Zapalenie skóry
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Zapalenie skóry (dermatitis) to przewlekłe schorzenie o złożonej patogenezie, obejmującej dysfunkcję bariery naskórkowej, zaburzenia immunologiczne, predyspozycje genetyczne oraz czynniki środowiskowe. Kluczową rolę odgrywa defekt bariery naskórkowej, szczególnie związany z mutacjami genu filagryny (FLG), prowadzący do zwiększonej przeznaskórkowej utraty wody (TEWL), suchości skóry i kolonizacji przez Staphylococcus aureus. Immunologicznie dominują limfocyty Th2, produkujące cytokiny IL-4, IL-13, IL-5 i IL-31, które nasilają stan zapalny i uszkodzenie bariery. W przewlekłych stadiach obserwuje się aktywację osi Th22 (IL-22) oraz Th1/Th17, co komplikuje obraz choroby. Dysbioza mikrobiologiczna, zwłaszcza nadmierna kolonizacja S. aureus, oraz ekspozycja na alergeny i czynniki drażniące środowiskowe dodatkowo nasilają proces zapalny. Histopatologicznie zapalenie skóry charakteryzuje się spongiozą, czyli obrzękiem międzykomórkowym naskórka, z różnymi stopniami nasilenia w zależności od stadium choroby.

Patogeneza zapalenia skóry (dermatitis) – mechanizmy i procesy

Zapalenie skóry (dermatitis) jest złożonym, przewlekłym schorzeniem zapalnym skóry, którego patogeneza obejmuje wieloczynnikowe interakcje między predyspozycjami genetycznymi, dysfunkcją bariery naskórkowej, zaburzeniami immunologicznymi oraz czynnikami środowiskowymi12. Mechanizmy prowadzące do rozwoju zapalenia skóry są skomplikowane i nie zostały jeszcze w pełni poznane, jednak intensywne badania z ostatnich lat umożliwiły lepsze zrozumienie procesów leżących u podstaw tej choroby3.

Zaburzenia bariery naskórkowej

Dysfunkcja bariery naskórkowej jest uważana za kluczowy element w patogenezie zapalenia skóry, szczególnie w atopowym zapaleniu skóry (AZS)14. Bariera naskórkowa składa się z czterech warstw komórkowych: warstwy podstawnej, warstwy kolczystej, warstwy ziarnistej i warstwy rogowej, a jej integralność jest niezbędna dla prawidłowej funkcji ochronnej skóry5.

Zaburzenia bariery naskórkowej mogą być spowodowane przez wiele czynników, w tym:67

68

Filagryna odgrywa kluczową rolę w utrzymaniu integralności bariery naskórkowej poprzez tworzenie wiązek filamentów keratynowych oraz przyczynianie się do nawilżenia warstwy rogowej naskórka9. Mutacje genu FLG osłabiają barierę skórną i zwiększają ryzyko rozwoju zapalenia skóry10. Defekt ten prowadzi do zwiększonej przeznaskórkowej utraty wody (TEWL), nadmiernej suchości skóry, wyższego pH na powierzchni skóry oraz zaburzeń w proporcjach i ilościach wolnych kwasów tłuszczowych, ceramidów i triglicerydów7.

Uszkodzona bariera naskórkowa umożliwia przenikanie alergenów, haptenów i antygenów pochodzących z mikroorganizmów, zwłaszcza Staphylococcus aureus, co prowadzi do aktywacji procesów zapalnych4. Ten mechanizm jest szczególnie istotny w rozwoju atopowego zapalenia skóry, gdzie kolonizacja S. aureus jest bardzo powszechna zarówno w zmienionej, jak i niezmienionej chorobowo skórze9.

Dysregulacja układu immunologicznego

Zaburzenia odpowiedzi immunologicznej odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie zapalenia skóry13. Istnieją dwie główne hipotezy dotyczące początku procesu zapalnego:

  • Hipoteza „wewnątrz-na-zewnątrz” – sugeruje, że pierwotne zaburzenia immunologiczne są początkowym wydarzeniem w rozwoju choroby, a stymulacja alergenami prowadzi do osłabienia bariery naskórkowej
  • Hipoteza „zewnątrz-do-wewnątrz” – zakłada, że uszkodzona bariera skórna jest pierwszym etapem patogenezy i warunkiem koniecznym do wystąpienia dysregulacji immunologicznej

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Złożony mechanizm odpowiedzi immunologicznej w zapaleniu skóry obejmuje wiele typów komórek i mediatorów zapalnych. Kluczową rolę odgrywają limfocyty T pomocnicze typu 2 (Th2), które dominują we wczesnej fazie zapalenia3. Uszkodzone keratynocyty uwalniają mediatory zapalne, tzw. alarminy (IL-33, IL-25, TSLP), które aktywują komórki dendrytyczne (DC) i wrodzone limfocyty typu 2 (ILC2), produkujące IL-5 i IL-13, aktywujące eozynofile i limfocyty Th2311.

W odpowiedzi Th2 dochodzi do uwalniania kluczowych cytokin prozapalnych, takich jak:33

912

IL-4 i IL-13 przyczyniają się do uszkodzenia bariery skórnej poprzez zmniejszenie ekspresji białek różnicowania terminalnego, takich jak filagryna (FLG), lorikryna (LOR) i inwolikryna (INV), zarówno w skórze zmienionej chorobowo, jak i niezmienionej3. Prowadzi to do dalszego pogorszenia funkcji barierowej skóry i opóźnienia jej regeneracji, tworząc błędne koło zapalenia4.

W przewlekłym zapaleniu skóry obserwuje się również aktywację osi Th22, z udziałem komórek Th22 i Tc22, które występują w zwiększonej liczbie w próbkach skóry pacjentów z zapaleniem skóry w porównaniu do zdrowych osób3. IL-22 odgrywa kluczową rolę w łączeniu defektu barierowego i immunologicznego w zapaleniu skóry, a jej ekspresja w skórze koreluje z nasileniem choroby i odpowiedzią na leczenie312.

W przypadkach przewlekłego zapalenia skóry stopniowo obserwuje się dominację odpowiedzi Th1 i Th17, mediowanych odpowiednio przez oś INF/TNF i IL-17, podczas gdy odpowiedzi Th22 kierowane przez IL-22 są również obecne12.

Rola czynników genetycznych

Predyspozycje genetyczne odgrywają istotną rolę w patogenezie zapalenia skóry, szczególnie w przypadku atopowego zapalenia skóry213. Istnieje wiele współdziałających genów odpowiedzialnych za patogenezę choroby, jednak nie jest to proste dziedziczenie mendelowskie2.

Geny podlegają również różnym zjawiskom dziedziczenia, takim jak zmiany epigenetyczne, niepełna penetracja genów i genomowy imprinting2. Epigenetyka bada regulację ekspresji genów, które nie są związane z modyfikacją sekwencji DNA, a te modyfikacje prowadzą do aktywacji lub hamowania transkrypcji określonych genów, co wpływa na funkcjonowanie, aktywację i polaryzację komórek oraz zdolność do wydzielania cytokin8.

Mutacje genów kodujących białka strukturalne naskórka, w szczególności filagrynę, są najlepiej poznanym czynnikiem genetycznym związanym z rozwojem zapalenia skóry14. Mutacje genu FLG prowadzą do upośledzenia funkcji barierowej naskórka, zwiększonej przeznaskórkowej utraty wody oraz zwiększonej podatności na czynniki drażniące i alergeny9.

Oprócz filagryny, również inne geny związane z barierą naskórkową, takie jak geny kodujące proteiny warstwowe, inhibitory proteaz (SPINK) oraz klaudyny, mogą przyczyniać się do rozwoju zapalenia skóry914.

Mikrobiom skóry i jego rola w patogenezie

Zaburzenia w składzie mikrobioty skórnej (dysbioza) odgrywają istotną rolę w patogenezie zapalenia skóry12. Główny związek między bakteriami skórnymi a zapaleniem skóry dotyczy Staphylococcus aureus, często występującego na skórze pacjentów z zapaleniem skóry9.

U pacjentów z niedoborem filagryny zwykle występuje więcej S. aureus w mikrobiomie skóry9. S. aureus pobudza keratynocyty do produkcji proteaz, co dodatkowo pogarsza barierę skórną9. Drobnostroje skórne wpływają na odpowiedź immunologiczną i mogą zarówno nasilać, jak i łagodzić stan zapalny skóry10.

Peptydy przeciwdrobnoustrojowe, które działają jako antybiotyki o szerokim spektrum działania zabijające bakterie Gram-ujemne i Gram-dodatnie, są zmniejszone u pacjentów z zapaleniem skóry, co z kolei umożliwia bakteriom kolonizację skóry10. To dodatkowo przyczynia się do nasilenia stanu zapalnego i zaburzenia homeostazy mikrobiologicznej skóry15.

Rola czynników środowiskowych

Czynniki środowiskowe odgrywają istotną rolę w patogenezie zapalenia skóry, szczególnie w kontekście dysfunkcji bariery naskórkowej516. Ekspozycja na alergeny, czynniki drażniące, zanieczyszczenia środowiska oraz mikroorganizmy może prowadzić do aktywacji komórek układu immunologicznego i nasilenia odpowiedzi zapalnej17.

Kluczowa rola ekspozycji środowiskowej i stresorów skórnych nie może być niedoceniana przy wyjaśnianiu etiologii epidemii zapalenia skóry. Nowoczesne społeczeństwo spowodowało dramatyczne zmiany w ekspozycji ludzi, ze zwiększonym użyciem lub narażeniem na produkty gospodarstwa domowego, kosmetyki, tytoń, przetworzoną żywność i zanieczyszczenie powietrza, ale jednocześnie zmniejszoną ekspozycją na mikroorganizmy i promieniowanie słoneczne, w wyniku zwiększonej higieny, mniejszej liczby osób mieszkających razem w tym samym gospodarstwie domowym i spędzania mniej czasu na zewnątrz10.

Dwukierunkowa interakcja środowiska zewnętrznego ze zdrowiem i chorobą człowieka nazywana jest ekspozomem, uzupełniając dożywotnie interakcje między genami a środowiskiem w patogenezie chorób12. Dysfunkcja bariery skórnej zasadniczo sprzyja wpływowi elementów środowiskowych na patogenezę zapalenia skóry12.

Mechanizm spongiostycznego zapalenia skóry

Zapalenie skóry, z histopatologicznego punktu widzenia, charakteryzuje się specyficznym wzorcem reakcji tkankowej zwanym spongiozą18. Termin „spongioza” odnosi się do obrzęku międzykomórkowego w obrębie naskórka, który jest charakterystyczną cechą zapalenia skóry18.

Początkowo dochodzi do poszerzenia przestrzeni międzykomórkowych między keratynocytami i wydłużenia mostków międzykomórkowych. Dalsze gromadzenie się płynu prowadzi do tworzenia się pęcherzyków śródnaskórkowych18. Spongiostyczne zapalenie skóry jest dynamicznym procesem patologicznym; pęcherzyki pojawiają się i znikają, mogą znajdować się na różnych poziomach naskórka18.

Naciekanie naskórka przez limfocyty (egzocytoza) jest powszechne w tym procesie. Parakeratoza tworzy się nad obszarami spongiozy, prawdopodobnie w wyniku przyspieszenia ruchu keratynocytów w kierunku powierzchni18.

Stadia histologiczne zapalenia skóry

Z histologicznego punktu widzenia, zapalenie skóry można sklasyfikować w oparciu o chroniczność na trzy stadia:18

  • Ostre zapalenie spongiostyczne – charakteryzuje się masywnym obrzękiem międzykomórkowym naskórka z poszerzeniem przestrzeni międzykomórkowych, przerwaniem desmosomów i tworzeniem mikropęcherzyków
  • Podostre zapalenie spongiostyczne – pośrednie stadium między ostrym a przewlekłym
  • Przewlekłe zapalenie spongiostyczne – stopień spongiozy jest często łagodny i trudny do zauważenia. Tworzenie pęcherzyków jest rzadkie. Występuje znaczna akantoza naskórka, która może wykazywać wzór łuszczycopodobny z hiperkeratozą, hipergranulozą i minimalną parakeratozą

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Choroba zapalna skóry może rozpocząć się w dowolnym stadium i ewoluować w inne. Cechy histopatologiczne, które charakteryzują spongiozę, występują również w wielu innych dermatozach, które nie są klasycznie klasyfikowane jako „wyprysk”, co dodatkowo komplikuje definicję18.

Alergiczne zapalenie skóry – mechanizm patogenetyczny

Alergiczne zapalenie skóry (ACD) jest powszechną zapalną chorobą skóry charakteryzującą się świądowymi, wypryskopodobnymi zmianami19. ACD jest wynikiem opóźnionej reakcji nadwrażliwości typu komórkowego, wywołanej przez kontakt skóry z substancją uczulającą u osób wcześniej uczulonych na tę samą substancję19.

Mechanizm rozwoju alergicznego zapalenia skóry obejmuje dwie fazy:20

  • Faza indukcji (uczulenia) – podczas pierwszego kontaktu z haptenem (niskocząsteczkowym antygenem) dochodzi do jego połączenia z białkami skórnymi, co prowadzi do utworzenia kompleksu hapten-białko. Kompleks ten jest przetwarzany przez komórki Langerhansa, które migrują do regionalnych węzłów chłonnych i prezentują antygen limfocytom T. W wyniku tego procesu dochodzi do powstania uczulonych limfocytów T pamięci.
  • Faza wywołania – ponowny kontakt z tym samym haptenem prowadzi do aktywacji uczulonych limfocytów T, które uwalniają cytokiny i chemokiny, przyczyniając się do rozwoju reakcji zapalnej.

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Alergiczne zapalenie skóry jest szeroko akceptowane jako najczęstsza forma immunotoksyczności występująca u ludzi i jest powszechnym problemem zdrowotnym związanym z pracą i środowiskiem20. Mechanizmy, za pomocą których zachodzi ta reakcja, są złożone i obejmują wiele poziomów dokładnej kontroli20.

Rola przeciwciał w kontaktowym zapaleniu skóry

Alergiczne zapalenie skóry przez długi czas uważane było za reakcję immunologiczną komórkowo-zależną, jednak nowsze badania sugerują, że produkcja swoistych przeciwciał przez aktywowane limfocyty B może odgrywać istotną rolę w patogenezie kontaktowego zapalenia skóry2121.

W badaniach na modelu zwierzęcym kontaktowego zapalenia skóry wywołanego dinitrochlorbenezenem (DNCB) wykazano, że powstawanie swoistych przeciwciał DNCB odgrywa ważną rolę w rozwoju zapalenia skóry21. Wystąpienie zapalenia skóry wywołanego DNCB zbiega się w czasie z pojawieniem się swoistych przeciwciał DNCB w surowicy, a kontaktowe zapalenie skóry wywołane DNCB jest znacznie zmniejszone u transgenicznych myszy z niedoborem limfocytów B, które nie mogą wytwarzać swoistych przeciwciał DNCB21.

Zaobserwowano również, że leczenie zwierząt DNCB polaryzuje komórki Th w kierunku różnicowania Th2 poprzez zwiększenie produkcji cytokin Th2 (IL-4, IL-5 i IL-10) przy jednoczesnym zmniejszeniu produkcji cytokin Th1 (IFN-γ i IL-2)21.

Zapalenie łojotokowe skóry – specyficzny mechanizm patogenetyczny

Łojotokowe zapalenie skóry jest powszechną chorobą zapalną regionów skóry o dużej gęstości gruczołów łojowych (np. twarz, skóra głowy, mostek)22. Patogeneza nie jest do końca jasna, ale aktywność tego schorzenia została powiązana z wielkością populacji drożdżaków Malassezia występujących na skórze oraz z reakcją zapalną na drożdże22.

Częstość występowania i nasilenie choroby wydają się być uzależnione od czynników genetycznych, stresu emocjonalnego lub fizycznego oraz klimatu (zwykle gorsze w chłodnym klimacie)22.

Łojotokowe zapalenie skóry może być częstsze i bardziej nasilone u pacjentów z zaburzeniami neurologicznymi (szczególnie chorobą Parkinsona), prawdopodobnie ze względu na zmiany w aktywności gruczołów łojowych22. Jest również bardziej rozpowszechnione i cięższe u osób z HIV/późnym stadium HIV, prawdopodobnie z powodu zaburzenia równowagi między pro- a przeciwzapalnymi odpowiedziami limfocytów T22.

Złożoność mechanizmów patogenezy zapalenia skóry

Patogeneza zapalenia skóry jest wieloczynnikowa i złożona, obejmująca interakcje między predyspozycjami genetycznymi, dysfunkcją bariery naskórkowej, zaburzeniami immunologicznymi oraz czynnikami środowiskowymi12. W ostatnich latach nastąpił znaczący postęp w zrozumieniu mechanizmów molekularnych leżących u podstaw tej choroby, co przełożyło się na rozwój nowych strategii terapeutycznych3.

Poznanie złożonych interakcji między różnymi elementami patogenezy zapalenia skóry, takimi jak defekt bariery naskórkowej, dysregulacja odpowiedzi immunologicznej, dysbioza mikrobiologiczna oraz wpływ czynników środowiskowych, umożliwia opracowanie ukierunkowanych terapii, które mogą być dostosowane do indywidualnych potrzeb pacjentów15.

Lepsze zrozumienie patogenezy zapalenia skóry przyczynia się do identyfikacji nowych celów terapeutycznych, takich jak cytokiny (IL-4, IL-13, IL-31) i szlaki sygnałowe (JAK-STAT), których modulacja może prowadzić do znaczącej poprawy stanu skóry pacjentów z zapaleniem skóry2324.

Obecnie strategie terapeutyczne koncentrują się na przywróceniu funkcji bariery naskórkowej oraz kontroli stanu zapalnego skóry, co może przyczynić się do przerwania błędnego koła zapalenia i poprawy jakości życia pacjentów z zapaleniem skóry1.

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis: Clinical implications
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6399565/
    Atopic dermatitis (AD) is the most common chronic inflammatory skin disease. Genetic predisposition, epidermal barrier disruption, and dysregulation of the immune system are some of the critical components of AD. An impaired skin barrier may be the initial step in the development of the atopic march as well as AD, which leads to further skin inflammation and allergic sensitization. […] Although the pathophysiology of AD is not completely understood, numerous studies demonstrated that skin barrier dysfunction and immune dysregulation contribute to the pathobiology of AD. […] Skin barrier dysfunction has been considered to be the first step in the development of atopic march as well as AD. However, it is also now evident that immune dysregulation, including the activation of type 2 immune responses, results in impairment of the epidermal barrier.
  • #1 Pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis: Clinical implications
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6399565/
    Recently, new insights into the pathophysiology of the development of AD focused on an important role of abnormalities in epidermal lipid layer as well as neuroimmune interactions and microbial dysbiosis. […] Multiple factors, including epidermal gene mutations, skin barrier dysfunction, immune dysregulation, neuroinflammation, altered lipid composition, and microbial imbalance, can contribute to the development of AD. Various strategies have been used to restore skin barrier function and control skin inflammation in patients with AD.
  • #2 Molecular Mechanisms of Atopic Dermatitis Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8074061/
    Atopic dermatitis is a chronic, non-infectious inflammatory dermatosis. The pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis is complex and multifactorial. It includes genetic disorders, a defect in the epidermal barrier, an altered immune response, and disruption of the skin’s microbial balance. The numerous complex changes at the genetic level and innate and adaptive immunity provide the basis for characterizing the various phenotypes and endotypes of atopic dermatitis. The pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis is complex and multifactorial. Its understanding is complicated by the number of synergized factors that influence the disease. The most important are: genetic disorders, a defect in the epidermal barrier, an altered immune response and disturbed microbiological balance of the skin. […] The initial suspicions of atopic dermatitis’s genetic background appeared along with the observations of a higher incidence of AD in families with atopy. There are many cooperating genes responsible for the disease’s pathogenesis. However, this is not a simple Mendelian inheritance. Genes are also subject to various heredity phenomena such as epigenetic changes, incomplete gene penetrance, and genomic imprinting.
  • #3 The translational revolution in atopic dermatitis: the paradigm shift from pathogenesis to treatment | Cellular & Molecular Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41423-023-00992-4
    Atopic dermatitis (AD) is the most common inflammatory skin disease, and it is considered a complex and heterogeneous condition. […] Recent advancements in understanding AD pathogenesis resulted in a real translational revolution and led to the exponential expansion of the therapeutic pipeline. […] The modern approach to defining AD pathogenesis is now centered on integrating these two mechanisms and is oriented toward characterizing their interplay in AD. […] Environmental noxious stimuli, immune dysregulation, genetic factors, impaired epidermal barrier integrity, and skin microbiome abnormalities all play pathogenetic roles in initiating and sustaining a state of chronic inflammation in AD and contribute to orchestrating the disease phenotype. […] Epidermal barrier dysfunction in AD is characterized by a lower expression of terminal differentiation markers, such as filaggrin (FLG) and loricrin (LOR), and by a higher permeability defect caused by skin lipid film impairment and higher transepidermal water loss.
  • #3 The translational revolution in atopic dermatitis: the paradigm shift from pathogenesis to treatment | Cellular & Molecular Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41423-023-00992-4
    Damaged keratinocytes produce epidermal alarmins such as IL-33, IL-25, and TSLP, which activate the dendritic cells (DCs) and type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) that produce IL-5 and IL-13, which activate eosinophils and Th2 cells. […] Local Th2 polarization, in return, further diminishes barrier functions and sustains itching, causing skin barrier impairment and facilitating dysbiosis. […] AD emerged as a prototypical Th2 disease, and this was supported by multiple observations, including increased levels of Th2 products and lower levels of IFN- in the blood of patients with severe AD. […] Subsequent studies highlighted that AD lesions are primarily, but not exclusively, Th2-driven, with the overproduction of important Th2 cytokines and chemokines, including IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, CCL17, CCL18, and CCL22.
  • #3 The translational revolution in atopic dermatitis: the paradigm shift from pathogenesis to treatment | Cellular & Molecular Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41423-023-00992-4
    The Th2 response is triggered by environmental irritants and allergens that penetrate the skin barrier. […] IL-4 and IL-13 are considered the main drivers of the Th2 immune axis and key cytokines for the pathogenesis of AD. […] In AD skin, IL-4 and IL-13 contribute to skin barrier impairment, reducing the expression of terminal differentiation proteins such as FLG, LOR, and involucrin (INV) in both lesional and nonlesional skin. […] The Th22 axis is directly involved in AD pathogenesis: both Th22 cells and Tc22 cells have a pathogenetic role and are present in increased numbers in skin samples from patients with AD compared to healthy controls. […] The activation of the Th22 pathway is believed to play a key role in linking the barrier and the immune defects in AD. […] IL-22 skin expression correlates with disease severity and response to treatment.
  • #4 Pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis: Current concepts – Journal of Skin and Sexually Transmitted Diseases
    https://jsstd.org/pathogenesis-of-atopic-dermatitis-current-concepts/
    Atopic dermatitis is the most common, yet more troublesome, inflammatory skin disease affecting mankind and its prevalence is increasing globally. […] Thanks to modern research, the underlying basis of this complex disease is beginning to unveil. As inflammation is primarily a defense mechanism and mediated by both innate and adaptive immune systems, an immunological basis for the illness is now well accepted. […] Thanks to a group pioneering of dermatological scientists, we are now beginning to understand how inflammation is initiated by a primary defect in the epidermal skin barrier. […] Both inherited defects and acquired insults are now established as primary events in barrier dysfunction. […] The fact that AD may start as early as 3 months of age is indicative of a failure of compensatory mechanisms involving barrier restoration.
  • #4 Pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis: Current concepts – Journal of Skin and Sexually Transmitted Diseases
    https://jsstd.org/pathogenesis-of-atopic-dermatitis-current-concepts/
    The proven efficacy of a wide variety of immune-suppressive agents in AD (used both topically and systemically) supports the immunological basis for the disease. […] The above has clearly lent support to the theory that inflammation in AD is directly linked to events taking place in the epidermis (sustained barrier dysfunction). […] Once the permeability barrier is perturbed in a sustained manner, a number of defense mechanisms are activated to protect the underlying dermis. […] However, a sustained defect in the epidermal permeability barrier impairs the homeostatic response, allows the inflammation to spread and, recruits inflammatory cells consisting of lymphocytes, eosinophils, and mast cells. […] The defective barrier allows the entry of many noxious agents including environmental antigens, aeroallergens, and haptens as well as antigens derived from microorganisms, especially Staphylococcus aureus.
  • #4 Pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis: Current concepts – Journal of Skin and Sexually Transmitted Diseases
    https://jsstd.org/pathogenesis-of-atopic-dermatitis-current-concepts/
    The persistence of this process switches the specific protective adaptive immune responses to a more allergy dominant Th2 and Th22 dominant immune profile. […] This inflammation results in further deterioration of the permeability barrier. […] As a result, barrier function is further compromised and barrier recovery is delayed. […] This further worsens the dermal inflammation resulting in a vicious cycle. […] A better understanding of the intricate pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis may help to formulate effective treatment guidelines for this challenging disease.
  • #5 Recent Advancements in the Atopic Dermatitis Mechanism
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/FBL/29/2/10.31083/j.fbl2902084/htm
    The interleukin (IL)-31 network, comprising several cell types, such as macrophages, basophils, and the generated cytokines, is also involved in the pathogenesis of the itchiness in AD. […] The Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling pathway is significant in the pathogenesis of AD and inflammation. […] The cardinal role of epidermal barrier dysfunction in the induction and perpetuation of AD is well established. […] The epithelial barrier consists of four cell layers: The stratum basal, the stratum spinosum, the stratum granulosum (SG), and the stratum corneum (SC) within the epidermis. […] The increased phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) activity observed in AD results in the reduction of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), a negative regulator of cytokine production, leading to the augmented production of proinflammatory mediators and cytokines transcription involved in acute and chronic inflammation.
  • #5 Recent Advancements in the Atopic Dermatitis Mechanism
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/FBL/29/2/10.31083/j.fbl2902084/htm
    Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a recurrent, chronic, inflammatory, itchy skin disorder that affects up to 20% of the pediatric population and 10% of the adult population worldwide. […] The pathophysiology of AD includes a complex and multifaceted interplay between the impaired dysfunctional epidermal barrier, genetic predisposition, and environmental contributors, such as chemical and/or biological pollutants and allergens, in the context of dysregulated T2 and T17 skewed immune response. […] The evolution of endotypes in AD and the ongoing research on the determination of non-invasive biomarkers have emerged as an important step toward targeted therapies for personalized treatment in AD patients. […] The dysregulated T cell-mediated immune response, including different patterns of cytokine release, has a strong and robust role in the pathogenesis of AD.
  • #6 Pathogenesis and management of atopic dermatitis: insights into epidermal barrier dysfunction and immune mechanisms
    https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/eaa/Article/100973
    The integrity of the skins epidermis depends significantly on the equilibrium between the skin proteases and their inhibitors. […] In AD patients, at least three factors contribute to barrier dysfunction: (1) abnormalities in FLG gene expression, (2) decreased skin ceramide levels, and (3) excessive activation of epidermal proteases. […] The FLG gene is crucial for preserving the function and integrity of the epidermal barrier, as it helps in forming bundles made up of KRT filaments and contributes to the hydration of the SC through its breakdown products, such as NMFs. […] The main lipids of the outermost skin layer, the SC, comprise ceramides, FFAs, etc. […] Abnormal skin lipids in AD are influenced by a heightened type 2 immune response, with inflammatory Th2 cytokines resulting in decreased total ceramide and long-chain fatty acid levels with altered chain lengths.
  • #7 Molecular Mechanisms of Atopic Dermatitis Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/8/4130
    Gene mutations in the first group lead to impairment of the epidermal barrier function. […] The corneocytes are the scaffold for the extracellular matrix of lipids. […] Mutations leading to impaired protein synthesis cause increased transepidermal water loss (TEWL), excessive skin dryness, higher pH on the skin surface and disturbances in the proportions and amounts of free fatty acids, ceramides and triglycerides. […] The pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis is complex and multifactorial. Its understanding is complicated by the number of synergized factors that influence the disease. […] The following paper presents some of the molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. […] The chronic, relapsing course of the disease, economic burden, and the whole family’s involvement in the treatment process immensely reduce the quality of life in the case of patients and their families.
  • #8 Molecular Mechanisms of Atopic Dermatitis Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8074061/
    Atopic dermatitis is such a complex and diverse disease that different immune responses occur in various patient groups. Therefore, these specific molecular mechanisms underlying the disease have been defined as disease endotypes which set and variable constellations give rise to a particular phenotype.
  • #8 Molecular Mechanisms of Atopic Dermatitis Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8074061/
    The likely mechanism of how the environment affects the organism’s cells are epigenetic changes. Epigenetics is the study of gene expression regulations that are not related to the modification of DNA sequences. The modifications lead to the activation or inhibition of the transcription of specific genes, resulting in the translation of the new mRNA into a polypeptide chain. Thus, they influence the functioning, activation and polarization of cells and the ability to secrete cytokines. […] While describing atopic dermatitis causes, it is impossible to avoid disorders of immune regulation. Consequently, two different hypotheses have been proposed, from inside to outside and from outside to inside. The first one suggests that immunological aberrations are believed to be the primary initial event in development, and stimulation with allergens leads to weakening the epidermal barrier. The latter hypothesis assumes that an impaired skin barrier is the first step in atopic eczema’s pathogenesis and is required for immune dysregulation to occur.
  • #9 Unraveling Atopic Dermatitis: Insights into Pathophysiology, Therapeutic Advances, and Future Perspectives
    https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/13/5/425
    The pathogenesis of AD is multifaceted, involving genetic predispositions, abnormalities in skin function, immune system dysregulation, and environmental influences. The essential membrane protein filaggrin (FLG) has been discovered to have the greatest genetic association with AD. […] Dephosphorylation and proteolytic cleavage transform Pro-FLG polymers into FLG monomers, crucial for stratum corneum (SC) formation and keratin buildup. FLG null mutations weaken the skin barrier and heighten AD risk. […] Given that FLG plays several roles in the development and progression of AD, it is possible that decreased levels of any of the components of the differentiation of the epidermal complex could significantly impact how well the epidermal barrier operates as an entire system. […] The cells involved in host–environment interaction resulting in skin inflammation are eosinophils, basophils, dendritic cells (DCs), keratinocytes, mast cells, macrophages, and type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s). Additionally, reductions in the levels of epidermal barrier proteins, such as FLG, spinous layer proteins (SPINK), and claudins, alongside alterations of antimicrobial peptides, play a significant role.
  • #9 Unraveling Atopic Dermatitis: Insights into Pathophysiology, Therapeutic Advances, and Future Perspectives
    https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/13/5/425
    Both T and B cells, together with their respective cytokines, contribute to this disease’s immunological profile, highlighted by a dominant Th2 axis (including IL-4, IL-13, IL-5, thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), and IL-31), elevated Th17/IL-23 and Th22 pathways, and increased IgE levels. […] The main connection between skin bacteria and AD is S. aureus, often found on the skin of AD patients. […] When there is a lack of FLG, there is usually more S. aureus in the skin’s microbiome. […] S. aureus prompts keratinocytes to produce proteases, worsening the skin’s barrier. […] The Th2 cytokines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 play a pivotal role in AD and have been linked to increased IgE response and eosinophils in AD patients. […] When an antigen is encountered by antigen-presenting cells such as DCs, they release TSLP and initiate signaling pathways that activate naïve T cells. This leads to the differentiation of T cells into Th1 and Th2 subtypes, which release interleukins and chemokines to combat the antigen. However, this immune response contributes to inflammation and may exacerbate skin barrier dysfunction in AD rather than directly cause barrier penetration.
  • #10 Disease Mechanisms in Atopic Dermatitis: A Review of Aetiological Factors | HTML | Acta Dermato-Venereologica
    https://www.medicaljournals.se/acta/content/html/10.2340/00015555-3512
    While the exact role of bacteria in the pathogenesis of AD is unclear, colonization with S. aureus is very common in lesional and non-lesional AD skin. Antimicrobial peptides, which work as broad-spectrum antibiotics to kill Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, are reduced in patients with AD, which, in turn, allows bacteria to colonize the skin. […] It is important to understand that non-lesional AD skin is also different from the skin of normal controls. It shows decreased or altered synthesis of important epidermal proteins, e.g. filaggrin, filaggrin 2, involucrin, loricrin, hornerin, and tight junctions, but also decreased synthesis of antimicrobial peptides and lipids, as well as increased expression of high-affinity IgE receptor on dendritic CD1a, along with increased numbers of T cells and their cytokines.
  • #10 Disease Mechanisms in Atopic Dermatitis: A Review of Aetiological Factors | HTML | Acta Dermato-Venereologica
    https://www.medicaljournals.se/acta/content/html/10.2340/00015555-3512
    The crucial role of environmental exposure and skin stressors cannot be overemphasized when explaining the aetiology of the AD epidemic. Modern society has resulted in dramatic changes in human exposure, with increased use of, or exposure to, household products, cosmetics, tobacco, processed food, and air pollution, but at the same time reduced exposure to microorganisms and solar irradiation, as a result of increased hygiene, fewer people living together in the same household, and less time spent outside. […] The crucial role of early-age alterations in immune activity on the development of AD is emphasized by the significantly reduced risk of AD in premature infants. […] AD is a skin condition in which primary (or secondary) skin barrier impairment leads to (further) skin inflammation, and in which S. aureus colonization may increase, and in turn may drive both eczema severity and the relentless sensation of itch.
  • #11 Update on the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis | Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia (Portuguese)
    https://www.anaisdedermatologia.org.br/pt-update-on-pathogenesis-atopic-dermatitis-articulo-S0365059624001764
    This article constitutes a multidisciplinary narrative review of the current aspects of AD pathogenesis, which, although not fully elucidated, can be understood based on the interaction of unique aspects such as genetic predisposition; changes in the skin barrier; activation of keratinocytes by mechanical, physical or chemical stressors; imbalance of the innate and adaptive immunity responses/loss of immune tolerance; intrinsic and extrinsic factors as disease triggers or aggravating factors; associated organic comorbidities, and sensitization of the pruritus neural pathways, so that a bidirectional neural and immune interaction is established in AD. […] The TSLP alarmin produced by keratinocytes subjected to stress, allergens, or pathogens, causes the activation of dendritic cells and the secretion of chemokines, which attract type 2 helper T lymphocytes (Th2) to the skin, releasing pro-allergenic cytokines (type 2 inflammation cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-13, IL-5, IL-31).
  • #12 Update on the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis | Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia
    https://clinics.elsevier.es/en-update-on-pathogenesis-atopic-dermatitis-articulo-S0365059624001764
    Thus, IL-4 and IL-13 constitute the main cytokines associated with the pathogenesis of early AD, as in addition to promoting type 2 inflammatory responses and recruiting eosinophils to the skin, they damage the epidermal barrier by suppressing the expression of structural proteins such as filaggrin, loricrin, and lipids, while concomitantly increasing collagen deposition in the dermis, which results in skin remodeling and lichenification. […] The immunopathogenesis of AD is based on a deregulated immune response, in a multidimensional and interconnected way, affecting the response to antigens, the induction of inflammation, immune homeostasis disruption, disarray of the architectural integrity of the epidermis and dermis, producing a cardinal symptom, which is pruritus.
  • #12 Update on the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis | Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia
    https://clinics.elsevier.es/en-update-on-pathogenesis-atopic-dermatitis-articulo-S0365059624001764
    The pathogenesis of AD comprises the interaction between alterations in barrier function, and environmental stimuli in the context of a dysregulated and spectral Th2 and Th17/22 immune response. […] After surpassing the skin barrier, the antigens are phagocytosed by different antigen-presenting cells, especially LCs. […] During cutaneous inflammation, TNF expression induces CXCL12 expression by dermal fibroblasts, and once LCs are in the dermis, they produce excessive amounts and express CCR7, enter the lymphatic system, and migrate to regional lymph nodes. […] The contribution of LCs also occurs in the context of AD and food allergy through transcutaneous sensitization to food allergens. […] In chronic cases of AD, a dominance of Th1 and Th17 responses is gradually observed, mediated by the INF/TNF axis and IL-17, respectively, while Th22 responses directed by IL-22 are also present.
  • #12 Update on the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis | Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia
    https://clinics.elsevier.es/en-update-on-pathogenesis-atopic-dermatitis-articulo-S0365059624001764
    Atopic dermatitis is a chronic, recurrent, and multifactorial skin-mucosal manifestation resulting from the interaction between elements mainly associated with the skin barrier deficit, the homeostasis of the immune response, neurological aspects, and patterns of reactivity to environmental antigens, which are established in genetically predisposed individuals. […] The scientific knowledge about the different aspects of AD and atopic diathesis has advanced considerably in recent years. Its pathogenesis is complex, involving immune-mediated mechanisms, and its understanding is advancing in relation to genetic predisposition, structural and functional changes in the epidermal barrier, innate and adaptive immune responses, colonization of the skin by microorganisms, bacteria and fungi, reactivity to house dust mites, neurobehavioral elements, and triggers for exacerbation of the subclinical disease.
  • #13
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12016-021-08880-3
    Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common inflammatory skin disorder characterized by recurrent eczematous lesions and intense itch. […] The pathogenesis of AD is complex, and it is evident that a strong genetic predisposition, epidermal dysfunction, skin microbiome abnormalities, immune dysregulation, and the neuroimmune system are critical in AD development. […] Mutations in the genes associated with disrupted epidermal barrier, exaggerated pathological inflammation and inadequate antimicrobial peptides can promote enhanced Th2 inflammation and mediate pruritus. […] Current understanding of etiology highlights gut microbial diversity, NK cell deficiency, and different immunological phenotype with age and race. […] In-depth understanding of the pathogenesis of AD has led to the development of innovative and targeted therapies, such as biologic agents targeting interleukin (IL)-4, IL-13 and JAK/STAT inhibitors. […] Other potential therapeutic agents for AD include agents targeting the T helper (Th) 22 and Th17/IL23 pathway.
  • #14 Atopic dermatitis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atopic_dermatitis
    Atopic dermatitis is a long-term type of inflammation of the skin. The cause is unknown but is believed to involve genetics, immune system dysfunction, environmental exposures, and difficulties with the permeability of the skin. Disruption of the epidermal barrier is thought to play an integral role in the pathogenesis of AD. Disruptions of the epidermal barrier allows allergens to penetrate the epidermis to deeper layers of the skin. This leads to activation of epidermal inflammatory dendritic and innate lymphoid cells which subsequently attracts Th2 CD4+ helper T cells to the skin. This dysregulated Th2 inflammatory response is thought to lead to the eczematous lesions. The Th2 helper T cells become activated, leading to the release of inflammatory cytokines including IL-4, IL-13 and IL-31 which activate downstream Janus kinase (Jak) pathways. The active Jak pathways lead to inflammation and downstream activation of plasma cells and B lymphocytes which release antigen specific IgE contributing to further inflammation. Mutations in the filaggrin gene, FLG, also cause impairment in the skin barrier that contributes to the pathogenesis of AD. Filaggrin mutations are also associated with a decrease in natural antimicrobial peptides found on the skin; subsequently leading to disruption of skin flora and bacterial overgrowth (commonly Staphylococcus aureus overgrowth or colonization). Excessive type 2 inflammation underlies the pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis. The role of Staphylococcus aureus in skin irritation occurs via inflammation factors that induce itching, which may damage the skin, further driving inflammation, and facilitating the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, thus promoting a chronic cycle.
  • #15 Recent Advancements in the Atopic Dermatitis Mechanism
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/FBL/29/2/10.31083/j.fbl2902084
    More recently, epigenetic factors have facilitated AD development, including the dysbiotic skin microbiome and the effect of the external exposome, combined with dietary disorders. […] Notably, the interleukin (IL)-31 network, comprising several cell types, including macrophages, basophils, and the generated cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of itch in AD, has recently been explored. […] Unraveling the specific AD endotypes, highlighting the implicated molecular pathogenetic mechanisms of clinically relevant AD phenotypes, has emerged as a crucial step toward targeted therapies for personalized treatment in AD patients. […] This review aims to present state-of-the-art knowledge regarding the multifactorial and interactive pathophysiological mechanisms in AD.
  • #16 Dermatitis: Types, Treatments, Causes & Symptoms
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4089-dermatitis
    Dermatitis is caused by a combination of immune system activation, genetics and environmental triggers. […] Sometimes your immune system overreacts. If you have atopic dermatitis, your immune system reacts to seemingly small irritants or allergens. This causes inflammation. […] Researchers have observed that if others in your family have dermatitis, you’re more likely to have it. Additionally, experts have identified changes to genes that control a protein that helps your body maintain healthy skin. Your skin cannot remain healthy without normal levels of that protein. […] Your environment may make your immune system change the protective barrier of your skin. That causes more moisture to escape, and that can lead to dermatitis. Possible environmental factors include exposure to tobacco smoke and some types of air pollutants. Fragrances in some skin products and soap are also possible. […] Some types of dermatitis are caused by exposure to chemicals and other irritants. Perioral dermatitis, for example, may be caused by exposure to fluoride in water or toothpaste.
  • #17 Pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis and the potential and mechanisms of | JIR
    https://www.dovepress.com/therapeutic-potential-and-mechanisms-of-mesenchymal-stem-cell-and-mese-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-JIR
    The immune disorders in AD are primarily attributed to the disproportion between Th1 and Th2 immune reactions, marked by a predominant Th2-type immune reaction accompanied by elevated levels of Th2 cytokines, activation of B-cells and IgE release, followed by the activation of mast cells, resulting in their degranulation. […] The skin encounters various stimuli, including allergens, microorganisms, and physical injuries triggering innate immune responses. […] Th2 cells secrete the cytokines IL-4 and IL-13, which exert pro-inflammatory effects by binding to IL-4R expressed on diverse immune cells. […] The compromised barrier function results in skin dryness, elevated levels of nerve growth factor (NGF), coupled with a decrease in the expression of signal protein 3A (Sema3A), leading to extended sensory nerve fibers in the epidermis, and heightened skin sensitivity.
  • #18 Eczema pathology
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/eczema-pathology
    Eczema is a common skin condition with multiple clinical patterns, characterised histologically by a spongiotic tissue reaction pattern. The terms eczema and dermatitis are often used interchangeably to denote a polymorphic inflammatory reaction pattern involving the epidermis and dermis. However, 'dermatitis’ means inflammation of the skin and is not synonymous with eczematous processes. The consensus among most dermatopathologists is that the expression 'eczema’ should be replaced with the term 'spongiotic dermatitis’ to reflect the histopathologic changes that underlie the so-called 'eczemas’. […] The spongiotic tissue reaction pattern is characterised by intercellular oedema within the epidermis (spongiosis). Initially, there is a widening of intercellular spaces between keratinocytes and elongation of the intercellular bridges. Further accumulation of fluid leads to the formation of intraepidermal vesicles. Spongiotic dermatitis is a dynamic pathological process; vesicles come and go and can be situated at different levels of the epidermis. Infiltration of the epidermis with lymphocytes (exocytosis) is common. Parakeratosis forms above areas of spongiosis, probably as a result of an acceleration in the movement of keratinocytes towards the surface.
  • #18 Eczema pathology
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/eczema-pathology
    Clinically, eczema is grouped according to aetiology. Histologically, it is more useful to classify eczema based on chronicity. Histologically, there are three stages of eczema: acute, subacute, and chronic. An eczematous disease may start at any stage and evolve into another. […] Acute spongiosis is typified by massive intercellular oedema of the epidermis with a widening of the intercellular spaces, disruption of desmosomes and formation of microvesicles. […] In chronic spongiotic dermatitis, the degree of spongiosis is often mild and difficult to appreciate. Vesiculation is uncommon. There is significant epidermal acanthosis, which may show a psoriasiform pattern with hyperkeratosis, hypergranulosis and minimal parakeratosis. […] The histopathologic features which characterise spongiosis also occur in a myriad of other dermatoses that are not classically classified as 'eczema’, which further confuses the definition. […] More often than not, histopathologic examination does not allow for a more explicit designation of the aetiology or pathogenesis.
  • #19 Basic mechanisms and pathophysiology of allergic contact dermatitis – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/basic-mechanisms-and-pathophysiology-of-allergic-contact-dermatitis
    Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is a common inflammatory skin disease presenting with pruritic, eczematous lesions. ACD results from a T cell-mediated, delayed type hypersensitivity reaction elicited by the contact of the skin with the offending chemical in individuals who have been previously sensitized to the same chemical. […] This topic will discuss the immune mechanisms and pathophysiology of ACD. […] ACD is common in the general population and is the most frequent occupational skin disease. Its etiology may be suggested by the body sites of involvement, history of exposure, and morphology and distribution of the skin lesions.
  • #20 Contact dermatitis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_dermatitis
    It is a complicated reaction that is influenced by genetic and environmental elements, both of which have a role in the pathogenesis of the disease. […] Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) is accepted to be the most prevalent form of immunotoxicity found in humans, and is a common occupational and environmental health problem. […] The development of the disease occurs in two phases, which are induction and elicitation. […] The mechanisms by which this reaction occurs are complex, with many levels of fine control.
  • #21 Mechanism of Dinitrochlorobenzene-Induced Dermatitis in Mice: Role of Specific Antibodies in Pathogenesis | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0007703
    Dinitrochlorobenzene-induced contact hypersensitivity is widely considered as a cell-mediated rather than antibody-mediated immune response. […] Data obtained from multiple lines of experiments unequivocally showed that the formation of dinitrochlorobenzene-specific Abs played an important role in the development of dinitrochlorobenzene-induced contact hypersensitivity. […] In striking contrast to the long-held belief that dinitrochlorobenzene-induced contact hypersensitivity is a cell-mediated immune response, the results of our present study demonstrated that the production of dinitrochlorobenzene-specific antibodies by activated B cells played an indispensible role in the pathogenesis of dinitrochlorobenzene-induced CHS. […] Dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced contact hypersensitivity (CHS) of the skin in mice is a commonly-used animal model for studying the pathogenesis of contact dermatitis.
  • #21 Mechanism of Dinitrochlorobenzene-Induced Dermatitis in Mice: Role of Specific Antibodies in Pathogenesis | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0007703
    Mechanistically, it is generally thought that upon topical application, DNCB or other chemicals with a similar structure, such as 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene and picryl chloride, can complex with various skin proteins to form covalent conjugates and thereby function as immunogen(s). […] The pathogenesis of DNCB-induced CHS is predominantly the result of T cell-mediated immune responses. […] However, there were also studies in recent years suggesting the possible involvement of B cells in the development of CHS. […] We have gathered several lines of experimental evidence showing that the formation of DNCB-specific Abs plays an important role in the development of CHS. […] We found that treatment of animals with DNCB polarized Th cells into Th2 differentiation by increasing the production of Th2 cytokines while decreasing the production of Th1 cytokines.
  • #21 Mechanism of Dinitrochlorobenzene-Induced Dermatitis in Mice: Role of Specific Antibodies in Pathogenesis | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0007703
    The results of our present study demonstrate that the presence of DNCB-specific Abs plays an important role in the development of CHS. […] The appearance of DNCB-induced skin dermatitis matches in timing the appearance of DNCB-specific Abs in sera. […] DNCB-induced CHS is markedly diminished in transgenic B cell-deficient mice that cannot produce DNCB-specific Abs. […] It was also observed that treatment of animals with DNCB polarizes Th cells into Th2 differentiation by increasing the production of Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-10) while decreasing the production of Th1 cytokines (IFN- and IL-2).
  • #22 Seborrheic Dermatitis – Dermatologic Disorders – MSD Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/dermatitis/seborrheic-dermatitis
    Seborrheic dermatitis is a common inflammatory condition of skin regions with a high density of sebaceous glands (eg, face, scalp, sternum). […] The pathogenesis is unclear, but activity of the condition has been linked to the population size of Malassezia yeasts found on the skin and to the inflammatory reaction to the yeast. […] The incidence and severity of disease seem to be affected by genetic factors, emotional or physical stress, and climate (usually worse in cold weather). […] Seborrheic dermatitis may be more common and more severe among patients with neurologic disorders (especially Parkinson disease), possibly due to changes in the activity of sebaceous glands. […] It is also more prevalent and severe among those with HIV/late-stage HIV, likely because of an imbalance of T-cell pro- and anti-inflammatory responses.
  • #23 Mechanism of Action | Atopic Dermatitis | OPZELURA® (ruxolitinib) HCP
    https://www.opzelurahcp.com/atopic-dermatitis/mechanism-of-action
    Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic skin disease marked by itch, inflammation, and skin barrier dysfunction. Dysregulation of inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-13, IL-31, and TSLP) is believed to be involved in AD pathogenesis. […] These cytokines signal through the JAK-STAT pathway and are thought to perpetuate the cycle of itch and inflammation in AD. […] JAKs are intracellular signaling enzymes that act downstream of key cytokines (IL-4, IL-13, IL-31, and TSLP) and therefore are believed to play a key role in AD itch and inflammation. […] OPZELURA is a topical JAK inhibitor designed to target the JAK-STAT pathway, thereby helping to regulate the signaling of key cytokines believed to be involved in AD itch and inflammation. […] OPZELURA is thought to interrupt IL-31 signaling by providing JAK inhibition in a topical.
  • #24 An Overview of Atopic Dermatitis Disease Burden, Pathogenesis, and the Current Treatment Landscape: Recommendations for Appropriate Utilization of Systemic Therapies | JCAD – The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
    https://jcadonline.com/current-treatments-for-atopic-dermatitis/
    Newer systemic treatments that interfere with the Type 2 inflammatory pathway include dupilumab (blocks both IL-4 and IL-13 signaling), tralokinumab (specifically blocks the IL-13 cytokine), lebrikizumab (blocks a different epitope of IL-13 than tralokinumab), nemolizumab (blocks IL-31), and the JAK inhibitors upadacitinib and abrocitinib (block numerous cytokine pathways in addition to IL-4 and IL-13).