  In 2022, around 34,600 children and adolescents in Germany had type 1 diabetes. […] The prevalence increases with age and is highest among 14- to 17-year-olds. […] Overall, there was a slight annual increase in prevalence between 2014 and 2022. […] In 2022, the prevalence (per 100,000 persons) of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents aged 0 to 17 years in Germany was 243 (girls 233; boys 251). This corresponds to an absolute number of 34,567 cases. Prevalence increases with age to 434.2 among 14- to 17-year-old girls and 490.3 among boys of the same age. During the 2014 to 2022 observation period, cases increased slightly annually by 0.3 % (boys: 0.7 %, girls: -0.2 %). […] In 2022, around 34,600 children and adolescents were affected by type 1 diabetes. The prevalence was slightly higher among boys. Nationwide analyses for the period 2014 to 2022 using registry data show that the prevalence of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents in Germany is increasing only slightly per year overall.

• #1 Diabetes surveillance – Children and adolescents – Prevalence of type 1 diabetes

  https://diabsurv.rki.de/Webs/Diabsurv/EN/diabetes-in-germany/child/2-11_Prevalence_of_type_1_diabetes.html

  The indicator prevalence of type 1 diabetes is defined as the number of children and adolescents with a registered or documented case of type 1 diabetes per 100,000 children and adolescents in the population. […] Children and adolescents aged between 0 and 17 years who are resident in Germany. […] Nationwide and regional diabetes registers (DPV register, ESPED incidence register, North-Rhine Westphalia register, Saxony diabetes register). The data are based on the March 2023 data set from the DPV database.

• #1

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/chronic/Pages/Diabetes-Mellitus-Type-1-Diabetes.aspx

  Type 1 diabetes is one of the most common chronic diseases affecting children and teens. […] With early detection, timely treatment and the support of primary care providers and pediatric endocrinologists, the management and prognosis of type 1 diabetes continues to improve. This means families can navigate the disease more effectively and embrace a healthier future. […] Advances in screening have made it possible to assess the risk of developing type 1 diabetes before symptoms appear. People at higher risk, including those with a relative with type 1 diabetes, may be eligible for screening through a research study. And other options may be available for those without a type 1 diabetes relative. […] While type 1 diabetes cannot yet be fully prevented, newer medications can help delay its onset in certain high-risk individuals.

• #1 Type 1 diabetes in children – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-1-diabetes-in-children/symptoms-causes/syc-20355306

  Complications can include: Heart and blood vessel disease. […] Diabetes increases your child’s risk of developing conditions such as narrowed blood vessels, high blood pressure, heart disease and stroke later in life. […] Children with type 1 diabetes are at risk of other autoimmune disorders, such as thyroid disease and celiac disease. […] There’s currently no sure way to prevent type 1 diabetes, but this is a very active area of research. […] The antibodies associated with type 1 diabetes in children who have a high risk of the disorder can be detected months or even years before the first symptoms of type 1 diabetes appear.

• #1 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents

  The risk of progression to stage 3 by stage at diagnosis includes stage 1 (44% 5-year risk and an 80 to 90% 15-year risk) and stage 2 (75% 5-year risk and a 100% lifetime risk). […] Type 1 diabetes is caused by an autoimmune attack on pancreatic beta-cells, causing complete lack of insulin; it accounts for two thirds of new cases in children and can occur at any age. […] All children with type 1 diabetes require insulin treatment; intensive glycemic control helps prevent long-term complications but increases risk of hypoglycemic episodes. […] Advances in diabetes technology, such as continuous glucose monitoring systems, are aimed at improving glycemic control while reducing hypoglycemic episodes.

• #1 Health related quality of Life with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | PHMT

  https://www.dovepress.com/health-related-quality-of-life-and-associated-factors-among-children-a-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-PHMT

  Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is one of the most common chronic diseases during childhood and adolescence. It threatens the health and endangers life with consequences for the physical and emotional development of the child and adolescent. Our study aimed at determining the health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) and factors affecting it in children and adolescents with T1DM. […] In Ethiopia, the estimated prevalence of T1DM among children and adolescents of 0-19 years old is 2.4 per 100,000 per year according to International Diabetes Federation (IDF) 2021 report. […] Health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) of children and adolescents with T1DM consists of the physical, social, school, and emotional functioning of the patients. […] Evidence shows that HRQoL has been reported to be lower among T1DM children and adolescents compared to their counterparts without diabetes.

• #1 Health related quality of Life with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | PHMT

  https://www.dovepress.com/health-related-quality-of-life-and-associated-factors-among-children-a-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-PHMT

  Assessment of HRQoL needs to be incorporated with the medical management of diabetes mellitus for children and adolescents. […] Although the number of children with T1DM in Ethiopia is high and increasing in incidence, apart from the medical treatment on the glycemic control and prevention of the chronic complications, the generic HRQoL has been neglected and there are limited studies in our country. […] The results of this study will identify the level and factors affecting of HRQoL and provide information for healthcare providers and policymakers. […] The study found that the mean score of HRQoL was higher among children than adolescents, as reported by a study conducted in Turkey. […] Moreover, the HRQoL of children and adolescents is significantly associated with diabetes duration and frequency of monitoring of blood glucose.

• #1 Hormones.gr

  http://www.hormones.gr/756/article/epidemiology-of-type-1-diabetes-mellitus%E2%80%A6.html

  The incidence of T1DM in Cyprus is rising. […] Today, the incidence of T1DM is plainly on the increase throughout the world and it is estimated that it may reach the status of a pandemic by the mid-21st century. […] A large number of studies have been published clearly confirming the rising incidence of T1DM, especially in the younger age groups, and this is of the greatest concern. […] If these trends continue, the number of new cases of Type 1 diabetes mellitus in children younger than five years of age may double in some regions between 2005 and 2020, with cases in children under 15 years rising by 70% among the total of T1DM population. […] Our findings during the 20-year period (1990-2009) suggest that the overall prevalence of T1DM is increasing in Cyprus and is currently at 12.46/100,000; the largest increase is seen in children less than five years of age, which is consistent with previously published data. […] In summary, we have shown that the incidence of T1DM in Cyprus is rising. Further research is needed to delineate the pathogenic mechanisms responsible for the observed increase in the incidence of childhood diabetes.

• #1 Type 1 Diabetes Research | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health

  https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2024/type-1-diabetes-research

  The focus of our research has been trying to understand and characterize the general epidemiology and the population burden of Type 1 diabetes. […] Some studies have suggested that when Type 1 diabetes occurs in adulthood, about 40% of those cases are misdiagnosed initially as Type 2 cases. Understanding how often people get diagnosed later in life is important to correctly diagnose and treat patients. […] Because of the epidemic of overweight and obese in the general population, we’re seeing a lot of people with Type 1 diabetes who are overweight and have obesity. This can contribute to issues around misdiagnosis because people with Type 1 diabetes will have signs and will present similarly to Type 2 diabetes. […] We found that approximately 62% of adults with Type 1 diabetes were either overweight or obese, which is comparable to the general U.S. population.

• #1 Epidemiology of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes in Gran Canaria (2006–2018) | Endocrinología, Diabetes y Nutrición (English ed.)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-endocrinologia-diabetes-nutricion-english-ed–413-articulo-epidemiology-childhood-onset-type-1-diabetes-S2530018020301566

  We found no significant difference in incidence by sex, in line with data published from Australia or other international reviews. […] We found no significant seasonality in the appearance of T1D, with small, non-significant peaks in September and February, in agreement with previous reports from the Canary Islands. […] We found an interesting, albeit non-significant, correlation between the number of new T1D cases and the cases of flu the previous year, which might be worth exploring further.

• #2 Epidemiology, presentation, and diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-presentation-and-diagnosis-of-type-1-diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents/print

  Epidemiology, presentation, and diagnosis of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents […] Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), one of the most common chronic diseases in childhood, is caused by insulin deficiency following destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells. It most commonly presents in childhood, but one-fourth of cases are diagnosed in adults. T1DM remains the most common form of diabetes in childhood, despite the increasing rate of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). […] The epidemiology, presentation, and diagnosis of T1DM in children and adolescents are presented here.

• #2 Pediatric Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/919999-overview

  Type 1 diabetes mellitus has wide geographic variation in incidence and prevalence. Annual incidence varies from 0.61 cases per 100,000 population in China to 41.4 cases per 100,000 population in Finland. Substantial variations are observed between nearby countries with differing lifestyles, such as Estonia and Finland, and between genetically similar populations, such as those in Iceland and Norway. […] Different environmental effects on type 1 diabetes mellitus development complicate the influence of race, but racial differences are evident. Whites have the highest reported incidence, whereas Chinese individuals have the lowest. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is 1.5 times more likely to develop in American Whites than in American Blacks or Hispanics. […] Type 1 diabetes mellitus can occur at any age, but incidence rates generally increase with age until midpuberty and then decline. Onset in the first year of life, although unusual, can occur. Type 1 diabetes mellitus must be considered in any infant or toddler, because these children have the greatest risk for mortality if diagnosis is delayed. […] In areas with high prevalence rates, a bimodal variation of incidence has been reported that shows a definite peak in early childhood (ie, ages 4-6 y) and a second, much greater peak of incidence during early puberty (ie, ages 10-14 y).

• #2 Type 1 diabetes – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_diabetes

  Type 1 diabetes makes up an estimated 10-15% of all diabetes cases or 9 million cases worldwide. Symptoms can begin at any age, but onset is most common in children, with diagnoses slightly more common in 5 to 7 year olds, and much more common around the age of puberty. In 2006, type 1 diabetes affected 440,000 children under 14 years of age and was the primary cause of diabetes in those less than 15 years of age. Rates vary widely by country and region. Incidence is highest in Scandinavia, at 30-60 new cases per 100,000 children per year, intermediate in the U.S. and Southern Europe at 10-20 cases per 100,000 per year, and lowest in China, much of Asia, and South America at 1-3 cases per 100,000 per year. In the United States, type 1 and 2 diabetes affected about 208,000 youths under the age of 20 in 2015. Over 18,000 youths are diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes every year. Every year about 234,051 Americans die due to diabetes (type I or II) or diabetes-related complications, with 69,071 having it as the primary cause of death. In Australia, about one million people have been diagnosed with diabetes and of this figure 130,000 people have been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes. Australia ranks 6th-highest in the world with children under 14 years of age. Between 2000 and 2013, 31,895 new cases were established, with 2,323 in 2013, a rate of 10-13 cases per 100,000 people each year. Since the 1950s, the incidence of type 1 diabetes has been gradually increasing across the world by an average 3-4% per year. The increase is more pronounced in countries that began with a lower incidence of type 1 diabetes. A single 2023 study suggested a relationship between COVID-19 infection and the incidence of type 1 diabetes in children; confirmatory studies have not appeared to date.

• #2 Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes | Johns Hopkins Diabetes Guide

  https://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/view/Johns_Hopkins_Diabetes_Guide/547048/all/Epidemiology_of_Type_1_Diabetes?q=1+Diabetes+Epidemiology+Type+of

  Incidence and prevalence of type 1 diabetes (T1DM) in the U.S. (SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study Group) […] Between 2002 and 2009 there was an increase in the incidence of T1DM, from 24.4/100,000 in 2002 to 27.4/100,000 in 2009 (annual increase 2.7%). […] Significant increases in incidence were present in boys and girls, and all age groups except for children aged 0-4 years of age. The incidence was highest among youth aged 5-9 years (38.7 per 100,000 person years) and lowest among youth aged 15-19 years (14.8 per 100,000 person years) in 2009. […] Prevalence of T1DM has also increased: 0.15% in 2001 to 0.19% in 2009 (30% increase). Significant increases in prevalence were seen among boys and girls, in all age groups, and all race/ethnic groups except for Asian Pacific Islanders and American Indians. […] In 2009, the prevalence of T1DM was highest among children 15-19 (0.32%) and non-Hispanic Whites (0.25%). The lowest prevalence is observed among very young children aged 0-4 (0.03%) and American Indian (0.04%).

• #2

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00592-024-02339-5

  The growing trend has been observed over a 13-year period. In 2006 the IR of childhood T1D was 9.2/100,000 per year and raised up to 30.8/100,000 per year in 2018 among children aged 0-14, with the peak incidence recorded in last year of the study. […] The incidence rates in children aged 0-15 years from Greater Poland between 1998 and 2003 and 2006-2018 evidently showed dynamic changes in trends in the incidence rates of T1D in Greater Poland. Over a 20-year period, the incidence rate dramatically rose from 8.4/100,000 per year to 30.8/100,000 per year. It indicates that Greater Poland experienced almost 3.6-fold increase in the incidence rate of childhood T1D in a relative short period. […] The IR of T1D in children aged 0-14 years living in Greater Poland has increased significantly over a period of 20 years, from 8.4/100,000 per year in 2008 to 30.8/100,000 per year in 2018.

• #2 Epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents: A 50‐year, single‐center experience

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11045915/

  Global variations in epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) exist. This study is designed to examine demographic and clinical features of T1DM over the past 3 decades as well as evolving trends in epidemiology over last 50 years. Mean age at diagnosis decreased from 9.5 ± 4.0 to 7.1 ± 3.6 years within the past 50 years (p < 0.001). Age at diagnosis peaked at 12-14 years between 1969 and 1990, then fell to 10-11.9 years between 1990 and 1999, and to 4-5.9 years between 2000-2009 and 2010-2019 (p = 0.005). Although the percentage of patients diagnosed under 6 years of age is gradually increasing, the percentage diagnosed between ages of 6 and 11.9 years is decreasing, and the percentage diagnosed at 12 years remained stable. A total of 47.5% of patients had ketoacidosis, 38.2% had ketosis, and 14.3% had only hyperglycemia. 23% of patients had severe diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), whereas 42% had moderate. Over the last 3 decades, there has been no change in frequency of ketoacidosis at presentation, but there has been significant decline in severity (p = 0.865, and p < 0.001, respectively). Although the frequency of patients with mild DKA increased over time, frequency of patients with moderate DKA decreased; however, no significant difference was observed among patients with severe ketoacidosis. DKA was more frequent and severe in patients under 6 years of age (p = 0.005, and p < 0.001, respectively). Age at diagnosis shifted to younger ages in T1DM in the past 50 years. Half of patients had ketoacidosis at diagnosis and frequency of presentation with DKA did not decrease, but severity decreased slightly. Increase in prevalence of T1DM in the younger age group and the fact that half of patients present with DKA indicate that awareness should be increased in terms of early diagnosis and treatment.

• #2 Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/1202136

  Recent studies indicate that more adults than children are diagnosed with T1DM each year (316,000 vs. 194,000 incident cases globally in 2021), with an average diagnosis age of 32 years. […] Additionally, there appears to be an age-dependent pattern of T1DM incidence, with the incidence increasing as age rises. […] Autoimmune diseases, including T1DM, are more frequently diagnosed in females. […] However, some studies show a predominance of T1DM in males, with differences emerging after puberty. […] Generally, populations with higher incidences of T1DM tend to show a greater male predominance. […] Because genetic factors alone cannot explain the rapid increase in T1DM incidence, various environmental and socioeconomic factors have been implicated.

• #2 Epidemiology | Children’s Mercy Kansas City

  https://www.childrensmercy.org/health-care-providers/evidence-based-practice/cpgs-cpms-and-eras-pathways/diabetic-ketoacidosis-dka-clinical-practice-guideline/epidemiology/

  In most western countries, type 1 diabetes accounts for over 90% of childhood and adolescent diabetes, although less than half of individuals with type 1 diabetes are diagnosed before the age of 15 years. […] Type 1 diabetes incidence varies greatly between different countries, within countries, and between different ethnic populations. Annual incidence rate for childhood type 1 diabetes in the United States is 19 per 100,000. There has been a well documented rise in the incidence within the United States, with a disproportionately greater increase in those under the age of 5 years. […] Despite familial aggregation, which accounts for approximately 10% of cases of type 1 diabetes, there is no recognizable pattern of inheritance. The risk of diabetes to an identical twin of a patient with type 1 diabetes is about 36%; for a sibling the risk is approximately 4% by age 20 years and 9.6% by age 60 years; compared with 0.5 % for the general population. Type 1 diabetes is 2-3 times more common in the offspring of diabetic men (3.6-8.5%) compared with diabetic women (1.3-3.6%).

• #2 Type 1 Diabetes in Children – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441918/

  If a child has type 1 diabetes, concordance in another sibling is around 5%. In fraternal twins, it is around 10% to 30%, and with identical twins, it is 40% to 50%. Children of adults with type 1 diabetes are at an approximately 5% to 8% risk. In the United States, the general population risk is approximately 0.3%.

• #2 Changes in the Global Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes in an Evolving Landscape of Environmental Factors: Causes, Challenges, and Opportunities

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/668

  The worldwide incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) has increased in recent decades. […] In 2021, the number of individuals living with T1DM was estimated to be approximately 8.4 million worldwide, with 500,000 new cases that year. […] The prevalence of T1DM increases annually by 0.34%. […] The contribution of environmental factors to the initiation of the autoimmune process that results in the destruction of β-cells has been thoroughly investigated. […] The epidemic of obesity, which leads to insulin resistance and lipid disorders, has been suggested to accelerate the presentation of T1DM in genetically predisposed individuals. […] Several early life factors have been associated with the development of T1DM later in life. […] The cesarean section has been associated in many studies with an increased risk of developing T1DM.

• #2 Changes in the Global Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes in an Evolving Landscape of Environmental Factors: Causes, Challenges, and Opportunities

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/668

  The hygiene hypothesis proposes that childhood exposure to microbes helps the immune system mature and develop, and thus in the absence of such exposure, the risk of autoimmune diseases increases. […] Exposure to increased concentrations of ozone in the air, both after birth and in utero, has been associated with an increased risk of developing T1DM. […] The incidence of T1DM has recently been shown to increase as one moves closer to the sea. […] In support of the notion that the environment mediates the risk of the presentation of T1DM, several migrant studies demonstrated differences in the incidence of the disease between genetically “identical” populations living in different environments. […] By understanding the exact mechanisms through which environmental factors play a role in the development of T1DM, we can shed light on the complex pathogenesis of the disease, identify new risk factors that are still unknown, and finally figure out what public health measures are required to halt the increase in new T1DM cases.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes

  Type 1 diabetes (previously known as insulin-dependent, juvenile or childhood-onset) is characterized by deficient insulin production and requires daily administration of insulin. In 2017 there were 9 million people with type 1 diabetes; the majority of them live in high-income countries. Neither its cause nor the means to prevent it are known. […] WHO aims to stimulate and support the adoption of effective measures for the surveillance, prevention and control of diabetes and its complications, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. […] In April 2021 WHO launched the Global Diabetes Compact, a global initiative aiming for sustained improvements in diabetes prevention and care, with a particular focus on supporting low- and middle-income countries.

• #2

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/chronic/Pages/Diabetes-Mellitus-Type-1-Diabetes.aspx

  Type 1 diabetes is one of the most common chronic diseases affecting children and teens. […] With early detection, timely treatment and the support of primary care providers and pediatric endocrinologists, the management and prognosis of type 1 diabetes continues to improve. This means families can navigate the disease more effectively and embrace a healthier future. […] Advances in screening have made it possible to assess the risk of developing type 1 diabetes before symptoms appear. People at higher risk, including those with a relative with type 1 diabetes, may be eligible for screening through a research study. And other options may be available for those without a type 1 diabetes relative. […] While type 1 diabetes cannot yet be fully prevented, newer medications can help delay its onset in certain high-risk individuals.

• #2 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents

  The risk of progression to stage 3 by stage at diagnosis includes stage 1 (44% 5-year risk and an 80 to 90% 15-year risk) and stage 2 (75% 5-year risk and a 100% lifetime risk). […] Type 1 diabetes is caused by an autoimmune attack on pancreatic beta-cells, causing complete lack of insulin; it accounts for two thirds of new cases in children and can occur at any age. […] All children with type 1 diabetes require insulin treatment; intensive glycemic control helps prevent long-term complications but increases risk of hypoglycemic episodes. […] Advances in diabetes technology, such as continuous glucose monitoring systems, are aimed at improving glycemic control while reducing hypoglycemic episodes.

• #2 Health related quality of Life with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | PHMT

  https://www.dovepress.com/health-related-quality-of-life-and-associated-factors-among-children-a-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-PHMT

  Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is one of the most common chronic diseases during childhood and adolescence. It threatens the health and endangers life with consequences for the physical and emotional development of the child and adolescent. Our study aimed at determining the health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) and factors affecting it in children and adolescents with T1DM. […] In Ethiopia, the estimated prevalence of T1DM among children and adolescents of 0-19 years old is 2.4 per 100,000 per year according to International Diabetes Federation (IDF) 2021 report. […] Health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) of children and adolescents with T1DM consists of the physical, social, school, and emotional functioning of the patients. […] Evidence shows that HRQoL has been reported to be lower among T1DM children and adolescents compared to their counterparts without diabetes.

• #2 Health related quality of Life with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | PHMT

  https://www.dovepress.com/health-related-quality-of-life-and-associated-factors-among-children-a-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-PHMT

  Assessment of HRQoL needs to be incorporated with the medical management of diabetes mellitus for children and adolescents. […] Although the number of children with T1DM in Ethiopia is high and increasing in incidence, apart from the medical treatment on the glycemic control and prevention of the chronic complications, the generic HRQoL has been neglected and there are limited studies in our country. […] The results of this study will identify the level and factors affecting of HRQoL and provide information for healthcare providers and policymakers. […] The study found that the mean score of HRQoL was higher among children than adolescents, as reported by a study conducted in Turkey. […] Moreover, the HRQoL of children and adolescents is significantly associated with diabetes duration and frequency of monitoring of blood glucose.

• #2 Type 1 Diabetes Research | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health

  https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2024/type-1-diabetes-research

  The focus of our research has been trying to understand and characterize the general epidemiology and the population burden of Type 1 diabetes. […] Some studies have suggested that when Type 1 diabetes occurs in adulthood, about 40% of those cases are misdiagnosed initially as Type 2 cases. Understanding how often people get diagnosed later in life is important to correctly diagnose and treat patients. […] Because of the epidemic of overweight and obese in the general population, we’re seeing a lot of people with Type 1 diabetes who are overweight and have obesity. This can contribute to issues around misdiagnosis because people with Type 1 diabetes will have signs and will present similarly to Type 2 diabetes. […] We found that approximately 62% of adults with Type 1 diabetes were either overweight or obese, which is comparable to the general U.S. population.

• #3

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-021-05571-8

  There were an estimated 9,004,610 prevalent cases of type 1 diabetes in 2017 globally. […] Age-standardised prevalence was highest in North America (4.4 per 1000), followed by Oceania, which is dominated by Australia and New Zealand (3.4 per 1000), and Europe (3.0 per 1000), and lowest in Africa (0.8 per 1000) and Asia (0.6 per 1000). […] Our estimates find substantial variations in the number of both incident and prevalent cases of type 1 diabetes between countries, country income levels and geographical areas. […] These findings suggest that global responses targeted at improving type 1 diabetes care should ensure these older populations are included.

• #3 Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes | Johns Hopkins Diabetes Guide

  https://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/view/Johns_Hopkins_Diabetes_Guide/547048/all/Epidemiology_of_Type_1_Diabetes?q=1+Diabetes+Epidemiology+Type+of

  Incidence and prevalence of type 1 diabetes (T1DM) in the U.S. (SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study Group) […] Between 2002 and 2009 there was an increase in the incidence of T1DM, from 24.4/100,000 in 2002 to 27.4/100,000 in 2009 (annual increase 2.7%). […] Significant increases in incidence were present in boys and girls, and all age groups except for children aged 0-4 years of age. The incidence was highest among youth aged 5-9 years (38.7 per 100,000 person years) and lowest among youth aged 15-19 years (14.8 per 100,000 person years) in 2009. […] Prevalence of T1DM has also increased: 0.15% in 2001 to 0.19% in 2009 (30% increase). Significant increases in prevalence were seen among boys and girls, in all age groups, and all race/ethnic groups except for Asian Pacific Islanders and American Indians. […] In 2009, the prevalence of T1DM was highest among children 15-19 (0.32%) and non-Hispanic Whites (0.25%). The lowest prevalence is observed among very young children aged 0-4 (0.03%) and American Indian (0.04%).

• #3 Pediatric Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/919999-overview

  Type 1 diabetes mellitus has wide geographic variation in incidence and prevalence. Annual incidence varies from 0.61 cases per 100,000 population in China to 41.4 cases per 100,000 population in Finland. Substantial variations are observed between nearby countries with differing lifestyles, such as Estonia and Finland, and between genetically similar populations, such as those in Iceland and Norway. […] Different environmental effects on type 1 diabetes mellitus development complicate the influence of race, but racial differences are evident. Whites have the highest reported incidence, whereas Chinese individuals have the lowest. Type 1 diabetes mellitus is 1.5 times more likely to develop in American Whites than in American Blacks or Hispanics. […] Type 1 diabetes mellitus can occur at any age, but incidence rates generally increase with age until midpuberty and then decline. Onset in the first year of life, although unusual, can occur. Type 1 diabetes mellitus must be considered in any infant or toddler, because these children have the greatest risk for mortality if diagnosis is delayed. […] In areas with high prevalence rates, a bimodal variation of incidence has been reported that shows a definite peak in early childhood (ie, ages 4-6 y) and a second, much greater peak of incidence during early puberty (ie, ages 10-14 y).

• #3 Epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents: A 50‐year, single‐center experience

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11045915/

  Global variations in epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) exist. This study is designed to examine demographic and clinical features of T1DM over the past 3 decades as well as evolving trends in epidemiology over last 50 years. Mean age at diagnosis decreased from 9.5 ± 4.0 to 7.1 ± 3.6 years within the past 50 years (p < 0.001). Age at diagnosis peaked at 12-14 years between 1969 and 1990, then fell to 10-11.9 years between 1990 and 1999, and to 4-5.9 years between 2000-2009 and 2010-2019 (p = 0.005). Although the percentage of patients diagnosed under 6 years of age is gradually increasing, the percentage diagnosed between ages of 6 and 11.9 years is decreasing, and the percentage diagnosed at 12 years remained stable. A total of 47.5% of patients had ketoacidosis, 38.2% had ketosis, and 14.3% had only hyperglycemia. 23% of patients had severe diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), whereas 42% had moderate. Over the last 3 decades, there has been no change in frequency of ketoacidosis at presentation, but there has been significant decline in severity (p = 0.865, and p < 0.001, respectively). Although the frequency of patients with mild DKA increased over time, frequency of patients with moderate DKA decreased; however, no significant difference was observed among patients with severe ketoacidosis. DKA was more frequent and severe in patients under 6 years of age (p = 0.005, and p < 0.001, respectively). Age at diagnosis shifted to younger ages in T1DM in the past 50 years. Half of patients had ketoacidosis at diagnosis and frequency of presentation with DKA did not decrease, but severity decreased slightly. Increase in prevalence of T1DM in the younger age group and the fact that half of patients present with DKA indicate that awareness should be increased in terms of early diagnosis and treatment.

• #3 Type 1 Diabetes in Children – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441918/

  If a child has type 1 diabetes, concordance in another sibling is around 5%. In fraternal twins, it is around 10% to 30%, and with identical twins, it is 40% to 50%. Children of adults with type 1 diabetes are at an approximately 5% to 8% risk. In the United States, the general population risk is approximately 0.3%.

• #3 Changes in the Global Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes in an Evolving Landscape of Environmental Factors: Causes, Challenges, and Opportunities

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/668

  The worldwide incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) has increased in recent decades. […] In 2021, the number of individuals living with T1DM was estimated to be approximately 8.4 million worldwide, with 500,000 new cases that year. […] The prevalence of T1DM increases annually by 0.34%. […] The contribution of environmental factors to the initiation of the autoimmune process that results in the destruction of β-cells has been thoroughly investigated. […] The epidemic of obesity, which leads to insulin resistance and lipid disorders, has been suggested to accelerate the presentation of T1DM in genetically predisposed individuals. […] Several early life factors have been associated with the development of T1DM later in life. […] The cesarean section has been associated in many studies with an increased risk of developing T1DM.

• #3 Changes in the Global Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes in an Evolving Landscape of Environmental Factors: Causes, Challenges, and Opportunities

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/668

  The hygiene hypothesis proposes that childhood exposure to microbes helps the immune system mature and develop, and thus in the absence of such exposure, the risk of autoimmune diseases increases. […] Exposure to increased concentrations of ozone in the air, both after birth and in utero, has been associated with an increased risk of developing T1DM. […] The incidence of T1DM has recently been shown to increase as one moves closer to the sea. […] In support of the notion that the environment mediates the risk of the presentation of T1DM, several migrant studies demonstrated differences in the incidence of the disease between genetically “identical” populations living in different environments. […] By understanding the exact mechanisms through which environmental factors play a role in the development of T1DM, we can shed light on the complex pathogenesis of the disease, identify new risk factors that are still unknown, and finally figure out what public health measures are required to halt the increase in new T1DM cases.

• #3 Health related quality of Life with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus | PHMT

  https://www.dovepress.com/health-related-quality-of-life-and-associated-factors-among-children-a-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-PHMT

  Assessment of HRQoL needs to be incorporated with the medical management of diabetes mellitus for children and adolescents. […] Although the number of children with T1DM in Ethiopia is high and increasing in incidence, apart from the medical treatment on the glycemic control and prevention of the chronic complications, the generic HRQoL has been neglected and there are limited studies in our country. […] The results of this study will identify the level and factors affecting of HRQoL and provide information for healthcare providers and policymakers. […] The study found that the mean score of HRQoL was higher among children than adolescents, as reported by a study conducted in Turkey. […] Moreover, the HRQoL of children and adolescents is significantly associated with diabetes duration and frequency of monitoring of blood glucose.

• #4 Changes in the Global Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes in an Evolving Landscape of Environmental Factors: Causes, Challenges, and Opportunities

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/59/4/668

  The hygiene hypothesis proposes that childhood exposure to microbes helps the immune system mature and develop, and thus in the absence of such exposure, the risk of autoimmune diseases increases. […] Exposure to increased concentrations of ozone in the air, both after birth and in utero, has been associated with an increased risk of developing T1DM. […] The incidence of T1DM has recently been shown to increase as one moves closer to the sea. […] In support of the notion that the environment mediates the risk of the presentation of T1DM, several migrant studies demonstrated differences in the incidence of the disease between genetically “identical” populations living in different environments. […] By understanding the exact mechanisms through which environmental factors play a role in the development of T1DM, we can shed light on the complex pathogenesis of the disease, identify new risk factors that are still unknown, and finally figure out what public health measures are required to halt the increase in new T1DM cases.

• #4 Epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents: A 50‐year, single‐center experience

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11045915/

  Global variations in epidemiology of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) exist. This study is designed to examine demographic and clinical features of T1DM over the past 3 decades as well as evolving trends in epidemiology over last 50 years. Mean age at diagnosis decreased from 9.5 ± 4.0 to 7.1 ± 3.6 years within the past 50 years (p < 0.001). Age at diagnosis peaked at 12-14 years between 1969 and 1990, then fell to 10-11.9 years between 1990 and 1999, and to 4-5.9 years between 2000-2009 and 2010-2019 (p = 0.005). Although the percentage of patients diagnosed under 6 years of age is gradually increasing, the percentage diagnosed between ages of 6 and 11.9 years is decreasing, and the percentage diagnosed at 12 years remained stable. A total of 47.5% of patients had ketoacidosis, 38.2% had ketosis, and 14.3% had only hyperglycemia. 23% of patients had severe diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), whereas 42% had moderate. Over the last 3 decades, there has been no change in frequency of ketoacidosis at presentation, but there has been significant decline in severity (p = 0.865, and p < 0.001, respectively). Although the frequency of patients with mild DKA increased over time, frequency of patients with moderate DKA decreased; however, no significant difference was observed among patients with severe ketoacidosis. DKA was more frequent and severe in patients under 6 years of age (p = 0.005, and p < 0.001, respectively). Age at diagnosis shifted to younger ages in T1DM in the past 50 years. Half of patients had ketoacidosis at diagnosis and frequency of presentation with DKA did not decrease, but severity decreased slightly. Increase in prevalence of T1DM in the younger age group and the fact that half of patients present with DKA indicate that awareness should be increased in terms of early diagnosis and treatment.

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