Utrata słuchu
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Utrata słuchu może mieć charakter przewodzeniowy, czuciowo-nerwowy (SNHL) lub mieszany, w zależności od lokalizacji uszkodzenia na drodze słuchowej. SNHL najczęściej wynika z uszkodzenia komórek włoskowatych ślimaka lub nerwu słuchowego (VIII), co prowadzi do osłabienia i zniekształcenia odbioru dźwięków. Patogeneza SNHL obejmuje mechanizmy takie jak stres oksydacyjny wywołany nadprodukcją reaktywnych form tlenu (ROS), procesy zapalne, zaburzenia naczyniowe (np. niedokrwienie ślimaka) oraz podwyższony poziom wolnego Ca²⁺ w komórkach włoskowatych. Nagła głuchota czuciowo-nerwowa (SSNHL) rozwija się w ciągu 72 godzin, często o nieznanej etiologii, z możliwymi przyczynami takimi jak zakrzepica, infekcje wirusowe (np. HSV-1) i zapalenie ślimaka. Genetyczne czynniki predysponujące do utraty słuchu odpowiadają za około 50% przypadków, z mutacjami w genach takimi jak GJB2 (koneksyna 26) i OTOF (otoferlina) odgrywającymi kluczową rolę. Terapie genowe, np. dostarczanie funkcjonalnego genu OTOF, są obecnie badane jako potencjalne metody leczenia.

Mechanizmy utraty słuchu

Utrata słuchu to stan, który występuje, gdy transmisja dźwięku z ucha zewnętrznego do mózgu ulega zakłóceniu. Zakłócenie to może wystąpić na dowolnym etapie drogi słuchowej – przed lub po ślimaku, powodując odpowiednio utratę słuchu przewodzeniową lub odbiorczą (czuciowo-nerwową). Jeśli dotknięte są oba miejsca, zarówno przed jak i po ślimaku, utratę słuchu klasyfikuje się jako mieszaną 1. Zrozumienie anatomii i fizjologii wszystkich komponentów tworzących układ słuchowy jest kluczowe dla lepszego zrozumienia patofizjologii każdej choroby powodującej upośledzenie słuchu 2.

Patofizjologia czuciowo-nerwowej utraty słuchu

Czuciowo-nerwowa utrata słuchu (SNHL) zwykle wynika z problemów z transmisją bodźców w ślimaku lub po nim. Ta utrata może być związana z dysfunkcją komórek włoskowatych lub zaburzeniem samego nerwu słuchowego. Główna różnica między obydwoma rodzajami utraty słuchu, poza cechami patofizjologicznymi, polega na tym, że pacjenci z utratą słuchu przewodzeniową odbierają dźwięki jako osłabione, podczas gdy pacjenci z SNHL mogą odbierać dźwięki zarówno osłabione, jak i zniekształcone 3.

Najczęstszą przyczyną czuciowo-nerwowej utraty słuchu jest uszkodzenie lub nieprawidłowe funkcjonowanie wewnętrznych komórek włosowatych w ślimaku lub nerwu słuchowego (VIII). Komórki włosowate w uchu wewnętrznym przekształcają sygnały z ucha środkowego w impulsy elektryczne, które są następnie przesyłane do mózgu 4 5. Uszkodzenie tych komórek może wynikać z wielu czynników:

  • Starzenie się – prowadzi do stopniowego pogorszenia zdolności słuchowych (presbycusis) 6 7
  • Ekspozycja na hałas – długotrwała ekspozycja na głośne dźwięki lub uraz akustyczny 8
  • Infekcje – w tym cytomegalowirus, wirusy Zika, kiła, zapalenie opon mózgowych 9 10
  • Leki ototoksyczne – niektóre antybiotyki, chemioterapeutyki, duże dawki aspiryny 11
  • Choroby autoimmunologiczne 12
  • Zaburzenia naczyniowe – problemy z krążeniem krwi w ślimaku 13
  • Czynniki genetyczne 14

Mechanizmy molekularne w SNHL

Na poziomie molekularnym, czuciowo-nerwowa utrata słuchu wiąże się z kilkoma mechanizmami patogenetycznymi:

Stres oksydacyjny

Komórki włosowate w ślimaku są niezwykle wrażliwe na stres oksydacyjny. Nadprodukcja reaktywnych form tlenu (ROS) może prowadzić do uszkodzenia komórek włosowatych i ich śmierci 15. Ten mechanizm jest szczególnie istotny w przypadku utraty słuchu spowodowanej hałasem, gdzie ekspozycja na głośne dźwięki powoduje zwiększoną produkcję ROS, co prowadzi do uszkodzenia ślimaka 16.

Zapalenie i odpowiedź immunologiczna

Zapalenie odgrywa znaczącą rolę w progresji utraty słuchu. Obecność makrofagów i komórek mikrogleju w uchu wewnętrznym została obszernie opisana w modelach zwierzęcych. Uwalnianie mediatorów prozapalnych w odpowiedzi na uraz wywołany hałasem wzmacnia uszkodzenie tkanki i pogarsza degenerację struktur słuchowych 17 18.

W przypadku infekcji, takich jak toksoplazmoza wrodzona, przypuszcza się, że utrata słuchu jest spowodowana postnatalną odpowiedzią zapalną. Wzrost syntezy cytokin i chemokin przez różne typy komórek ucha wewnętrznego jest związany z obecnością komórek immunologicznych. Ten proces jest powiązany z uszkodzeniem ślimaka i utratą słuchu 19.

Zaburzenia przepływu krwi

Ślimak jest narządem końcowym w odniesieniu do swojego zaopatrzenia w krew, bez dodatkowego unaczynienia obocznego. Funkcja ślimaka jest niezwykle wrażliwa na zmiany w dopływie krwi. Kompromitacja naczyniowa ślimaka z powodu zakrzepicy, zatoru, zmniejszonego przepływu krwi lub skurczu naczyń wydaje się być prawdopodobną etiologią dla nagłej głuchoty czuciowo-nerwowej (SSNHL) 20.

Nadmierny hałas wywołuje skurcz naczyń w naczyniach ślimakowych, zmniejszając przepływ krwi w uchu wewnętrznym 21. To ograniczenie przepływu krwi może prowadzić do niedotlenienia komórek włosowatych i ich uszkodzenia.

Zaburzenia homeostazy wapnia

Podwyższony poziom wolnego Ca²⁺ w komórkach włosowatych ślimaka, wynikający z napływu zewnątrzkomórkowego i następowego uwolnienia z wewnątrzkomórkowych magazynów, przyczynia się do nagromadzenia ROS w cytoplazmie, potencjalnej aktywacji szlaków śmierci komórkowej i modulacji wewnątrzkomórkowych kaskad sygnałowych, podkreślając jego udział w uszkodzeniu komórek włosowatych wywołanym hałasem 22.

Demielinizacja nerwu słuchowego

Niedawno zidentyfikowano nowy mechanizm ukrytej utraty słuchu (HHL), polegający na przejściowej utracie komórek Schwanna w ślimaku. Ten rodzaj neuropatii słuchowej nie jest związany z utratą synaps, ale raczej z zaburzeniem pierwszych heminodów na obwodowym zakończeniu nerwu słuchowego 23 24.

Mechanizmy w nagłej głuchocie czuciowo-nerwowej

Nagła głuchota czuciowo-nerwowa (SSNHL) charakteryzuje się ostrą utratą słuchu typu czuciowo-nerwowego, prawie zawsze jednostronną, która występuje w ciągu 72 godzin. Większość przypadków jest idiopatyczna, a rokowanie dotyczące poprawy słuchu zależy w dużej mierze od ciężkości utraty słuchu 25.

Pomimo intensywnych badań, etiologia SSNHL nie może być określona u około 90% pacjentów. Zaproponowano trzy możliwe mechanizmy leżące u podstaw rozwoju SSNHL 26:

  1. Zakrzepica i wynikająca z niej niedrożność naczyń w ślimakuzaburzenia naczyniowe prowadzące do niedokrwienia ślimaka 27
  2. Bezobjawowa infekcja wirusowa i wynikające z niej uszkodzenie ślimaka – wirus Herpes simplex typu 1 (HSV-1) może być czynnikiem etiologicznym w SSNHL 28 29
  3. Zapalenie ślimaka i wynikające z niego uszkodzenie ślimaka – zapalenie może być wywołane wtórnie przez infekcję wirusową lub nawet zakrzepicę 30

Genetyczne podstawy utraty słuchu

Genetyczna podatność na utratę słuchu została wyraźnie wykazana u zwierząt, natomiast odkrycie ludzkich czynników genetycznych predysponujących do utraty słuchu napotyka wiele trudności 31. Szacuje się, że przyczyny genetyczne odpowiadają za co najmniej 50% przypadków utraty słuchu 32.

Niesyndromiczna głuchota stanowi nieco ponad dwie trzecie wszystkich przypadków głuchoty genetycznej. Ekscytujące odkrycia w mapowaniu genetycznym ujawniły około dwudziestu nieprawidłowych genów, które prowadzą do głuchoty 33.

Jednym z najczęstszych genów związanych z utratą słuchu jest gen GJB2. Ten gen odpowiada za wytwarzanie białka zwanego koneksyną 26, które jest kluczowe dla prawidłowego funkcjonowania ślimaka 34.

Patofizjologia przewodzeniowej utraty słuchu

Przewodzeniowa utrata słuchu występuje, gdy coś uniemożliwia właściwe dotarcie fal dźwiękowych do ucha wewnętrznego, efektywnie sprawiając, że wszystkie dźwięki są cichsze i trudniejsze do usłyszenia. Jest to zazwyczaj spowodowane blokadą lub uszkodzeniem ucha zewnętrznego lub środkowego, które uniemożliwia skuteczne dotarcie dźwięku do ślimaka, który znajduje się w uchu wewnętrznym 35.

Utrata słuchu przewodzeniowa może być spowodowana wieloma różnymi czynnikami 36:

  • Nieprawidłowe tworzenie się małżowiny usznej lub zastawki 37
  • Nagromadzenie woskowiny lub ciała obce w przewodzie słuchowym 38 39
  • Zapalenie ucha zewnętrznego (otitis externa) 40
  • Dysfunkcja lub unieruchomienie łańcucha kosteczek słuchowych 41
  • Wysięk w uchu środkowym – przestrzeń ucha środkowego normalnie zawiera powietrze, ale może stać się zapalona i wypełniona płynem (otitis media) 42
  • Perlak – łagodne, choć miejscowo destrukcyjne uwięzienie złuszczonego naskórka pochodzącego z błony bębenkowej 43 44
  • Otoskleroza – choroba dziedziczna, w której strzemiączko lub kość strzemienia w uchu środkowym stapia się z otaczającymi ją kośćmi i nie wibruje prawidłowo 45
  • Perforacja błony bębenkowej – głośne eksplozje, nagłe zmiany ciśnienia, uderzenie w błonę bębenkową lub infekcja mogą powodować perforację błony bębenkowej i wpływać na słuch 46
  • Wady rozwojowe ucha zewnętrznego lub środkowego – wrodzone lub rozwojowe nieprawidłowości w kształcie lub strukturze przewodu słuchowego, błony bębenkowej lub kosteczek ucha środkowego 47

Patofizjologia w konkretnych stanach chorobowych

Utrata słuchu związana z wiekiem (presbycusis)

Utrata słuchu związana z wiekiem, znana jako presbycusis, obejmuje stopniowe zmniejszenie zdolności słuchowej jednostki i słabe wyniki w rozróżnianiu mowy, najbardziej zauważalne początkowo w hałaśliwym otoczeniu, co prawdopodobnie jest związane z degeneracją ślimaka związaną z wiekiem w różnych miejscach, szczególnie komórek włosowatych 48.

Presbycusis prawdopodobnie wynika z kombinacji starzenia się, wpływu ekspozycji na hałas przez całe życie oraz czynników genetycznych 49. Utrata słuchu zwykle początkowo wpływa na najwyższe częstotliwości dźwięku, zazwyczaj rozpoczynając się od około 55-65 roku życia (czasami wcześniej). Utrata wysokiej częstotliwości sprawia, że mowa jest szczególnie trudna do zrozumienia, nawet gdy ogólna głośność mowy wydaje się normalna 50.

Utrata słuchu indukowana hałasem

Utrata słuchu spowodowana hałasem to jedna z najczęstszych form czuciowo-nerwowej utraty słuchu, stanowi poważny problem zdrowotny, jest w dużej mierze możliwa do zapobiegania i prawdopodobnie jest bardziej rozpowszechniona, niż ujawniają to konwencjonalne testy progowe czystego tonu 51.

Charakterystyczną cechą patologiczną utraty słuchu indukowanej hałasem z trwałym przesunięciem progu (PTS) jest utrata komórek włosowatych, szczególnie widoczna utrata zewnętrznych komórek włosowatych na zakręcie podstawnym, podczas gdy utrata wewnętrznych komórek włosowatych była ograniczona. Przy wystarczającej intensywności i czasie trwania hałasu, nie tylko komórki włosowate, ale cały narząd Cortiego może ulec zaburzeniu 52.

Aktualne teorie uszkodzenia metabolicznego koncentrują się na tworzeniu wolnych rodników lub reaktywnych form tlenu (ROS) oraz ekscytotoksyczności glutaminianu wywołanej nadmierną stymulacją hałasem, po której następuje aktywacja szlaków sygnałowych prowadzących do śmierci komórki 53.

Utrata słuchu związana z infekcjami

Wiele chorób zakaźnych powoduje czuciowo-nerwową utratę słuchu spowodowaną albo bezpośrednim efektem cytotoksycznym związanym z aktywnością czynnika patogennego, albo pośrednim uszkodzeniem tkanki związanym z odpowiedzią zapalną, która występuje w ślimaku i związanych z nim strukturach 54.

Utrata słuchu związana z infekcją CMV jest zróżnicowana od łagodnej do ciężkiej. Około połowa przypadków utraty słuchu z powodu wrodzonej infekcji CMV ma późny początek lub ma charakter postępujący. Zmiany neurologiczne związane z infekcjami CMV są związane z bezpośrednim uszkodzeniem wirusa komórek miąższu mózgu lub z powiązaną odpowiedzią zapalną 55.

SARS-CoV-2 może powodować bezpośrednie zniszczenie struktur ucha wewnętrznego, szczególnie komórek włosowatych ucha wewnętrznego. Sugeruje się, że SARS-CoV-2 może działać albo niszcząc narząd Cortiego, albo aktywując układ odpornościowy gospodarza 56.

Wirus Zika ma powinowactwo do tkanki nerwowej. Bezpośrednie uszkodzenie narządu słuchowego przez wirus Zika lub lokalne zmiany zapalne wywołane przez infekcję wirusem Zika są prawdopodobnie mechanizmami zaangażowanymi w zmiany słuchowe związane z wirusem Zika 57.

Utrata słuchu związana z późną kiłą wrodzoną w dzieciństwie jest nagła, obustronna i symetryczna. Utrata słuchu w otosyfilisie zazwyczaj zaczyna się od wysokiej częstotliwości, postępując do obustronnej i całkowitej utraty funkcji ślimaka i przedsionka 58.

Choroba Ménière’a

Choroba Ménière’a to schorzenie ucha wewnętrznego. Przyczyna choroby Ménière’a nie jest znana. Zwykle zaczyna się u osób w wieku między 30 a 50 rokiem życia. Osoba z tą chorobą będzie często mieć czuciowo-nerwową utratę słuchu. Częste są również zawroty głowy i dzwonienie w uszach. Może również wystąpić wrażliwość na głośne dźwięki. Utrata słuchu pojawia się i znika, ale z czasem część utraty staje się trwała 59.

Autoimmunologiczna choroba ucha wewnętrznego

Autoimmunologiczna choroba ucha wewnętrznego powoduje stan zapalny w uchu wewnętrznym, który prowadzi do wahającej się lub postępującej obustronnej utraty słuchu 60. Autoimmunologiczna choroba ucha wewnętrznego (AIED) to zaburzenie autoimmunologiczne, które polega na tym, że układ odpornościowy atakuje ucho wewnętrzne i powoduje postępującą utratę słuchu w obu uszach 61.

Otoskleroza

Otoskleroza to choroba ucha środkowego, która utrudnia ruch małych kości w uchu środkowym, powodując przewodzeniową utratę słuchu 62. Jest to choroba dziedziczna, w której strzemiączko lub kość strzemienia w uchu środkowym stapia się z otaczającymi ją kośćmi i nie wibruje prawidłowo 63.

Otoskleroza ślimakowa występuje w torebce otycznej otaczającej ślimak. Forma ślimakowa wpływa na narząd Cortiego poprzez mechanizm, który nie jest całkowicie zrozumiały, powodując SNHL 64.

Mechanizmy genetycznej utraty słuchu

Genetyczna utrata słuchu, zwana również dziedziczną utratą słuchu, to stan słuchowy przekazywany przez pokolenia rodzin. Występuje, gdy jedno lub oboje rodziców przekazują ten stan swojemu dziecku przez swoje geny. Genetyczna utrata słuchu często powoduje problemy ze słuchem obecne przy urodzeniu (wrodzona utrata słuchu). Jednak niektóre schorzenia genetyczne mogą również prowadzić do jej rozwoju w późniejszym życiu (nabyta utrata słuchu) 65.

Genetyczna utrata słuchu jest zazwyczaj podzielona na dwie główne formy, z których każda ma swoje własne cechy i implikacje: syndromiczną i niesyndromiczną 66.

Niesyndromiczna utrata słuchu może być klasyfikowana na kilka różnych sposobów. Jednym z powszechnych sposobów jest wzorzec dziedziczenia schorzenia: autosomalny dominujący (DFNA), autosomalny recesywny (DFNB), sprzężony z chromosomem X (DFNX) lub mitochondrialny (który nie ma specjalnego oznaczenia) 67.

Większość form niesyndromicznej utraty słuchu jest opisywana jako czuciowo-nerwowa, co oznacza, że są związane z trwałą utratą słuchu spowodowaną uszkodzeniem struktur ucha wewnętrznego. Przyczyny niesyndromicznej utraty słuchu są złożone. Badacze zidentyfikowali ponad 90 genów, które po zmianie są związane z niesyndromiczną utratą słuchu. Wiele z tych genów jest zaangażowanych w rozwój i funkcjonowanie ucha wewnętrznego. Mutacje w tych genach przyczyniają się do utraty słuchu poprzez zakłócanie krytycznych kroków w przetwarzaniu dźwięku 68.

Terapia genowa w utracie słuchu

Niektóre formy utraty słuchu są spowodowane mutacjami genetycznymi. Badacze ustalili, że jedną z genetycznych przyczyn czuciowo-nerwowej utraty słuchu jest nieprawidłowe działanie genu otoferlin (OTOF) 69.

Pierwsza terapia genowa testowana w przypadku utraty słuchu ma na celu zastąpienie niefunkcjonującego genu OTOF w ślimaku działającą kopią genu OTOF. Terapia genowa dla dzieci z głuchotą związaną z genem OTOF ma na celu przywrócenie słuchu poprzez wstrzyknięcie kopii normalnych genów OTOF do ucha wewnętrznego 70.

Funkcjonujące geny OTOF są zamknięte w wektorze wirusowym, zmodyfikowanej formie niewywołującego choroby wirusa, aby mogły być dostarczone do komórek ślimakowych w uchu wewnętrznym. Celem jest, aby normalne geny OTOF funkcjonowały w ślimaku i zastąpiły wadliwe geny, przywracając słuch dziecka 71.

Inne mechanizmy utraty słuchu

Ukryta utrata słuchu (synaptopathy)

Ukryta utrata słuchu (HHL) to niedawno opisana neuropatia słuchowa, która prawdopodobnie przyczynia się do deficytów w rozróżnianiu i zrozumiałości mowy u osób z normalnymi testami audiologicznymi 72.

Obecnie jedynym znanym mechanizmem komórkowym dla HHL jest utrata synaps komórek włosowatych wewnętrznych (synaptopathy). Jednak niedawno zgłoszono, że przejściowa utrata komórek Schwanna ślimaka prowadzi do trwałych deficytów słuchowych charakterystycznych dla HHL 73.

Ta neuropatia słuchowa nie jest związana z utratą synaps, ale raczej z zakłóceniem pierwszych heminodów na obwodowym zakończeniu nerwu słuchowego. Obserwacja, że latencja ABR P1 jest dłuższa po przejściowej demielinizacji, sugerowała, że inne aspekty interakcji między mieliną a aksonem mogą być zakłócone 74.

Cynkowy mechanizm uszkodzenia słuchu

Niedawne badania wykazały, że utrata słuchu indukowana hałasem, która dotyka miliony Amerykanów, wynika z uszkodzenia komórkowego w uchu wewnętrznym, które jest związane z nadmiarem wolnego cynku – minerału, który jest niezbędny dla prawidłowego funkcjonowania komórek i słuchu 75.

Wykonując eksperymenty na myszach i na izolowanych komórkach ucha wewnętrznego, badacze odkryli, że kilka godzin po ekspozycji myszy na głośny hałas, poziom cynku w ich uchu wewnętrznym gwałtownie wzrasta. Ekspozycja na głośny dźwięk powoduje masowe uwolnienie cynku do przestrzeni zewnątrz- i wewnątrzkomórkowej, co ostatecznie prowadzi do uszkodzenia komórek i zakłóca normalną komunikację między komórkami 76.

Na szczęście, to odkrycie otwiera drzwi do potencjalnego rozwiązania. Eksperymenty wykazały, że myszy, które były leczone związkiem o powolnym uwalnianiu, który wychwytywał nadmiar wolnego cynku, były mniej podatne na utratę słuchu i były chronione przed uszkodzeniami wywołanymi hałasem 77.

Zaburzenia w neurofibromatozie typu 2

Pacjenci z neurofibromatozą typu 2 (NF2) rozwijają obustronne schwannoma przedsionkowo-ślimakowe (CVS), które powodują obuuszną głuchotę u większości osób. Utrata słuchu występuje w nieprzewidywalny sposób, a leżące u podstaw mechanizmy nie są znane 78.

Najczęściej cytowaną hipotezą jest to, że powiększające się CVS powoduje utratę słuchu poprzez bezpośredni ucisk i rozciąganie nerwu ślimakowego. Odkrycia wskazują jednak na model, w którym utrata słuchu rozwija się w wyniku niedrożności otworu ślimakowego i nagromadzenia białka wewnątrzlabiryntowego 79.

Najczęstszym znaleziskiem obrazowym zidentyfikowanym w utracie słuchu związanej z CVS w NF2 była obecność podwyższonego stężenia białka wewnątrzlabiryntowego i obecność niedrożności otworu ślimakowego w badaniu MR. Podwyższone stężenie białka wewnątrzlabiryntowego stwierdzono w 94% uszu z utratą słuchu (32 z 34 uszu) i w 70% uszu z normalnym słuchem (35 z 50 uszu) 80.

Podsumowanie mechanizmów utraty słuchu

Utrata słuchu jest złożonym schorzeniem, które wynika z interakcji czynników genetycznych i środowiskowych, ale generalnie jest nadal dyktowana przez zakres biologicznego uszkodzenia spowodowanego ekspozycją na hałas, infekcje, leki, starzenie się i inne czynniki 81.

Zrozumienie mechanizmów patofizjologicznych leżących u podstaw utraty słuchu jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii profilaktycznych i terapeutycznych. Najnowsze badania dostarczyły cennych informacji na temat molekularnych i komórkowych podstaw różnych form utraty słuchu, otwierając drogę do innowacyjnych podejść terapeutycznych, które mogą pomóc w łagodzeniu tego powszechnego i często możliwego do zapobiegania stanu.

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Hearing Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542323/
    Hearing loss is a condition that occurs when the sound transmission from the outer ear to the brain suffers a disruption. The disruption can happen at any stage, either before or after the cochlea, and the hearing loss is conductive or sensorineural, respectively. If both sites, pre and post the cochlea, are affected, then the hearing loss is characterized as mixed. […] Hearing loss can be conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. Conductive hearing loss takes place with disruption of the transmission of the sound waves to the cochlea. The most common causes include abnormal formation of the auricle or helix, cerumen impaction, ear canal foreign bodies, otitis externa, dysfunction or fixation of the ossicular chain, and middle ear effusion. Cholesteatoma, a benign though locally destructive trapping of squamous debris arising from the tympanic membrane, as well as other benign or malignant tumors, can result in conductive hearing loss.
  • #2 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    The inner ear, the organ of equilibrium and hearing, has an extraordinarily complex and intricate arrangement. It contains highly specialized structures meticulously tailored to permit auditory processing. However, hearing also relies on both peripheral and central pathways responsible for the neuronal transmission of auditory information from the cochlea to the corresponding cortical regions. Understanding the anatomy and physiology of all components forming the auditory system is key to better comprehending the pathophysiology of each disease that causes hearing impairment. […] For instance, many infectious diseases result in sensorineural hearing loss caused either by a direct cytotoxic effect related to the activity of the pathogenic agent or by indirect tissue damage related to an inflammatory response that occurs in the cochlea and associated structures.
  • #3 Hearing Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542323/
    Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) usually results from problematic transmission of the stimuli at or after the cochlea. This loss could be related to hair cell dysfunction or a disorder of the eighth nerve itself. The main difference between the two kinds of hearing loss, apart from the pathophysiological features, is that patients with conductive hearing loss perceive the sounds diminished, while SNHL patients may perceive the sounds diminished and distorted. […] Age-related hearing loss involves a gradual reduction of the hearing capacity of the individual and poor speech discrimination scores, most noticeable initially in noisy environments, which is likely related to age-related degeneration of the cochlea in various sites, particularly the hair cells. […] Sudden sensorineural hearing loss: a review of diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. […] The prognosis of hearing loss varies between the multiple types. Sudden SNHL prognosis is very dependent on several factors such as the severity of the disease, age, co-morbidities, vertigo, and the shape of the audiogram.
  • #4 Hearing Loss – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/hearing-loss/hearing-loss
    Hearing loss can be classified as conductive, sensorineural, or both (mixed loss). […] Conductive hearing loss occurs secondary to lesions in the external auditory canal, tympanic membrane (TM), or middle ear. These lesions prevent sound from being effectively conducted to the inner ear. […] Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by lesions of either the inner ear (sensory) or the auditory (8th) cranial nerve (neural). This distinction is important because sensory hearing loss is sometimes reversible and is seldom life threatening. A neural hearing loss is rarely recoverable and may be due to a potentially life-threatening brain tumor commonly a cerebellopontine angle tumor. […] An additional type of sensorineural loss is termed auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder, when sound can be detected but the signal is not sent correctly to the brain, and is thought to be due to an abnormality of the inner hair cells or the neurons that innervate them within the cochlea.
  • #5 Hearing loss – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hearing-loss/symptoms-causes/syc-20373072
    Hearing loss that comes on little by little as you age, also known as presbycusis, is common. More than half the people in the United States older than age 75 have some age-related hearing loss. […] Aging and being around loud noises both can cause hearing loss. Other factors, such as too much earwax, can lower how well ears work for a time. […] The vibration of the eardrum triggers a chain of vibrations through the bones. Because of differences in the size, shape and position of the three bones, the force of the vibration increases by the time it reaches the inner ear. This increase in force is necessary to transfer the energy of the sound wave to the fluid of the inner ear. […] Sound vibrations from the bones of the middle ear are transferred to the fluids of the cochlea. Tiny sensors (hair cells) lining the cochlea convert the vibrations into electrical impulses that are transmitted along the auditory nerve to your brain. This is where the initial damage and hearing loss occur due to age, noise exposure or medication.
  • #6 Causes of hearing loss – Hearing Link Services
    https://www.hearinglink.org/your-hearing/causes-hearing-loss/
    There are many causes of hearing loss and a number of ways of explaining or classifying them. […] A straightforward way of categorising causes of hearing loss is based on the type of hearing loss and how it relates to which part of auditory or hearing system has become damaged or is in some way abnormal. […] Disorders of the inner ear or central auditory system cause sensorineural hearing loss which is usually not medically or surgically treatable and is, therefore, generally permanent. […] The cochlea in the inner ear is highly sensitive to a reduction in blood supply which can cause irreversible damage. […] Age-related hearing loss is called presbyacusis and affects the majority of those over 60 years of age and certainly those over 70 years. […] Exposure to excessive noise is generally considered to be the second most common cause of hearing loss. […] Some medications are known to cause sensorineural hearing loss and these are called ototoxic drugs. […] Although the subject of much ongoing research, it is already clear that there is an association between untreated/unassisted hearing loss and cognitive decline and dementia.
  • #7 Hearing loss – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_loss
    Hearing loss may be caused by a number of factors, including: genetics, ageing, exposure to noise, some infections, birth complications, trauma to the ear, and certain medications or toxins. […] Hearing loss is most commonly caused by long-term exposure to loud noises, from recreation or from work, that damage the hair cells, which do not grow back on their own. […] Older people may lose their hearing from long exposure to noise, changes in the inner ear, changes in the middle ear, or from changes along the nerves from the ear to the brain.
  • #8 Hearing Loss – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/hearing-loss/hearing-loss
    Mixed loss may be caused by severe head injury with or without fracture of the skull or temporal bone, by chronic infection, or by one of many genetic disorders. It may also occur when a transient conductive hearing loss, commonly due to otitis media, is superimposed on a sensorineural hearing loss. […] Noise can cause sudden or gradual sensorineural hearing loss. In acoustic trauma, hearing loss results from exposure to a single, extreme noise (eg, a nearby gunshot or explosion); some patients develop tinnitus as well. […] In noise-induced hearing loss, the loss develops over time because of chronic exposure to noise 85 decibels (dB). Even before hearing loss can be documented, noise exposure can damage auditory neurons and their synapses on hair cells; this damage is referred to as „hidden hearing loss” or „synaptopathy,” and patients may notice difficulty hearing in noisy environments and have accelerated age-related hearing loss.
  • #9 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    Hearing loss associated with CMV infection varies from mild to severe. Approximately half of the hearing losses due to congenital CMV infection have a late-onset or are progressive. […] The neurological changes associated with CMV infections are related to direct virus damage to the cells of the brain parenchyma or to the related inflammatory response. […] SARS-CoV-2 may cause direct destruction of inner ear structures, especially the hair cells of the inner ear. It has been suggested that SARS-CoV-2 may act by either destroying the organ of Corti or activating the host immune system. […] ZIKV has an affinity for neural tissue. […] Direct injury to the auditory organ by the ZIKV or local inflammatory changes induced by a ZIKV infection are probably the mechanisms involved in the hearing changes linked to ZIKV.
  • #10 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    The hearing loss related to late congenital syphilis during childhood is sudden, bilateral, and symmetric. […] The hearing loss of otosyphilis typically begins at a high frequency, progressing to a bilateral and complete loss of the cochlear and vestibular functions. […] The analysis of brains infected congenitally reveals areas of necrosis, containing infiltrating macrophages and microglia, which produce nitric oxide, an important component of the innate immune response that occurs during infection.
  • #11 Causes of hearing loss – Hearing Link Services
    https://www.hearinglink.org/your-hearing/causes-hearing-loss/
    There are many causes of hearing loss and a number of ways of explaining or classifying them. […] A straightforward way of categorising causes of hearing loss is based on the type of hearing loss and how it relates to which part of auditory or hearing system has become damaged or is in some way abnormal. […] Disorders of the inner ear or central auditory system cause sensorineural hearing loss which is usually not medically or surgically treatable and is, therefore, generally permanent. […] The cochlea in the inner ear is highly sensitive to a reduction in blood supply which can cause irreversible damage. […] Age-related hearing loss is called presbyacusis and affects the majority of those over 60 years of age and certainly those over 70 years. […] Exposure to excessive noise is generally considered to be the second most common cause of hearing loss. […] Some medications are known to cause sensorineural hearing loss and these are called ototoxic drugs. […] Although the subject of much ongoing research, it is already clear that there is an association between untreated/unassisted hearing loss and cognitive decline and dementia.
  • #12 Hearing Loss – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/hearing-loss/hearing-loss
    Aging, together with noise exposure and genetic factors, is a common risk factor for progressive decrease in hearing. Age-related hearing loss is termed presbycusis. Presbycusis is due to a combination of sensory cell (hair cell) and neuronal loss. […] Acute otitis media (AOM) is a common cause of transient mild to moderate hearing loss (mainly in children). However, without treatment, AOM sequelae and chronic otitis media (and the rarer purulent labyrinthitis) can cause permanent loss, particularly if a cholesteatoma forms. […] Autoimmune inner ear disease causes inflammation in the inner ear that results in a fluctuating or progressive bilateral hearing loss.
  • #13 Sudden Hearing Loss: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/856313-overview
    The cochlea is an end organ with respect to its blood supply, with no collateral vasculature. Cochlear function is exquisitely sensitive to changes in blood supply. Vascular compromise of the cochlea due to thrombosis, embolus, reduced blood flow, or vasospasm seems to be a likely etiology for ISSHL. […] Altogether, the various study findings suggest a vascular involvement in the pathogenesis of ISSHL. This may have important implications for the development of therapeutic and preventive strategies for ISSHL. […] Rupture of intracochlear membranes would allow mixing of perilymph and endolymph, effectively altering the endocochlear potential. […] Sensorineural hearing loss induced by an immune process has gained greater and greater notoriety since the concept was introduced in 1979. […] A study by Chung et al indicated that iron-deficiency anemia increases the risk for sudden sensorineural hearing loss.
  • #14 Deafness: overview – Voyage au centre de l’audition
    https://www.cochlea.eu/en/pathology/
    A number of pathological, genetic and epigenetic factors can cause hearing loss. […] Conductive hearing loss corresponds to pathology of the outer and middle ear. […] Sensorineural hearing loss corresponds to pathology of the cochlea or auditory brain. […] Sensorineural hearing loss (or perceptual hearing loss) is due to the dysfunction of the inner ear (cochlea) and generally manifest as lesions at the level of the hair cells or auditory nerve. […] Hearing loss can have a genetic cause, or occur because of pathology (acoustic trauma, infection, ototoxicity, age). […] Genetic causes (g) are responsible in 3/4 of these cases. […] The factors causing acquired hearing loss are always increasing, and now represent the vast majority of hearing loss. […] Acoustic trauma (t) is caused by overstimulation by sound and represents the largest factor in adult-onset deafness. […] Genetic deafness (g) only account for a small percentage in this age bracket, but it is important to note that in numerous cases (acoustic trauma, ototoxicity, Menieres), there is probably also a genetic factor accentuating or accelerating the acquisition of the hearing loss.
  • #15 From sound waves to molecular and cellular mechanisms: Understanding noise‑induced hearing loss and pioneering preventive approaches (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/mi.2024.184
    The World Health Organization recognizes NIHL as a leading contributor to global hearing loss, highlighting the urgent need for a comprehensive understanding of its molecular and cellular mechanisms. […] The progression of NIHL involves an intricate interplay of biological processes, among which oxidative stress, inflammation and immune responses play pivotal roles. […] Excessive noise triggers vasoconstriction in cochlear blood vessels, reducing inner ear blood flow. […] This oxidative stress leads to cellular damage, particularly affecting hair cells due to their prolonged exposure within the inner ear. […] Elevated free Ca2+ in cochlear hair cells, resulting from extracellular entry and subsequent release from intracellular stores, contributes to cytoplasmic ROS accumulation, the potential activation of cell death pathways and the modulation of intracellular signaling cascades, emphasizing its involvement in noise-induced damage to hair cells.
  • #16 Intrinsic mechanism and pharmacologic treatments of noise-induced hearing loss
    https://www.thno.org/v13p3524.htm
    The dominant pathogenic events depend on disease stages and cellular types, which is worth additional consideration during therapy design. […] The unique isolated anatomical position of the inner ear and the presence of the blood-labyrinth barrier (BLB) make inner ear therapy particularly challenging. […] The chemical and electrical homeostasis in the cochlea is largely maintained by stria vascularis. […] The overproduction of ROS originates from multiple sources. […] The generation and signaling of cytokines and chemokines in those cells are key targets for some medications. […] The existing literatures have described successful applications of HMGB1-neutralizing antibodies for the precise blocking of extracellular HMGB1 functions. […] The therapeutic value of modulating SIRTs in NIHL models has been proved, but the details of their role in cochlea after noise exposure: the upstream modulators and downstream effectors have not been fully elucidated.
  • #17 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    It is presupposed that hearing loss in congenital toxoplasmosis is due to a postnatal inflammatory response. […] The presence of resident macrophages/microglia in the inner ear has been extensively described in animal models, especially through the study of their modulation in the context of injury. […] It has been suggested that the increase of cytokines and chemokines synthesis by diverse types of inner ear cells is related to the presence of immune cells. This process is associated with cochlear damage and hearing loss. […] The primary role of macrophages as cells of the innate immune defense is well established, and production of reactive oxygen species constitutes one of the main mechanisms for eliminating invading pathogens. […] Sensorineural hearing loss is a complication caused by different viral infections. Viruses can directly damage the structures of the inner ear or activate inflammatory processes that cause hearing loss.
  • #18 From sound waves to molecular and cellular mechanisms: Understanding noise‑induced hearing loss and pioneering preventive approaches (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/mi.2024.184
    Concomitantly, inflammation emerges as a significant contributor to the progression of NIHL. […] The release of pro-inflammatory mediators in response to noise-induced trauma amplifies tissue damage and exacerbates the degeneration of auditory structures. […] Understanding and modulating these oxidative stress, inflammatory and immune responses represent promising avenues for developing interventions to ease the impact of NIHL. […] The susceptibility to NIHL varies among individuals, and genetic factors play a notable role in this diversity. […] Exploration of the genetic landscape in NIHL has uncovered potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets. […] NIHL initiates a cascade of cellular transformations in the auditory system, resulting in permanent damage and hearing impairment.
  • #19 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    It is presupposed that hearing loss in congenital toxoplasmosis is due to a postnatal inflammatory response. […] The presence of resident macrophages/microglia in the inner ear has been extensively described in animal models, especially through the study of their modulation in the context of injury. […] It has been suggested that the increase of cytokines and chemokines synthesis by diverse types of inner ear cells is related to the presence of immune cells. This process is associated with cochlear damage and hearing loss. […] The primary role of macrophages as cells of the innate immune defense is well established, and production of reactive oxygen species constitutes one of the main mechanisms for eliminating invading pathogens. […] Sensorineural hearing loss is a complication caused by different viral infections. Viruses can directly damage the structures of the inner ear or activate inflammatory processes that cause hearing loss.
  • #20 Sudden Hearing Loss: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/856313-overview
    The cochlea is an end organ with respect to its blood supply, with no collateral vasculature. Cochlear function is exquisitely sensitive to changes in blood supply. Vascular compromise of the cochlea due to thrombosis, embolus, reduced blood flow, or vasospasm seems to be a likely etiology for ISSHL. […] Altogether, the various study findings suggest a vascular involvement in the pathogenesis of ISSHL. This may have important implications for the development of therapeutic and preventive strategies for ISSHL. […] Rupture of intracochlear membranes would allow mixing of perilymph and endolymph, effectively altering the endocochlear potential. […] Sensorineural hearing loss induced by an immune process has gained greater and greater notoriety since the concept was introduced in 1979. […] A study by Chung et al indicated that iron-deficiency anemia increases the risk for sudden sensorineural hearing loss.
  • #21 From sound waves to molecular and cellular mechanisms: Understanding noise‑induced hearing loss and pioneering preventive approaches (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/mi.2024.184
    The World Health Organization recognizes NIHL as a leading contributor to global hearing loss, highlighting the urgent need for a comprehensive understanding of its molecular and cellular mechanisms. […] The progression of NIHL involves an intricate interplay of biological processes, among which oxidative stress, inflammation and immune responses play pivotal roles. […] Excessive noise triggers vasoconstriction in cochlear blood vessels, reducing inner ear blood flow. […] This oxidative stress leads to cellular damage, particularly affecting hair cells due to their prolonged exposure within the inner ear. […] Elevated free Ca2+ in cochlear hair cells, resulting from extracellular entry and subsequent release from intracellular stores, contributes to cytoplasmic ROS accumulation, the potential activation of cell death pathways and the modulation of intracellular signaling cascades, emphasizing its involvement in noise-induced damage to hair cells.
  • #22 From sound waves to molecular and cellular mechanisms: Understanding noise‑induced hearing loss and pioneering preventive approaches (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/mi.2024.184
    The World Health Organization recognizes NIHL as a leading contributor to global hearing loss, highlighting the urgent need for a comprehensive understanding of its molecular and cellular mechanisms. […] The progression of NIHL involves an intricate interplay of biological processes, among which oxidative stress, inflammation and immune responses play pivotal roles. […] Excessive noise triggers vasoconstriction in cochlear blood vessels, reducing inner ear blood flow. […] This oxidative stress leads to cellular damage, particularly affecting hair cells due to their prolonged exposure within the inner ear. […] Elevated free Ca2+ in cochlear hair cells, resulting from extracellular entry and subsequent release from intracellular stores, contributes to cytoplasmic ROS accumulation, the potential activation of cell death pathways and the modulation of intracellular signaling cascades, emphasizing its involvement in noise-induced damage to hair cells.
  • #23 Transient auditory nerve demyelination as a new mechanism for hidden hearing loss | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14487
    Hidden hearing loss (HHL) is a recently described auditory neuropathy believed to contribute to speech discrimination and intelligibility deficits in people with normal audiological tests. […] Currently, the only cellular mechanism known for HHL is loss of inner hair cell synapses (synaptopathy). […] Here we report that transient loss of cochlear Schwann cells results in permanent auditory deficits characteristic of HHL. […] This auditory neuropathy is not associated with synaptic loss, but rather with disruption of the first heminodes at the auditory nerve peripheral terminal. […] Thus, this study identifies a new mechanism for HHL, highlights the long-term consequences of transient Schwann cell loss on hearing and might provide insights into the causes of the auditory deficits reported in patients that recover from acute demyelinating diseases such as GuillainBarr syndrome.
  • #24 Transient auditory nerve demyelination as a new mechanism for hidden hearing loss | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14487
    Together, these results uncover a new mechanism for the pathogenesis of HHL and a new consequence of myelin defects on the normal function of the nervous system. […] These findings indicate that transient Schwann cell ablation results in prolonged auditory neuropathy and HHL. […] This data indicates that transient loss of glial cells results in prolonged auditory deficits and HHL by a mechanism that is distinct from cochlear synaptopathy. […] The observation that ABR P1 latency is longer after transient demyelination suggested that other aspects of myelinaxon interactions could be disrupted. […] Therefore, we examined whether the transient demyelination alters node of Ranvier density in auditory axons. […] Our findings indicate that HHL can also arise from pathologies of cochlear Schwann cell (schwannopathy) or nodal structures (nodopathy), rather than synaptopathy.
  • #25 Sudden sensorineural hearing loss in adults – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/sudden-sensorineural-hearing-loss-in-adults
    Sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL) is characterized by an acute sensorineural hearing loss, nearly always unilateral, that occurs within a 72-hour period. Most cases are idiopathic, and the prognosis for hearing recovery depends largely upon the severity of the hearing loss. […] The exact incidence of idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL) is uncertain, since recovery may be spontaneous, and many affected people never seek medical attention. Estimates of incidence range from 11 to 77 per 100,000 people per year. Idiopathic SSNHL can occur at any age but most commonly affects individuals 43 to 53 years old, with similar numbers of males and females affected. […] Although SSNHL can result from a variety of identifiable causes (eg, neoplastic, infectious, autoimmune, neurologic, otologic, metabolic, or vascular diseases; ototoxic drugs; trauma), the majority of cases are idiopathic, with many proposed etiologies and risk factors. Postulated causes of idiopathic SSNHL include viral cochleitis, microvascular events due to a hypercoagulable state, and autoimmune disorders. Herpes simplex type 1 virus (HSV-1) may be an etiologic factor in SSNHL, analogous to its possible role in Bell’s palsy. In addition, epidemiologic data demonstrate a higher risk of SSNHL among siblings compared with the general population, suggesting a possible heritable component. […] Compared with patients with unilateral SSNHL, those with bilateral disease are more likely to have an autoimmune etiology, comorbid diabetes mellitus, and comorbid hypertension.
  • #26 Update on Findings about Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss and Insight into Its Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/21/6387
    Sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL) is routinely encountered and is one of the most common emergent diseases in otolaryngology clinics. However, the etiology of SSNHL remains unclear. […] The updated findings revealed the following three possible mechanisms underlying the development of SSNHL: thrombosis and resulting vascular obstruction in the cochlea, asymptomatic viral infection and resulting damage to the cochlea, and cochlear inflammation and resulting damage to the cochlea. Thrombosis and viral infection are predominant, and cochlear inflammation can be secondarily induced through viral infection or even thrombosis. […] Despite extensive investigation, the etiology of SSNHL cannot be determined in approximately 90% of patients and is referred to as idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss (ISSNHL). However, three possible mechanisms underlying the development of SSNHL have been proposed: vascular compromise, chronic inflammation, and viral infection.
  • #27 Update on Findings about Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss and Insight into Its Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/21/6387
    The first possible mechanism is thrombosis and resulting vascular obstruction in the cochlea. […] The second possible mechanism is an asymptomatic viral infection and resulting damage to the cochlea. […] The third possible mechanism is cochlear inflammation and the resulting damage to the cochlea. […] Thus, the mechanism underlying SSNHL may be associated with thrombosis, viral infection, or inflammation. However, the fact that available studies in this review used small sample sizes and there were contrary data regarding serological, MRI, genetic, and viral examinations suggest that additional research is needed to elucidate the etiology of SSNHL. […] We proposed the following underlying mechanisms of SSNHL: thrombosis and resulting vascular obstruction in the cochlea; asymptomatic viral infection and resulting damage to the cochlea; and cochlear inflammation and resulting damage to the cochlea.
  • #28 Sudden sensorineural hearing loss in adults – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/sudden-sensorineural-hearing-loss-in-adults
    Sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL) is characterized by an acute sensorineural hearing loss, nearly always unilateral, that occurs within a 72-hour period. Most cases are idiopathic, and the prognosis for hearing recovery depends largely upon the severity of the hearing loss. […] The exact incidence of idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss (SSNHL) is uncertain, since recovery may be spontaneous, and many affected people never seek medical attention. Estimates of incidence range from 11 to 77 per 100,000 people per year. Idiopathic SSNHL can occur at any age but most commonly affects individuals 43 to 53 years old, with similar numbers of males and females affected. […] Although SSNHL can result from a variety of identifiable causes (eg, neoplastic, infectious, autoimmune, neurologic, otologic, metabolic, or vascular diseases; ototoxic drugs; trauma), the majority of cases are idiopathic, with many proposed etiologies and risk factors. Postulated causes of idiopathic SSNHL include viral cochleitis, microvascular events due to a hypercoagulable state, and autoimmune disorders. Herpes simplex type 1 virus (HSV-1) may be an etiologic factor in SSNHL, analogous to its possible role in Bell’s palsy. In addition, epidemiologic data demonstrate a higher risk of SSNHL among siblings compared with the general population, suggesting a possible heritable component. […] Compared with patients with unilateral SSNHL, those with bilateral disease are more likely to have an autoimmune etiology, comorbid diabetes mellitus, and comorbid hypertension.
  • #29 Update on Findings about Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss and Insight into Its Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/21/6387
    The first possible mechanism is thrombosis and resulting vascular obstruction in the cochlea. […] The second possible mechanism is an asymptomatic viral infection and resulting damage to the cochlea. […] The third possible mechanism is cochlear inflammation and the resulting damage to the cochlea. […] Thus, the mechanism underlying SSNHL may be associated with thrombosis, viral infection, or inflammation. However, the fact that available studies in this review used small sample sizes and there were contrary data regarding serological, MRI, genetic, and viral examinations suggest that additional research is needed to elucidate the etiology of SSNHL. […] We proposed the following underlying mechanisms of SSNHL: thrombosis and resulting vascular obstruction in the cochlea; asymptomatic viral infection and resulting damage to the cochlea; and cochlear inflammation and resulting damage to the cochlea.
  • #30 Update on Findings about Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss and Insight into Its Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/21/6387
    The first possible mechanism is thrombosis and resulting vascular obstruction in the cochlea. […] The second possible mechanism is an asymptomatic viral infection and resulting damage to the cochlea. […] The third possible mechanism is cochlear inflammation and the resulting damage to the cochlea. […] Thus, the mechanism underlying SSNHL may be associated with thrombosis, viral infection, or inflammation. However, the fact that available studies in this review used small sample sizes and there were contrary data regarding serological, MRI, genetic, and viral examinations suggest that additional research is needed to elucidate the etiology of SSNHL. […] We proposed the following underlying mechanisms of SSNHL: thrombosis and resulting vascular obstruction in the cochlea; asymptomatic viral infection and resulting damage to the cochlea; and cochlear inflammation and resulting damage to the cochlea.
  • #31 Current insights in noise-induced hearing loss: a literature review of the underlying mechanism, pathophysiology, asymmetry, and management options | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40463-017-0219-x
    The characteristic pathological feature of NIHL with PTS is the loss of hair cells, particularly the prominent loss of outer hair cells at the basal turn, while loss of inner hair cells was limited. […] With sufficient intensity and duration of noise, not only the hair cells but the entire organ of Corti may be disrupted. […] Current theories of metabolic damage center on the formation of free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutamate excitotoxicity evoked by excessive noise stimulation, followed by activation of signalling pathways leading to cell death. […] The genetic susceptibility to NIHL has been clearly demonstrated in animals. […] The discovery of human genetic factors predisposing individuals to NIHL has been hindered by many difficulties. […] Asymmetry in NIHL could theoretically be caused by ambient exogenous noise-exposure factors or by endogenous or anatomical factors.
  • #32 Hearing Impairment: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/994159-overview
    Hearing loss is more prevalent than diabetes mellitus, myelomeningocele, all pediatric cancers, and numerous other medical conditions. […] However, medical professionals typically learn little about hearing impairment, about how to advise parents of children who are deaf or hard of hearing, or about the special considerations needed in the care of children with hearing loss. […] Conductive hearing loss (CHL) results from anything that decreases the transmission of sound from the outside world to the cochlea. […] Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) may result from disruptions in transmission after the cochlea. […] Mixed hearing loss has components of both CHL and SNHL. […] Most sources cite genetic causes as accounting for at least 50% of hearing loss. […] Nonsyndromic deafness accounts for slightly more than two thirds of all cases of genetic deafness. […] Exciting developments in genetic mapping have revealed approximately two dozen abnormal genes that lead to deafness. […] Antenatal causes lead to 5-10% of hearing losses. […] Perinatal causes are responsible for 5-15% of hearing losses. […] About 10-20% of hearing losses are due to postnatal causes. […] In about 20-30% of deaf children, no certain cause can be identified.
  • #33 Hearing Impairment: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/994159-overview
    Hearing loss is more prevalent than diabetes mellitus, myelomeningocele, all pediatric cancers, and numerous other medical conditions. […] However, medical professionals typically learn little about hearing impairment, about how to advise parents of children who are deaf or hard of hearing, or about the special considerations needed in the care of children with hearing loss. […] Conductive hearing loss (CHL) results from anything that decreases the transmission of sound from the outside world to the cochlea. […] Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) may result from disruptions in transmission after the cochlea. […] Mixed hearing loss has components of both CHL and SNHL. […] Most sources cite genetic causes as accounting for at least 50% of hearing loss. […] Nonsyndromic deafness accounts for slightly more than two thirds of all cases of genetic deafness. […] Exciting developments in genetic mapping have revealed approximately two dozen abnormal genes that lead to deafness. […] Antenatal causes lead to 5-10% of hearing losses. […] Perinatal causes are responsible for 5-15% of hearing losses. […] About 10-20% of hearing losses are due to postnatal causes. […] In about 20-30% of deaf children, no certain cause can be identified.
  • #34 Hereditary Hearing Loss: How Genetics Influence Your Hearing
    https://www.audibel.com/hearing-loss-treatment/hereditary-hearing-loss-overview/
    Hearing loss can be inherited through specific genetic mutations passed down from parents. Genes are segments of DNA that provide instructions for how our body develops and functions. Gene mutations are changes or mistakes in our genes that can alter how they work. Hereditary hearing loss is caused by mutations in the genes responsible for the development, structure, and/or function of any part of the auditory system. […] Researchers have identified over 100 genes that play a role in hereditary hearing loss. One of the most common genes linked to hearing loss is the GJB2 gene. This gene is responsible for making a protein called connexin 26 (also called the gap junction protein). This protein is crucial for the proper functioning of the cochlea, which is part of the inner ear responsible for hearing.
  • #35 Conductive Hearing Loss: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments 
    https://www.audibel.com/hearing-loss-treatment/conductive-hearing-loss-overview/
    Conductive hearing loss (CHL) occurs when sound waves are prevented from properly reaching the inner ear, effectively making all sounds quieter and harder to hear. This is typically due to blockages or damage to the outer or middle ear, which prevents sound from effectively reaching the cochlea, which is located in the inner ear. […] Conductive hearing loss is a result of a blockage or damage occurring in the outer or middle ear. The block prevents sound waves from properly reaching the middle ear or cochlea, resulting in reduced hearing function. This can be caused by a wide range of things including fluid, earwax, growths, cysts, inflammation, foreign objects, and more. […] One of the most common causes of conductive hearing loss is earwax buildup. Earwax, also known as cerumen, is naturally produced by glands in the ear canal to protect and lubricate the ear. However, an excessive buildup of earwax can lead to a blockage in the ear canal resulting in reduced hearing function.
  • #36 Conductive Hearing Loss – ENT Health
    https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/conductive-hearing-loss/
    Conductive hearing loss results when there is any problem in delivering sound energy to your cochlea, the hearing part in the inner ear. […] Conductive hearing loss happens when the natural movement of sound through the external ear or middle ear is blocked, and the full sound does not reach the inner ear. […] Conductive loss associated with middle ear structures include: […] Middle ear fluid or infection The middle ear space normally contains air, but it can become inflamed and fluid filled (otitis media). […] Cholesteatoma Skin cells that are present in the middle ear space that are not usually there. […] Otosclerosis This is an inherited disease in which the stapes or stirrup bone in the middle ear fuses with bones around it and fails to vibrate well.
  • #37 Hearing Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542323/
    Hearing loss is a condition that occurs when the sound transmission from the outer ear to the brain suffers a disruption. The disruption can happen at any stage, either before or after the cochlea, and the hearing loss is conductive or sensorineural, respectively. If both sites, pre and post the cochlea, are affected, then the hearing loss is characterized as mixed. […] Hearing loss can be conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. Conductive hearing loss takes place with disruption of the transmission of the sound waves to the cochlea. The most common causes include abnormal formation of the auricle or helix, cerumen impaction, ear canal foreign bodies, otitis externa, dysfunction or fixation of the ossicular chain, and middle ear effusion. Cholesteatoma, a benign though locally destructive trapping of squamous debris arising from the tympanic membrane, as well as other benign or malignant tumors, can result in conductive hearing loss.
  • #38 Hearing Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542323/
    Hearing loss is a condition that occurs when the sound transmission from the outer ear to the brain suffers a disruption. The disruption can happen at any stage, either before or after the cochlea, and the hearing loss is conductive or sensorineural, respectively. If both sites, pre and post the cochlea, are affected, then the hearing loss is characterized as mixed. […] Hearing loss can be conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. Conductive hearing loss takes place with disruption of the transmission of the sound waves to the cochlea. The most common causes include abnormal formation of the auricle or helix, cerumen impaction, ear canal foreign bodies, otitis externa, dysfunction or fixation of the ossicular chain, and middle ear effusion. Cholesteatoma, a benign though locally destructive trapping of squamous debris arising from the tympanic membrane, as well as other benign or malignant tumors, can result in conductive hearing loss.
  • #39 Conductive Hearing Loss: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments 
    https://www.audibel.com/hearing-loss-treatment/conductive-hearing-loss-overview/
    Conductive hearing loss (CHL) occurs when sound waves are prevented from properly reaching the inner ear, effectively making all sounds quieter and harder to hear. This is typically due to blockages or damage to the outer or middle ear, which prevents sound from effectively reaching the cochlea, which is located in the inner ear. […] Conductive hearing loss is a result of a blockage or damage occurring in the outer or middle ear. The block prevents sound waves from properly reaching the middle ear or cochlea, resulting in reduced hearing function. This can be caused by a wide range of things including fluid, earwax, growths, cysts, inflammation, foreign objects, and more. […] One of the most common causes of conductive hearing loss is earwax buildup. Earwax, also known as cerumen, is naturally produced by glands in the ear canal to protect and lubricate the ear. However, an excessive buildup of earwax can lead to a blockage in the ear canal resulting in reduced hearing function.
  • #40 Hearing Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542323/
    Hearing loss is a condition that occurs when the sound transmission from the outer ear to the brain suffers a disruption. The disruption can happen at any stage, either before or after the cochlea, and the hearing loss is conductive or sensorineural, respectively. If both sites, pre and post the cochlea, are affected, then the hearing loss is characterized as mixed. […] Hearing loss can be conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. Conductive hearing loss takes place with disruption of the transmission of the sound waves to the cochlea. The most common causes include abnormal formation of the auricle or helix, cerumen impaction, ear canal foreign bodies, otitis externa, dysfunction or fixation of the ossicular chain, and middle ear effusion. Cholesteatoma, a benign though locally destructive trapping of squamous debris arising from the tympanic membrane, as well as other benign or malignant tumors, can result in conductive hearing loss.
  • #41 Hearing Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542323/
    Hearing loss is a condition that occurs when the sound transmission from the outer ear to the brain suffers a disruption. The disruption can happen at any stage, either before or after the cochlea, and the hearing loss is conductive or sensorineural, respectively. If both sites, pre and post the cochlea, are affected, then the hearing loss is characterized as mixed. […] Hearing loss can be conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. Conductive hearing loss takes place with disruption of the transmission of the sound waves to the cochlea. The most common causes include abnormal formation of the auricle or helix, cerumen impaction, ear canal foreign bodies, otitis externa, dysfunction or fixation of the ossicular chain, and middle ear effusion. Cholesteatoma, a benign though locally destructive trapping of squamous debris arising from the tympanic membrane, as well as other benign or malignant tumors, can result in conductive hearing loss.
  • #42 Conductive Hearing Loss – ENT Health
    https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/conductive-hearing-loss/
    Conductive hearing loss results when there is any problem in delivering sound energy to your cochlea, the hearing part in the inner ear. […] Conductive hearing loss happens when the natural movement of sound through the external ear or middle ear is blocked, and the full sound does not reach the inner ear. […] Conductive loss associated with middle ear structures include: […] Middle ear fluid or infection The middle ear space normally contains air, but it can become inflamed and fluid filled (otitis media). […] Cholesteatoma Skin cells that are present in the middle ear space that are not usually there. […] Otosclerosis This is an inherited disease in which the stapes or stirrup bone in the middle ear fuses with bones around it and fails to vibrate well.
  • #43 Hearing Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542323/
    Hearing loss is a condition that occurs when the sound transmission from the outer ear to the brain suffers a disruption. The disruption can happen at any stage, either before or after the cochlea, and the hearing loss is conductive or sensorineural, respectively. If both sites, pre and post the cochlea, are affected, then the hearing loss is characterized as mixed. […] Hearing loss can be conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. Conductive hearing loss takes place with disruption of the transmission of the sound waves to the cochlea. The most common causes include abnormal formation of the auricle or helix, cerumen impaction, ear canal foreign bodies, otitis externa, dysfunction or fixation of the ossicular chain, and middle ear effusion. Cholesteatoma, a benign though locally destructive trapping of squamous debris arising from the tympanic membrane, as well as other benign or malignant tumors, can result in conductive hearing loss.
  • #44 Conductive Hearing Loss – ENT Health
    https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/conductive-hearing-loss/
    Conductive hearing loss results when there is any problem in delivering sound energy to your cochlea, the hearing part in the inner ear. […] Conductive hearing loss happens when the natural movement of sound through the external ear or middle ear is blocked, and the full sound does not reach the inner ear. […] Conductive loss associated with middle ear structures include: […] Middle ear fluid or infection The middle ear space normally contains air, but it can become inflamed and fluid filled (otitis media). […] Cholesteatoma Skin cells that are present in the middle ear space that are not usually there. […] Otosclerosis This is an inherited disease in which the stapes or stirrup bone in the middle ear fuses with bones around it and fails to vibrate well.
  • #45 Conductive Hearing Loss – ENT Health
    https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/conductive-hearing-loss/
    Conductive hearing loss results when there is any problem in delivering sound energy to your cochlea, the hearing part in the inner ear. […] Conductive hearing loss happens when the natural movement of sound through the external ear or middle ear is blocked, and the full sound does not reach the inner ear. […] Conductive loss associated with middle ear structures include: […] Middle ear fluid or infection The middle ear space normally contains air, but it can become inflamed and fluid filled (otitis media). […] Cholesteatoma Skin cells that are present in the middle ear space that are not usually there. […] Otosclerosis This is an inherited disease in which the stapes or stirrup bone in the middle ear fuses with bones around it and fails to vibrate well.
  • #46 Hearing Loss – La Crosse – Mayo Clinic Health System
    https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/locations/la-crosse/services-and-treatments/otorhinolaryngology/ear-conditions-and-treatment/hearing-loss
    Hearing loss that occurs gradually as you age is common. Almost half of the people in the United States older than 65 have some degree of hearing loss. Aging and chronic exposure to loud noises contribute to hearing loss. Other factors, such as excessive earwax, can temporarily reduce how well your ears conduct sounds. […] Causes of hearing loss include: […] Damage to the inner ear. Aging and exposure to loud noise may cause wear and tear on the hairs or nerve cells in the part of the ear that sends sound signals to the brain. When these hairs or nerve cells are damaged or missing, electrical signals aren’t transmitted as efficiently, and hearing loss occurs. […] Gradual buildup of earwax. Earwax can block the ear canal and prevent conduction of sound waves. Earwax removal can help restore your hearing. […] Ruptured eardrum (tympanic membrane perforation). Loud blasts of noise, sudden changes in pressure, poking your eardrum with an object and infection can cause your eardrum to rupture and affect your hearing.
  • #47 Conductive Hearing Loss: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments 
    https://www.audibel.com/hearing-loss-treatment/conductive-hearing-loss-overview/
    Malformation of the outer or middle ear refers to congenital or developmental abnormalities in the shape or structure of the ear canal, eardrum, or middle ear bones. These malformations can disrupt the normal transmission of sound waves, impacting hearing capabilities. […] Conductive hearing loss is diagnosed through a comprehensive hearing test, which is performed by a professional hearing healthcare specialist. This exam is designed to evaluate your hearing quality and overall auditory health. […] Conductive hearing loss is not always permanent, and depending on the cause, some cases of CHL can be treated with medications, surgery, or other medical interventions. The best treatment for CHL depends on the cause, as well as the patient’s overall health and needs. […] Conductive hearing loss caused by earwax buildup is generally not permanent and can be resolved once the earwax is removed. However, if the earwax impaction leads to complications such as infection or damage to the ear structures, there is a possibility of permanent hearing loss.
  • #48 Hearing Loss – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542323/
    Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) usually results from problematic transmission of the stimuli at or after the cochlea. This loss could be related to hair cell dysfunction or a disorder of the eighth nerve itself. The main difference between the two kinds of hearing loss, apart from the pathophysiological features, is that patients with conductive hearing loss perceive the sounds diminished, while SNHL patients may perceive the sounds diminished and distorted. […] Age-related hearing loss involves a gradual reduction of the hearing capacity of the individual and poor speech discrimination scores, most noticeable initially in noisy environments, which is likely related to age-related degeneration of the cochlea in various sites, particularly the hair cells. […] Sudden sensorineural hearing loss: a review of diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. […] The prognosis of hearing loss varies between the multiple types. Sudden SNHL prognosis is very dependent on several factors such as the severity of the disease, age, co-morbidities, vertigo, and the shape of the audiogram.
  • #49 Hearing Loss – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/hearing-loss-and-deafness/hearing-loss
    Mixed loss involves both conductive and sensorineural loss. It may be caused by severe head injury, chronic infection, or one of many rare genetic disorders. […] Aging, together with noise exposure and genetic factors, is a common risk factor for hearing loss. Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis) limits a person’s ability to hear higher frequencies more than lower frequencies. […] Presbycusis is age-related hearing loss. It probably results from a combination of age-related deterioration and the effects of a lifetime of noise exposure and genetics. […] Hearing loss usually affects the highest sound frequencies first, usually beginning at about age 55 to 65 years (sometimes sooner). The loss of high-frequency hearing makes speech particularly hard to understand, even when the overall loudness of speech seems normal.
  • #50 Hearing Loss – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/hearing-loss-and-deafness/hearing-loss
    Mixed loss involves both conductive and sensorineural loss. It may be caused by severe head injury, chronic infection, or one of many rare genetic disorders. […] Aging, together with noise exposure and genetic factors, is a common risk factor for hearing loss. Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis) limits a person’s ability to hear higher frequencies more than lower frequencies. […] Presbycusis is age-related hearing loss. It probably results from a combination of age-related deterioration and the effects of a lifetime of noise exposure and genetics. […] Hearing loss usually affects the highest sound frequencies first, usually beginning at about age 55 to 65 years (sometimes sooner). The loss of high-frequency hearing makes speech particularly hard to understand, even when the overall loudness of speech seems normal.
  • #51 Current insights in noise-induced hearing loss: a literature review of the underlying mechanism, pathophysiology, asymmetry, and management options | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40463-017-0219-x
    Noise-induced hearing loss is one of the most common forms of sensorineural hearing loss, is a major health problem, is largely preventable and is probably more widespread than revealed by conventional pure tone threshold testing. […] Recent epidemiology and animal studies have provided further insight into the pathophysiology, clinical findings, social and economic impacts of noise-induced hearing loss. […] The objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of NIHL including the fundamental and advanced pathophysiology, specific investigations, including detailed discussion on asymmetric NIHL, associated symptomatology, available interventions for prevention and treatment. […] NIHL is a complex disease that results from the interaction of genetic and environmental factors, but is generally still dictated by the extent of biological damage caused by noise exposure.
  • #52 Current insights in noise-induced hearing loss: a literature review of the underlying mechanism, pathophysiology, asymmetry, and management options | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40463-017-0219-x
    The characteristic pathological feature of NIHL with PTS is the loss of hair cells, particularly the prominent loss of outer hair cells at the basal turn, while loss of inner hair cells was limited. […] With sufficient intensity and duration of noise, not only the hair cells but the entire organ of Corti may be disrupted. […] Current theories of metabolic damage center on the formation of free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutamate excitotoxicity evoked by excessive noise stimulation, followed by activation of signalling pathways leading to cell death. […] The genetic susceptibility to NIHL has been clearly demonstrated in animals. […] The discovery of human genetic factors predisposing individuals to NIHL has been hindered by many difficulties. […] Asymmetry in NIHL could theoretically be caused by ambient exogenous noise-exposure factors or by endogenous or anatomical factors.
  • #53 Current insights in noise-induced hearing loss: a literature review of the underlying mechanism, pathophysiology, asymmetry, and management options | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40463-017-0219-x
    The characteristic pathological feature of NIHL with PTS is the loss of hair cells, particularly the prominent loss of outer hair cells at the basal turn, while loss of inner hair cells was limited. […] With sufficient intensity and duration of noise, not only the hair cells but the entire organ of Corti may be disrupted. […] Current theories of metabolic damage center on the formation of free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutamate excitotoxicity evoked by excessive noise stimulation, followed by activation of signalling pathways leading to cell death. […] The genetic susceptibility to NIHL has been clearly demonstrated in animals. […] The discovery of human genetic factors predisposing individuals to NIHL has been hindered by many difficulties. […] Asymmetry in NIHL could theoretically be caused by ambient exogenous noise-exposure factors or by endogenous or anatomical factors.
  • #54 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    The inner ear, the organ of equilibrium and hearing, has an extraordinarily complex and intricate arrangement. It contains highly specialized structures meticulously tailored to permit auditory processing. However, hearing also relies on both peripheral and central pathways responsible for the neuronal transmission of auditory information from the cochlea to the corresponding cortical regions. Understanding the anatomy and physiology of all components forming the auditory system is key to better comprehending the pathophysiology of each disease that causes hearing impairment. […] For instance, many infectious diseases result in sensorineural hearing loss caused either by a direct cytotoxic effect related to the activity of the pathogenic agent or by indirect tissue damage related to an inflammatory response that occurs in the cochlea and associated structures.
  • #55 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    Hearing loss associated with CMV infection varies from mild to severe. Approximately half of the hearing losses due to congenital CMV infection have a late-onset or are progressive. […] The neurological changes associated with CMV infections are related to direct virus damage to the cells of the brain parenchyma or to the related inflammatory response. […] SARS-CoV-2 may cause direct destruction of inner ear structures, especially the hair cells of the inner ear. It has been suggested that SARS-CoV-2 may act by either destroying the organ of Corti or activating the host immune system. […] ZIKV has an affinity for neural tissue. […] Direct injury to the auditory organ by the ZIKV or local inflammatory changes induced by a ZIKV infection are probably the mechanisms involved in the hearing changes linked to ZIKV.
  • #56 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    Hearing loss associated with CMV infection varies from mild to severe. Approximately half of the hearing losses due to congenital CMV infection have a late-onset or are progressive. […] The neurological changes associated with CMV infections are related to direct virus damage to the cells of the brain parenchyma or to the related inflammatory response. […] SARS-CoV-2 may cause direct destruction of inner ear structures, especially the hair cells of the inner ear. It has been suggested that SARS-CoV-2 may act by either destroying the organ of Corti or activating the host immune system. […] ZIKV has an affinity for neural tissue. […] Direct injury to the auditory organ by the ZIKV or local inflammatory changes induced by a ZIKV infection are probably the mechanisms involved in the hearing changes linked to ZIKV.
  • #57 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    Hearing loss associated with CMV infection varies from mild to severe. Approximately half of the hearing losses due to congenital CMV infection have a late-onset or are progressive. […] The neurological changes associated with CMV infections are related to direct virus damage to the cells of the brain parenchyma or to the related inflammatory response. […] SARS-CoV-2 may cause direct destruction of inner ear structures, especially the hair cells of the inner ear. It has been suggested that SARS-CoV-2 may act by either destroying the organ of Corti or activating the host immune system. […] ZIKV has an affinity for neural tissue. […] Direct injury to the auditory organ by the ZIKV or local inflammatory changes induced by a ZIKV infection are probably the mechanisms involved in the hearing changes linked to ZIKV.
  • #58 Pathophysiology and mechanisms of hearing impairment related to neonatal infection diseases
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10140533/
    The hearing loss related to late congenital syphilis during childhood is sudden, bilateral, and symmetric. […] The hearing loss of otosyphilis typically begins at a high frequency, progressing to a bilateral and complete loss of the cochlear and vestibular functions. […] The analysis of brains infected congenitally reveals areas of necrosis, containing infiltrating macrophages and microglia, which produce nitric oxide, an important component of the innate immune response that occurs during infection.
  • #59 Causes of Hearing Loss in Adults
    https://www.asha.org/public/hearing/causes-of-hearing-loss-in-adults/?srsltid=AfmBOor5cKSo1cc98usTGTfvDQHsWom6lMIMJcTRRKZ2M_WcP4pDnJnL
    Otosclerosis. This is a middle ear disease. It makes it harder for the tiny bones in the middle ear to move. It causes a conductive hearing loss. This condition is often treated with surgery. […] Mnire’s disease. This is an inner ear problem. The cause of Mnire’s disease is not known. It usually starts in people between 30 and 50 years old. A person with this disease will often have sensorineural hearing loss. Dizziness and ringing in the ear are common. Sensitivity to loud sounds may also happen. The hearing loss comes and goes, but over time some loss becomes permanent. […] Autoimmune inner ear disease. An autoimmune disorder is one where your body attacks itself. This type of hearing loss happens fast. You should see a doctor as soon as possible if you suddenly lose your hearing. Medical treatment can help keep hearing loss to a minimum.
  • #60 Hearing Loss – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/hearing-loss/hearing-loss
    Aging, together with noise exposure and genetic factors, is a common risk factor for progressive decrease in hearing. Age-related hearing loss is termed presbycusis. Presbycusis is due to a combination of sensory cell (hair cell) and neuronal loss. […] Acute otitis media (AOM) is a common cause of transient mild to moderate hearing loss (mainly in children). However, without treatment, AOM sequelae and chronic otitis media (and the rarer purulent labyrinthitis) can cause permanent loss, particularly if a cholesteatoma forms. […] Autoimmune inner ear disease causes inflammation in the inner ear that results in a fluctuating or progressive bilateral hearing loss.
  • #61 Sensorineural Hearing Loss (SNHL) – ENT Health
    https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/sensorineural-hearing-loss/
    Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) happens when there is damage to tiny hair cells in the cochlear and/or the auditory nerve. […] Sound energy reaches the cochlea, but damaged hair cells are unable to convert sound waves into neural signals that pass through the auditory nerve to the brain. Auditory nerve abnormalities will also cause SNHL. […] Other causes may include: Sudden hearing loss may be caused by a virus; you should see an ENT (ear, nose, and throat) specialist, or otolaryngologist, for urgent treatment that could help recover some hearing. Aging gradual SNHL that cannot be reversed (most common). Acoustic trauma exposure to loud noises (e.g., industrial/machinery or explosion/gunfire close to the ear; can be prevented with proper protection). Head trauma or abrupt changes in air pressure this can cause the space that contains inner ear fluid to rupture. Autoimmune inner ear disease the body’s immune system attacks the inner ear and causes progressive hearing loss in both ears. Meniere’s disease a condition characterized by fluctuating hearing loss, dizziness, ear fullness, or ringing in the ears (called tinnitus). Central nervous disease damage caused by a condition such as multiple sclerosis. Cochlear otosclerosis abnormal bone growth in the inner ear. Congenital inner ear malformation genetic or environmental abnormalities (very common cause in children). Benign tumor called vestibular schwannoma, this is a noncancerous tumor on the adjacent balance nerve that compresses the hearing nerve that connects the inner ear to the brain, causing SNHL. […] SNHL can be treated with the use of conventional hearing aids or an implantable hearing device.
  • #62 Causes of Hearing Loss in Adults
    https://www.asha.org/public/hearing/causes-of-hearing-loss-in-adults/?srsltid=AfmBOor5cKSo1cc98usTGTfvDQHsWom6lMIMJcTRRKZ2M_WcP4pDnJnL
    Otosclerosis. This is a middle ear disease. It makes it harder for the tiny bones in the middle ear to move. It causes a conductive hearing loss. This condition is often treated with surgery. […] Mnire’s disease. This is an inner ear problem. The cause of Mnire’s disease is not known. It usually starts in people between 30 and 50 years old. A person with this disease will often have sensorineural hearing loss. Dizziness and ringing in the ear are common. Sensitivity to loud sounds may also happen. The hearing loss comes and goes, but over time some loss becomes permanent. […] Autoimmune inner ear disease. An autoimmune disorder is one where your body attacks itself. This type of hearing loss happens fast. You should see a doctor as soon as possible if you suddenly lose your hearing. Medical treatment can help keep hearing loss to a minimum.
  • #63 Conductive Hearing Loss – ENT Health
    https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/conductive-hearing-loss/
    Conductive hearing loss results when there is any problem in delivering sound energy to your cochlea, the hearing part in the inner ear. […] Conductive hearing loss happens when the natural movement of sound through the external ear or middle ear is blocked, and the full sound does not reach the inner ear. […] Conductive loss associated with middle ear structures include: […] Middle ear fluid or infection The middle ear space normally contains air, but it can become inflamed and fluid filled (otitis media). […] Cholesteatoma Skin cells that are present in the middle ear space that are not usually there. […] Otosclerosis This is an inherited disease in which the stapes or stirrup bone in the middle ear fuses with bones around it and fails to vibrate well.
  • #64 Imaging the patient with hearing loss | Applied Radiology
    https://appliedradiology.com/articles/mdct-diagnosis-of-acquired-hearing-loss
    Otospongiosis affects the bone of the otic capsule and is a classic example of a cause of MHL. […] The etiology of the disease is still poorly understood, but it is associated with both genetic and environmental factors. […] Cochlear otospongiosis occurs in the otic capsule surrounding the cochlea. […] The cochlear form affects the organ of Corti through a mechanism that is not completely understood resulting in SNHL.
  • #65 Hereditary Hearing Loss: How Genetics Influence Your Hearing
    https://www.audibel.com/hearing-loss-treatment/hereditary-hearing-loss-overview/
    Hereditary hearing loss, also called genetic hearing loss, is an auditory condition passed down through generations of families. It occurs when one or both parents pass the condition down to their child through their genes. Genetic hearing loss often causes hearing issues to present at birth (congenital hearing loss). However, certain genetic conditions can also lead to its development later in life (acquired hearing loss). […] Genetic hearing loss is typically categorized into two main forms, each of which has its own characteristics and implications: syndromic and non-syndromic. […] Syndromic hearing loss refers to partial or total hearing loss associated with other medical conditions. This type of loss accounts for about 30% of genetic hearing loss cases. […] Non-syndromic hearing loss refers to partial or total hearing loss that occurs with no other medical issues or symptoms. Non-syndromic hearing loss is the most common form of genetic hearing loss, accounting for about 70% of all cases.
  • #66 Hereditary Hearing Loss: How Genetics Influence Your Hearing
    https://www.audibel.com/hearing-loss-treatment/hereditary-hearing-loss-overview/
    Hereditary hearing loss, also called genetic hearing loss, is an auditory condition passed down through generations of families. It occurs when one or both parents pass the condition down to their child through their genes. Genetic hearing loss often causes hearing issues to present at birth (congenital hearing loss). However, certain genetic conditions can also lead to its development later in life (acquired hearing loss). […] Genetic hearing loss is typically categorized into two main forms, each of which has its own characteristics and implications: syndromic and non-syndromic. […] Syndromic hearing loss refers to partial or total hearing loss associated with other medical conditions. This type of loss accounts for about 30% of genetic hearing loss cases. […] Non-syndromic hearing loss refers to partial or total hearing loss that occurs with no other medical issues or symptoms. Non-syndromic hearing loss is the most common form of genetic hearing loss, accounting for about 70% of all cases.
  • #67 Nonsyndromic hearing loss: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock
    https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/nonsyndromic-hearing-loss/
    Nonsyndromic hearing loss can be classified in several different ways. One common way is by the condition’s pattern of inheritance: autosomal dominant (DFNA), autosomal recessive (DFNB), X-linked (DFNX), or mitochondrial (which does not have a special designation). […] Most forms of nonsyndromic hearing loss are described as sensorineural, which means they are associated with a permanent loss of hearing caused by damage to structures in the inner ear. […] The causes of nonsyndromic hearing loss are complex. Researchers have identified more than 90 genes that, when altered, are associated with nonsyndromic hearing loss. Many of these genes are involved in the development and function of the inner ear. Mutations in these genes contribute to hearing loss by interfering with critical steps in processing sound.
  • #68 Nonsyndromic hearing loss: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock
    https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/nonsyndromic-hearing-loss/
    Nonsyndromic hearing loss can be classified in several different ways. One common way is by the condition’s pattern of inheritance: autosomal dominant (DFNA), autosomal recessive (DFNB), X-linked (DFNX), or mitochondrial (which does not have a special designation). […] Most forms of nonsyndromic hearing loss are described as sensorineural, which means they are associated with a permanent loss of hearing caused by damage to structures in the inner ear. […] The causes of nonsyndromic hearing loss are complex. Researchers have identified more than 90 genes that, when altered, are associated with nonsyndromic hearing loss. Many of these genes are involved in the development and function of the inner ear. Mutations in these genes contribute to hearing loss by interfering with critical steps in processing sound.
  • #69 Gene Therapy for Genetic Hearing Loss | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/treatments/gene-therapy-genetic-hearing-loss
    Some forms of hearing loss are caused by genetic mutations. […] Approximately 150 genes have been linked to sensorineural hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing loss means that there is a malfunction or damage in the inner ear that causes loss of hearing. […] Researchers have determined that one of the genetic causes of sensorineural hearing loss is when the otoferlin (OTOF) gene doesn’t work properly. […] The first gene therapy being tested for hearing loss seeks to replace the nonfunctioning OTOF gene in the cochlea with a working copy of the OTOF gene. […] Gene therapy for children with OTOF gene-related deafness seeks to restore hearing by injecting copies of normal OTOF genes into the inner ear. […] Functioning OTOF genes are encased in a viral vector, a modified form of a non-disease-causing virus, so they can be delivered into cochlear cells in the inner ear. […] The aim is for the normal OTOF genes to function in the cochlea and replace the faulty genes, restoring a child’s hearing. […] There is currently an active gene therapy clinical trial for otoferlin (OTOF) gene-related hearing loss.
  • #70 Gene Therapy for Genetic Hearing Loss | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/treatments/gene-therapy-genetic-hearing-loss
    Some forms of hearing loss are caused by genetic mutations. […] Approximately 150 genes have been linked to sensorineural hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing loss means that there is a malfunction or damage in the inner ear that causes loss of hearing. […] Researchers have determined that one of the genetic causes of sensorineural hearing loss is when the otoferlin (OTOF) gene doesn’t work properly. […] The first gene therapy being tested for hearing loss seeks to replace the nonfunctioning OTOF gene in the cochlea with a working copy of the OTOF gene. […] Gene therapy for children with OTOF gene-related deafness seeks to restore hearing by injecting copies of normal OTOF genes into the inner ear. […] Functioning OTOF genes are encased in a viral vector, a modified form of a non-disease-causing virus, so they can be delivered into cochlear cells in the inner ear. […] The aim is for the normal OTOF genes to function in the cochlea and replace the faulty genes, restoring a child’s hearing. […] There is currently an active gene therapy clinical trial for otoferlin (OTOF) gene-related hearing loss.
  • #71 Gene Therapy for Genetic Hearing Loss | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/treatments/gene-therapy-genetic-hearing-loss
    Some forms of hearing loss are caused by genetic mutations. […] Approximately 150 genes have been linked to sensorineural hearing loss. Sensorineural hearing loss means that there is a malfunction or damage in the inner ear that causes loss of hearing. […] Researchers have determined that one of the genetic causes of sensorineural hearing loss is when the otoferlin (OTOF) gene doesn’t work properly. […] The first gene therapy being tested for hearing loss seeks to replace the nonfunctioning OTOF gene in the cochlea with a working copy of the OTOF gene. […] Gene therapy for children with OTOF gene-related deafness seeks to restore hearing by injecting copies of normal OTOF genes into the inner ear. […] Functioning OTOF genes are encased in a viral vector, a modified form of a non-disease-causing virus, so they can be delivered into cochlear cells in the inner ear. […] The aim is for the normal OTOF genes to function in the cochlea and replace the faulty genes, restoring a child’s hearing. […] There is currently an active gene therapy clinical trial for otoferlin (OTOF) gene-related hearing loss.
  • #72 Transient auditory nerve demyelination as a new mechanism for hidden hearing loss | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14487
    Hidden hearing loss (HHL) is a recently described auditory neuropathy believed to contribute to speech discrimination and intelligibility deficits in people with normal audiological tests. […] Currently, the only cellular mechanism known for HHL is loss of inner hair cell synapses (synaptopathy). […] Here we report that transient loss of cochlear Schwann cells results in permanent auditory deficits characteristic of HHL. […] This auditory neuropathy is not associated with synaptic loss, but rather with disruption of the first heminodes at the auditory nerve peripheral terminal. […] Thus, this study identifies a new mechanism for HHL, highlights the long-term consequences of transient Schwann cell loss on hearing and might provide insights into the causes of the auditory deficits reported in patients that recover from acute demyelinating diseases such as GuillainBarr syndrome.
  • #73 Transient auditory nerve demyelination as a new mechanism for hidden hearing loss | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14487
    Hidden hearing loss (HHL) is a recently described auditory neuropathy believed to contribute to speech discrimination and intelligibility deficits in people with normal audiological tests. […] Currently, the only cellular mechanism known for HHL is loss of inner hair cell synapses (synaptopathy). […] Here we report that transient loss of cochlear Schwann cells results in permanent auditory deficits characteristic of HHL. […] This auditory neuropathy is not associated with synaptic loss, but rather with disruption of the first heminodes at the auditory nerve peripheral terminal. […] Thus, this study identifies a new mechanism for HHL, highlights the long-term consequences of transient Schwann cell loss on hearing and might provide insights into the causes of the auditory deficits reported in patients that recover from acute demyelinating diseases such as GuillainBarr syndrome.
  • #74 Transient auditory nerve demyelination as a new mechanism for hidden hearing loss | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14487
    Together, these results uncover a new mechanism for the pathogenesis of HHL and a new consequence of myelin defects on the normal function of the nervous system. […] These findings indicate that transient Schwann cell ablation results in prolonged auditory neuropathy and HHL. […] This data indicates that transient loss of glial cells results in prolonged auditory deficits and HHL by a mechanism that is distinct from cochlear synaptopathy. […] The observation that ABR P1 latency is longer after transient demyelination suggested that other aspects of myelinaxon interactions could be disrupted. […] Therefore, we examined whether the transient demyelination alters node of Ranvier density in auditory axons. […] Our findings indicate that HHL can also arise from pathologies of cochlear Schwann cell (schwannopathy) or nodal structures (nodopathy), rather than synaptopathy.
  • #75 Scientists discover biological mechanism of hearing loss caused by loud noise — and find a way to prevent it | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/02/240212153500.htm
    Drugs that trap excess zinc in the inner ear could help restore lost hearing or, if administered before an expected loud sound exposure, can protect from hearing loss, study suggests. […] The study showed that noise-induced hearing loss, which affects millions of Americans, stems from cellular damage in the inner ear that is associated with the excess of free-floating zinc a mineral that is essential for proper cellular function and hearing. […] By performing experiments in mice and on isolated cells of the inner ear, researchers found that hours after mice are exposed to loud noise, their inner ear zinc level spikes. Loud sound exposure causes a robust release of zinc into the extra and intracellular space which, ultimately, leads to cellular damage and disrupts normal cell to cell communication. […] Thankfully, this discovery opens doors for a possible solution. Experiments showed mice who were treated with a slow-releasing compound that trapped excess free zinc were less prone to hearing loss and were protected from noise-induced damage.
  • #76 Scientists discover biological mechanism of hearing loss caused by loud noise — and find a way to prevent it | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/02/240212153500.htm
    Drugs that trap excess zinc in the inner ear could help restore lost hearing or, if administered before an expected loud sound exposure, can protect from hearing loss, study suggests. […] The study showed that noise-induced hearing loss, which affects millions of Americans, stems from cellular damage in the inner ear that is associated with the excess of free-floating zinc a mineral that is essential for proper cellular function and hearing. […] By performing experiments in mice and on isolated cells of the inner ear, researchers found that hours after mice are exposed to loud noise, their inner ear zinc level spikes. Loud sound exposure causes a robust release of zinc into the extra and intracellular space which, ultimately, leads to cellular damage and disrupts normal cell to cell communication. […] Thankfully, this discovery opens doors for a possible solution. Experiments showed mice who were treated with a slow-releasing compound that trapped excess free zinc were less prone to hearing loss and were protected from noise-induced damage.
  • #77 Scientists discover biological mechanism of hearing loss caused by loud noise — and find a way to prevent it | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/02/240212153500.htm
    Drugs that trap excess zinc in the inner ear could help restore lost hearing or, if administered before an expected loud sound exposure, can protect from hearing loss, study suggests. […] The study showed that noise-induced hearing loss, which affects millions of Americans, stems from cellular damage in the inner ear that is associated with the excess of free-floating zinc a mineral that is essential for proper cellular function and hearing. […] By performing experiments in mice and on isolated cells of the inner ear, researchers found that hours after mice are exposed to loud noise, their inner ear zinc level spikes. Loud sound exposure causes a robust release of zinc into the extra and intracellular space which, ultimately, leads to cellular damage and disrupts normal cell to cell communication. […] Thankfully, this discovery opens doors for a possible solution. Experiments showed mice who were treated with a slow-releasing compound that trapped excess free zinc were less prone to hearing loss and were protected from noise-induced damage.
  • #78 Mechanisms of Hearing Loss in Neurofibromatosis Type 2 | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0046132
    Patients with neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) develop bilateral cochleovestibular schwannomas (CVSs) that cause binaural deafness in most individuals. Hearing loss occurs in an unpredictable manner and the underlying mechanisms are not known. […] Despite the significant audiologic morbidity identified in patients with NF2, the mechanisms by which the CVS causes hearing loss are not understood. The most frequently cited hypothesis is the enlarging CVS causes hearing loss through direct compression and stretching of the cochlear nerve. […] These findings are consistent with a model in which hearing loss develops as a result of cochlear aperture obstruction and accumulation of intralabyrinthine protein. […] The most common imaging findings identified in CVS-associated hearing loss in NF2 was the presence of elevated intralabyrinthine perilymphatic protein and the presence of cochlear aperture obstruction on MR-imaging. Elevated intralabyrinthine protein was found in 94% of hearing loss ears (32 of 34 ears) and in 70% of normal hearing ears (35 of 50 ears).
  • #79 Mechanisms of Hearing Loss in Neurofibromatosis Type 2 | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0046132
    Patients with neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) develop bilateral cochleovestibular schwannomas (CVSs) that cause binaural deafness in most individuals. Hearing loss occurs in an unpredictable manner and the underlying mechanisms are not known. […] Despite the significant audiologic morbidity identified in patients with NF2, the mechanisms by which the CVS causes hearing loss are not understood. The most frequently cited hypothesis is the enlarging CVS causes hearing loss through direct compression and stretching of the cochlear nerve. […] These findings are consistent with a model in which hearing loss develops as a result of cochlear aperture obstruction and accumulation of intralabyrinthine protein. […] The most common imaging findings identified in CVS-associated hearing loss in NF2 was the presence of elevated intralabyrinthine perilymphatic protein and the presence of cochlear aperture obstruction on MR-imaging. Elevated intralabyrinthine protein was found in 94% of hearing loss ears (32 of 34 ears) and in 70% of normal hearing ears (35 of 50 ears).
  • #80 Mechanisms of Hearing Loss in Neurofibromatosis Type 2 | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0046132
    Patients with neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) develop bilateral cochleovestibular schwannomas (CVSs) that cause binaural deafness in most individuals. Hearing loss occurs in an unpredictable manner and the underlying mechanisms are not known. […] Despite the significant audiologic morbidity identified in patients with NF2, the mechanisms by which the CVS causes hearing loss are not understood. The most frequently cited hypothesis is the enlarging CVS causes hearing loss through direct compression and stretching of the cochlear nerve. […] These findings are consistent with a model in which hearing loss develops as a result of cochlear aperture obstruction and accumulation of intralabyrinthine protein. […] The most common imaging findings identified in CVS-associated hearing loss in NF2 was the presence of elevated intralabyrinthine perilymphatic protein and the presence of cochlear aperture obstruction on MR-imaging. Elevated intralabyrinthine protein was found in 94% of hearing loss ears (32 of 34 ears) and in 70% of normal hearing ears (35 of 50 ears).
  • #81 Current insights in noise-induced hearing loss: a literature review of the underlying mechanism, pathophysiology, asymmetry, and management options | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40463-017-0219-x
    Noise-induced hearing loss is one of the most common forms of sensorineural hearing loss, is a major health problem, is largely preventable and is probably more widespread than revealed by conventional pure tone threshold testing. […] Recent epidemiology and animal studies have provided further insight into the pathophysiology, clinical findings, social and economic impacts of noise-induced hearing loss. […] The objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of NIHL including the fundamental and advanced pathophysiology, specific investigations, including detailed discussion on asymmetric NIHL, associated symptomatology, available interventions for prevention and treatment. […] NIHL is a complex disease that results from the interaction of genetic and environmental factors, but is generally still dictated by the extent of biological damage caused by noise exposure.