Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Global burden of pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy from 1990 to 2019 | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-023-16663-y

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a widespread female public problem worldwide. And it could lead to infertility, preterm labor, chronic pelvic pain, and ectopic pregnancy (EP) among reproductive-aged women. This study aimed to assess the global burden and trends as well as the changing correlation between PID and EP in reproductive-aged women from 1990 to 2019. […] In 2019, the ASR of PID prevalence was 53.19 per 100,000 population with a decreasing trend from 1990 (EAPC:0.50), while the ASR of EP incidence was 342.44 per 100,000 population with a decreasing trend from 1990 (EAPC:1.15). […] General negative correlations between the socio-demographic index and the ASR of PID prevalence and the ASR of EP incidence were observed at the national levels. […] PID and EP continue to be public health burdens with a strong correlation despite slightly decreasing trends detected in ASRs globally.

• #2 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to acute and subclinical infection of the upper genital tract in females, involving any or all of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries; this is often accompanied by involvement of the neighboring pelvic organs. It results in endometritis, salpingitis, oophoritis, peritonitis, perihepatitis, and/or tubo-ovarian abscess. […] The majority of PID cases (over 85 percent) are caused by sexually transmitted pathogens or bacterial vaginosis-associated pathogens. Fewer than 15 percent of acute PID cases are associated with enteric (eg, Escherichia coli, Bacteroides fragilis, Group B streptococci, and Campylobacter spp) or respiratory pathogens (eg, Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Group A streptococci, and Staphylococcus aureus) that have colonized the lower genital tract.

• #3 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  The epidemiologic study of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is hindered by symptoms that differ substantially from case to case, and by a substantial number of ”silent” cases with few or no symptoms. […] Demographic data indicate that PID is primarily a disease of the young. […] Race also appears to be a determinant, but whether for biologic or sociologic reasons is not known. […] Women who are not married face a greater risk for PID than married women. […] The majority of PID cases are associated with sexually transmitted diseases. […] Consistent with this finding is the pattern of risk factors related to sexual behavior: young age at first intercourse, high frequency of intercourse, and a large number of sexual partners all increase the risk of PID. […] On the other hand, barrier methods of contraception appear to reduce the risk of PID, as does oral contraception.

• #4 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a clinical syndrome characterized by infection and inflammation of the upper female genital tract. This process results from the ascending spread of microorganisms in the vagina or cervix to the structures of the upper female genital tract, with potential infection and inflammation of the endometrium, fallopian tubes, pelvic peritoneum, and, in some instances, formation of tubo-ovarian abscess. […] It is difficult to accurately estimate the incidence and prevalence of PID in the United States as there is no single diagnostic test for PID, and it is not a reportable disease. In a comprehensive review of two sentinel data sources (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [NHANES] and the National Survey of Family Growth [NSFG]), investigators summarized the burden of and trends in PID among reproductive-aged women (18 to 44 years of age) in the United States and estimated a 4% self-reported history of PID and estimated 2 million or more reproductive-aged women in the United States having a diagnosis of PID in their lifetime.

• #5 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499959/

  PID occurs most frequently in women ages 15 to 25 years. In 2001 there were more than 750,000 cases of PID in the United States. Over the past decade, the rates of PID have been decreasing, but it is still commonly seen in both outpatient clinics and emergency department settings. […] Delayed treatment of PID has a strong association with worsened outcomes and long-term complications. However, even with timely treatment, long-term complications can occur. One study estimated that for females with PID between 20 to 24 years of age, 18% would eventually develop chronic pain, 8.5% would develop ectopic pregnancies, and 16.8% would struggle with infertility. […] Each year there are over 150,000 admissions related to PID. The complication rates in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America where health care is not readily accessible are very high. There are also reports that PID may be associated with a higher risk of stroke and ovarian cancer.

• #6 Pelvic inflammatory disease epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease_epidemiology_and_demographics

  Pelvic inflammatory disease epidemiology and demographics On the Web […] It is estimated that between 750,000 and 1.2 million women are affected by PID each year in the United States. […] Incidence and prevalence are decreasing since 1985 because of widespread chlamydia screening and treatment. […] PID is the most common gynecologic reason for hospital admission in the United States, accounting for 18 per 10,000 recorded hospital discharges. […] Approximately 50,000 women become infertile in the US each year as a consequence of PID. […] PID is a common disease that tends to affect young women between the ages of 15 and 29 years. […] In the United States, African-American or Black-Caribbean ethnicity has been associated with a higher risk of PID.

• #7 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256448-overview

  Among 1171 sexually experienced reproductive-aged women in the 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Education Survey (NHANES) the prevalence of self-reported lifetime PID was 4.4%. Therefore, approximately 2.5 million women aged 18-44 years nationwide have received a diagnosis of PID in their lifetime (95% CI = 1.8-3.2 million). […] The CDC has estimated that more than 1 million women experience an episode of PID every year. The disease leads to approximately 2.5 million office visits and 125,000-150,000 hospitalizations yearly. […] No specific international data are available for PID incidence worldwide. In 2005, however, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that approximately 448 million new cases of curable STIs occur annually in individuals aged 15-49 years. […] The annual rate of PID in high-income countries has been reported to be as high as 10-20 per 1000 women of reproductive age. Public health efforts implemented in Scandinavia to decrease the prevalence of STIs have been quite effective in reducing the incidence of PID.

• #8 Pelvic inflammatory disease

  https://womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of a woman’s reproductive organs. In 2013, about 88,000 women ages 15-44 in the United States were diagnosed with PID. PID affects about 5% of women in the United States. The number of women with PID has dropped in recent years. This may be because more women are getting tested regularly for chlamydia and gonorrhea. […] If you think that you may have PID, see a doctor or nurse as soon as possible. […] Without treatment, PID can lead to serious problems like infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain (pain that does not go away). If you think you may have PID, see a doctor or nurse as soon as possible. […] Ectopic pregnancies are more than six times more common in women who have had PID compared with women who have not had PID.

• #9 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256448-overview

  Among 1171 sexually experienced reproductive-aged women in the 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Education Survey (NHANES) the prevalence of self-reported lifetime PID was 4.4%. Therefore, approximately 2.5 million women aged 18-44 years nationwide have received a diagnosis of PID in their lifetime (95% CI = 1.8-3.2 million). […] The CDC has estimated that more than 1 million women experience an episode of PID every year. The disease leads to approximately 2.5 million office visits and 125,000-150,000 hospitalizations yearly. […] No specific international data are available for PID incidence worldwide. In 2005, however, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that approximately 448 million new cases of curable STIs occur annually in individuals aged 15-49 years. […] The annual rate of PID in high-income countries has been reported to be as high as 10-20 per 1000 women of reproductive age. Public health efforts implemented in Scandinavia to decrease the prevalence of STIs have been quite effective in reducing the incidence of PID.

• #10 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-12–infections-in-gynecology–pelvic-inflammatory-disease/id/420013

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an ascending inflammatory process affecting the female upper genital tract. […] There are limited contemporary data on the prevalence, incidence, or burden of PID worldwide and the true incidence of disease is difficult to accurately estimate given the frequency of mildly symptomatic or asymptomatic disease. Published data suggest an overall decline in the rates and severity of PID in North America and western Europe, likely due to increased screening and treatment of gonorrhea and chlamydia. Nevertheless, PID remains a frequent and burdensome condition affecting women of reproductive age. Using data from two nationally representative probability surveys collecting self-reported PID history during 2006-2016, it was estimated that more than 2 million reproductive-aged US women have received a PID diagnosis in their lifetime.

• #11 Pelvic inflammatory disease

  https://womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of a woman’s reproductive organs. In 2013, about 88,000 women ages 15-44 in the United States were diagnosed with PID. PID affects about 5% of women in the United States. The number of women with PID has dropped in recent years. This may be because more women are getting tested regularly for chlamydia and gonorrhea. […] If you think that you may have PID, see a doctor or nurse as soon as possible. […] Without treatment, PID can lead to serious problems like infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain (pain that does not go away). If you think you may have PID, see a doctor or nurse as soon as possible. […] Ectopic pregnancies are more than six times more common in women who have had PID compared with women who have not had PID.

• #12 Pelvic inflammatory disease – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is caused by a bacterial infection that spreads beyond the cervix to infect the upper female reproductive tract, i.e., the uterus (endometritis), fallopian tubes (salpingitis), and/or ovaries (oophoritis). […] Lifetime prevalence: 4.5% in women of reproductive age (1844 years). […] 1 million women experience an episode of PID/year. […] PID is one of the most common causes of infertility.

• #13 STI-associated syndromes guide: Pelvic inflammatory disease – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/infectious-diseases/sexual-health-sexually-transmitted-infections/canadian-guidelines/sti-associated-syndromes/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  PID is the most common infectious cause of lower abdominal pain in females. Up to two-thirds of cases may not be recognized. […] In Canada, there are approximately 100,000 cases of symptomatic PID diagnosed annually. In addition, it is estimated that 10%-15% of reproductive-aged females have had at least one episode of PID. […] Long-term sequelae of PID include infertility, ectopic pregnancy and chronic pelvic pain. The likelihood of developing these long-term sequelae is related to the number of PID episodes the person has experienced. […] PID can be a complicated polymicrobial infection. Etiologic agents associated with PID may include sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and endogenous anaerobic and facultative (aerobic) bacteria. […] In most cases, the specific microbial etiology of PID is unknown and no specific organism is identified. Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC) are the most identified STIs in cases of PID. CT, GC and Mycoplasma genitalium account for an estimated 30%-40% of cases.

• #14

  https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-england/rates-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-pid-diagnoses-in-england-2014-to-2023-an-outcome-of-stis-and-other-factors

  The main messages from this report are that: […] from 2014 to 2023, in 15 to 44 year old women, more pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) diagnoses were made in hospital inpatients than in either sexual health services (SHSs) or general practice (GP) clinics […] in hospital inpatients, PID diagnosis rates in 15 to 44 year old women increased gradually from 2014 to 2019, dropped in 2020, then resumed the increasing trend; in SHSs and GPs, PID diagnosis rates decreased from 2014 to 2023, with a marked drop during 2020 […] in 2023, PID diagnosis rates were 238 per 100,000 population in hospital inpatient settings (26,454 diagnoses), 67 per 100,000 population in SHSs settings (7,499 diagnoses), and 107 per 100,000 person-years in GP settings (3,500 diagnoses) […] among 15 to 24 year old women, diagnoses of PID at SHSs declined in all sub-groups defined by co-diagnosis with chlamydia (CT-PID), gonorrhoea (GC-PID), or neither (NS-PID), since 2014; however, GC-PID fluctuated and declined notably less

• #15 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256448-overview

  Among 1171 sexually experienced reproductive-aged women in the 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Education Survey (NHANES) the prevalence of self-reported lifetime PID was 4.4%. Therefore, approximately 2.5 million women aged 18-44 years nationwide have received a diagnosis of PID in their lifetime (95% CI = 1.8-3.2 million). […] The CDC has estimated that more than 1 million women experience an episode of PID every year. The disease leads to approximately 2.5 million office visits and 125,000-150,000 hospitalizations yearly. […] No specific international data are available for PID incidence worldwide. In 2005, however, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that approximately 448 million new cases of curable STIs occur annually in individuals aged 15-49 years. […] The annual rate of PID in high-income countries has been reported to be as high as 10-20 per 1000 women of reproductive age. Public health efforts implemented in Scandinavia to decrease the prevalence of STIs have been quite effective in reducing the incidence of PID.

• #16 Global burden of pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy from 1990 to 2019 | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-023-16663-y

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a widespread female public problem worldwide. And it could lead to infertility, preterm labor, chronic pelvic pain, and ectopic pregnancy (EP) among reproductive-aged women. This study aimed to assess the global burden and trends as well as the changing correlation between PID and EP in reproductive-aged women from 1990 to 2019. […] In 2019, the ASR of PID prevalence was 53.19 per 100,000 population with a decreasing trend from 1990 (EAPC:0.50), while the ASR of EP incidence was 342.44 per 100,000 population with a decreasing trend from 1990 (EAPC:1.15). […] General negative correlations between the socio-demographic index and the ASR of PID prevalence and the ASR of EP incidence were observed at the national levels. […] PID and EP continue to be public health burdens with a strong correlation despite slightly decreasing trends detected in ASRs globally.

• #17 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Available data from national insurance claims, visits to office-based physicians, and emergency departments point to an overall trend of decline in the incidence of PID in the United States since the year 2000. […] Epidemiologic studies have revealed numerous factors associated with PID, and many of these factors overlap with those known to be associated with acquisition of infections that cause PID. […] The organisms associated with PID depend on whether the PID is acute (duration of 30 days or less) or chronic (duration of 30 days or more). […] With acute PID, the ascending organisms trigger an inflammatory response that involves the endometrium, fallopian tubes, and/or the pelvic peritoneum. […] The sequelae of PID, including ectopic pregnancy, infertility, or chronic pelvic pain, may occur after a single episode of symptomatic PID. In addition, available data suggest women with subclinical PID can develop long-term sequelae, including infertility.

• #18 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-12–infections-in-gynecology–pelvic-inflammatory-disease/id/420013

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an ascending inflammatory process affecting the female upper genital tract. […] There are limited contemporary data on the prevalence, incidence, or burden of PID worldwide and the true incidence of disease is difficult to accurately estimate given the frequency of mildly symptomatic or asymptomatic disease. Published data suggest an overall decline in the rates and severity of PID in North America and western Europe, likely due to increased screening and treatment of gonorrhea and chlamydia. Nevertheless, PID remains a frequent and burdensome condition affecting women of reproductive age. Using data from two nationally representative probability surveys collecting self-reported PID history during 2006-2016, it was estimated that more than 2 million reproductive-aged US women have received a PID diagnosis in their lifetime.

• #19 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Available data from national insurance claims, visits to office-based physicians, and emergency departments point to an overall trend of decline in the incidence of PID in the United States since the year 2000. […] Epidemiologic studies have revealed numerous factors associated with PID, and many of these factors overlap with those known to be associated with acquisition of infections that cause PID. […] The organisms associated with PID depend on whether the PID is acute (duration of 30 days or less) or chronic (duration of 30 days or more). […] With acute PID, the ascending organisms trigger an inflammatory response that involves the endometrium, fallopian tubes, and/or the pelvic peritoneum. […] The sequelae of PID, including ectopic pregnancy, infertility, or chronic pelvic pain, may occur after a single episode of symptomatic PID. In addition, available data suggest women with subclinical PID can develop long-term sequelae, including infertility.

• #20 Pelvic inflammatory disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is estimated to affect about 1.5 percent of young women yearly. […] In the United States, PID is estimated to affect about one million people yearly. […] PID causes over 100,000 women to become infertile in the US each year. […] The number of cases of PID; however, is not clear. […] This is largely due to diagnostic tests being invasive and not included in routine check-ups, despite PID being the most common reason for individuals to admit themselves under gynecological care. […] Rates are highest with teenagers and first time mothers. […] Despite the indications of a general decrease in PID rates, there is an observed rise in the prevalence of gonorrhea and chlamydia. […] In order to decrease the prevalence of PID, one should test for gonorrhea and chlamydia. […] The highest burden of PID recently is in black women and women living in the Southern United States where there is a higher prevalence of STIs as well. […] Disparities between races could be due to lower socioeconomic status.

• #21 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-pro

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a general term for infection of the upper female genital tract, including the uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. […] The exact prevalence of PID is unknown as it is under-diagnosed and it is also often asymptomatic. […] Public Health England (PHE) reported rates of PID in GP settings in England in 2011 as follows – there is little new data since then: Overall rate of definite/probable PID diagnoses among women aged 15-44 years was 176 diagnoses per 100,000 person-years. […] Rates of PID diagnoses were highest among woman aged 20-24 years. […] Rates of PID diagnoses showed a declining trend between 2000 and 2011. […] A 2021 study found that between 2009 and 2019, rates of chlamydia-associated PID had declined by 58%, but gonococcal-associated PID had increased by 34%. […] The decline in chlamydia-associated PID diagnosis rates may reflect reducing risk of PID in age groups eligible for chlamydia screening via the National Chlamydia Screening Programme, as well as increases in chlamydia testing in genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinics and other settings.

• #22 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499959/

  PID occurs most frequently in women ages 15 to 25 years. In 2001 there were more than 750,000 cases of PID in the United States. Over the past decade, the rates of PID have been decreasing, but it is still commonly seen in both outpatient clinics and emergency department settings. […] Delayed treatment of PID has a strong association with worsened outcomes and long-term complications. However, even with timely treatment, long-term complications can occur. One study estimated that for females with PID between 20 to 24 years of age, 18% would eventually develop chronic pain, 8.5% would develop ectopic pregnancies, and 16.8% would struggle with infertility. […] Each year there are over 150,000 admissions related to PID. The complication rates in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America where health care is not readily accessible are very high. There are also reports that PID may be associated with a higher risk of stroke and ovarian cancer.

• #23 Pelvic inflammatory disease | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pelvic-inflammatory-disease?lang=us

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a broad term that encompasses a spectrum of infection and inflammation of the upper female genital tract, resulting in a range of abnormalities. […] The highest incidence is seen among sexually-active women in their teens, with 75% of cases being under 25 years of age. In the United States, approximately 1 million females are thought to be afflicted with pelvic inflammatory disease per year, and nearly 275,000 of them are believed to be hospitalized.

• #24 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/Gyn/ID/PlvcInflmtryDs.htm

  Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) is a broad term that includes Endometritis, salpingitis, Tuboovarian Abscess and pelvic peritonitis. […] Incidence: 750,000 cases per year in United States. […] May affect up to 4% of women of reproductive age. […] Age: Peaks between ages 15 to 29 years (up to age 40 years).

• #25 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-pro

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a general term for infection of the upper female genital tract, including the uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. […] The exact prevalence of PID is unknown as it is under-diagnosed and it is also often asymptomatic. […] Public Health England (PHE) reported rates of PID in GP settings in England in 2011 as follows – there is little new data since then: Overall rate of definite/probable PID diagnoses among women aged 15-44 years was 176 diagnoses per 100,000 person-years. […] Rates of PID diagnoses were highest among woman aged 20-24 years. […] Rates of PID diagnoses showed a declining trend between 2000 and 2011. […] A 2021 study found that between 2009 and 2019, rates of chlamydia-associated PID had declined by 58%, but gonococcal-associated PID had increased by 34%. […] The decline in chlamydia-associated PID diagnosis rates may reflect reducing risk of PID in age groups eligible for chlamydia screening via the National Chlamydia Screening Programme, as well as increases in chlamydia testing in genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinics and other settings.

• #26 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  The epidemiologic study of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is hindered by symptoms that differ substantially from case to case, and by a substantial number of ”silent” cases with few or no symptoms. […] Demographic data indicate that PID is primarily a disease of the young. […] Race also appears to be a determinant, but whether for biologic or sociologic reasons is not known. […] Women who are not married face a greater risk for PID than married women. […] The majority of PID cases are associated with sexually transmitted diseases. […] Consistent with this finding is the pattern of risk factors related to sexual behavior: young age at first intercourse, high frequency of intercourse, and a large number of sexual partners all increase the risk of PID. […] On the other hand, barrier methods of contraception appear to reduce the risk of PID, as does oral contraception.

• #27 Pelvic inflammatory disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is estimated to affect about 1.5 percent of young women yearly. […] In the United States, PID is estimated to affect about one million people yearly. […] PID causes over 100,000 women to become infertile in the US each year. […] The number of cases of PID; however, is not clear. […] This is largely due to diagnostic tests being invasive and not included in routine check-ups, despite PID being the most common reason for individuals to admit themselves under gynecological care. […] Rates are highest with teenagers and first time mothers. […] Despite the indications of a general decrease in PID rates, there is an observed rise in the prevalence of gonorrhea and chlamydia. […] In order to decrease the prevalence of PID, one should test for gonorrhea and chlamydia. […] The highest burden of PID recently is in black women and women living in the Southern United States where there is a higher prevalence of STIs as well. […] Disparities between races could be due to lower socioeconomic status.

• #28 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-0671-2_1

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is the most common serious infection of women. Pelvic inflammatory disease is a cause of about 30% of infertility, 50% of ectopic pregnancies, and it is one of the most common causes of potentially preventable chronic pelvic pain. Pelvic inflammatory disease is not a reportable disease in the United States and precise figures on its prevalence are not available. Based upon a variety of sources, it is estimated that 10% to 15% of reproductive age women have had one episode of PID. An estimated 750,000 new cases occur annually. The rate of PID is highly dependent on age. Among teenagers, an annual 1.5% incidence occurred in Lund, Sweden during the 1970s. In the United States, black women have nearly twice the rate of PID as white women. Between 1982 and 1988, a drop occurred in the cumulative rate of PID in all demographic groups except for white teenagers. There was also an encouraging drop in hospitalization for multiple episodes of PID during this span.

• #29 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  The epidemiologic study of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is hindered by symptoms that differ substantially from case to case, and by a substantial number of ”silent” cases with few or no symptoms. […] Demographic data indicate that PID is primarily a disease of the young. […] Race also appears to be a determinant, but whether for biologic or sociologic reasons is not known. […] Women who are not married face a greater risk for PID than married women. […] The majority of PID cases are associated with sexually transmitted diseases. […] Consistent with this finding is the pattern of risk factors related to sexual behavior: young age at first intercourse, high frequency of intercourse, and a large number of sexual partners all increase the risk of PID. […] On the other hand, barrier methods of contraception appear to reduce the risk of PID, as does oral contraception.

• #30 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-0671-2_1

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is the most common serious infection of women. Pelvic inflammatory disease is a cause of about 30% of infertility, 50% of ectopic pregnancies, and it is one of the most common causes of potentially preventable chronic pelvic pain. Pelvic inflammatory disease is not a reportable disease in the United States and precise figures on its prevalence are not available. Based upon a variety of sources, it is estimated that 10% to 15% of reproductive age women have had one episode of PID. An estimated 750,000 new cases occur annually. The rate of PID is highly dependent on age. Among teenagers, an annual 1.5% incidence occurred in Lund, Sweden during the 1970s. In the United States, black women have nearly twice the rate of PID as white women. Between 1982 and 1988, a drop occurred in the cumulative rate of PID in all demographic groups except for white teenagers. There was also an encouraging drop in hospitalization for multiple episodes of PID during this span.

• #31 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | 5-Minute Clinical Consult

  https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/1688477/2.2/Pelvic_Inflammatory_Disease

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the upper female genital tract, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and adjacent pelvic structures. PID is most commonly an ascending polymicrobial infection acquired through retrograde movement of microorganisms from the lower genital tract (1)[C]. […] Most commonly affects sexually active patients aged 30 years. More than one million patients are diagnosed with PID annually (1)[C]. […] Estimated prevalence of lifetime PID is 4.4% in sexually active cisgender women aged 18 to 44 years. Approximately 2.5 million women of reproductive age in the United States have had a PID diagnosis. […] Lifetime prevalence has decreased steadily since 1995. Without history of prior STI, lifetime prevalence is higher in black versus white women (6% vs. 2.7%). Among patients with a prior STI, lifetime prevalence was similar across race (10% vs. 10.3%). This disparity suggests black patients might be more likely to have had an undiagnosed STI, subsequently developing PID.

• #32 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | 5-Minute Clinical Consult

  https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/1688477/2.2/Pelvic_Inflammatory_Disease

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the upper female genital tract, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and adjacent pelvic structures. PID is most commonly an ascending polymicrobial infection acquired through retrograde movement of microorganisms from the lower genital tract (1)[C]. […] Most commonly affects sexually active patients aged 30 years. More than one million patients are diagnosed with PID annually (1)[C]. […] Estimated prevalence of lifetime PID is 4.4% in sexually active cisgender women aged 18 to 44 years. Approximately 2.5 million women of reproductive age in the United States have had a PID diagnosis. […] Lifetime prevalence has decreased steadily since 1995. Without history of prior STI, lifetime prevalence is higher in black versus white women (6% vs. 2.7%). Among patients with a prior STI, lifetime prevalence was similar across race (10% vs. 10.3%). This disparity suggests black patients might be more likely to have had an undiagnosed STI, subsequently developing PID.

• #33 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Available data from national insurance claims, visits to office-based physicians, and emergency departments point to an overall trend of decline in the incidence of PID in the United States since the year 2000. […] Epidemiologic studies have revealed numerous factors associated with PID, and many of these factors overlap with those known to be associated with acquisition of infections that cause PID. […] The organisms associated with PID depend on whether the PID is acute (duration of 30 days or less) or chronic (duration of 30 days or more). […] With acute PID, the ascending organisms trigger an inflammatory response that involves the endometrium, fallopian tubes, and/or the pelvic peritoneum. […] The sequelae of PID, including ectopic pregnancy, infertility, or chronic pelvic pain, may occur after a single episode of symptomatic PID. In addition, available data suggest women with subclinical PID can develop long-term sequelae, including infertility.

• #34 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  PID represents a spectrum of infection and there is no single diagnostic gold standard. Clinical diagnosis remains the most important practical approach. Several expert guidelines discuss the clinical approach to the diagnosis of PID. These include the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines on the management of STIs, the International Union against STI European guidelines for the management of PID, and the British Association for Sexual Health and HIV guidelines on the management of PID. […] Patients at risk — Any sexually active female is at risk for sexually transmitted infection (STI) associated pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), but those with multiple sexual partners are at the highest risk. Additionally, age younger than 25, a partner with a sexually transmitted infection, and a history of prior PID or a sexually transmitted infection are important risk factors.

• #35 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Available data from national insurance claims, visits to office-based physicians, and emergency departments point to an overall trend of decline in the incidence of PID in the United States since the year 2000. […] Epidemiologic studies have revealed numerous factors associated with PID, and many of these factors overlap with those known to be associated with acquisition of infections that cause PID. […] The organisms associated with PID depend on whether the PID is acute (duration of 30 days or less) or chronic (duration of 30 days or more). […] With acute PID, the ascending organisms trigger an inflammatory response that involves the endometrium, fallopian tubes, and/or the pelvic peritoneum. […] The sequelae of PID, including ectopic pregnancy, infertility, or chronic pelvic pain, may occur after a single episode of symptomatic PID. In addition, available data suggest women with subclinical PID can develop long-term sequelae, including infertility.

• #36 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  The epidemiologic study of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is hindered by symptoms that differ substantially from case to case, and by a substantial number of ”silent” cases with few or no symptoms. […] Demographic data indicate that PID is primarily a disease of the young. […] Race also appears to be a determinant, but whether for biologic or sociologic reasons is not known. […] Women who are not married face a greater risk for PID than married women. […] The majority of PID cases are associated with sexually transmitted diseases. […] Consistent with this finding is the pattern of risk factors related to sexual behavior: young age at first intercourse, high frequency of intercourse, and a large number of sexual partners all increase the risk of PID. […] On the other hand, barrier methods of contraception appear to reduce the risk of PID, as does oral contraception.

• #37

  https://step2.medbullets.com/gynecology/120215/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-pid

  pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the upper female genital tract that is often polymicrobial […] US incidence: 750,000 cases annually […] demographics: sexually active women, 15-29 years of age […] risk factors: age, risky sexual behavior, earlier age at first intercourse, increasing number of sex partners.

• #38 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  The epidemiologic study of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is hindered by symptoms that differ substantially from case to case, and by a substantial number of ”silent” cases with few or no symptoms. […] Demographic data indicate that PID is primarily a disease of the young. […] Race also appears to be a determinant, but whether for biologic or sociologic reasons is not known. […] Women who are not married face a greater risk for PID than married women. […] The majority of PID cases are associated with sexually transmitted diseases. […] Consistent with this finding is the pattern of risk factors related to sexual behavior: young age at first intercourse, high frequency of intercourse, and a large number of sexual partners all increase the risk of PID. […] On the other hand, barrier methods of contraception appear to reduce the risk of PID, as does oral contraception.

• #39 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to infection of the uterus (womb), fallopian tubes (tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus) and other reproductive organs that causes symptoms such as lower abdominal pain. […] Each year in the United States, it is estimated that more than 750,000 women experience an episode of acute PID. […] A large proportion of the ectopic pregnancies occurring every year are due to the consequences of PID. […] Many different organisms can cause PID, but many cases are associated with gonorrhea and chlamydia, two very common bacterial STDs. […] The more sex partners a woman has, the greater her risk of developing PID. […] Women who have an intrauterine device (IUD) inserted may have a slightly increased risk of PID near the time of insertion compared with women using other contraceptives or no contraceptive at all.

• #40

  https://step2.medbullets.com/gynecology/120215/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-pid

  pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the upper female genital tract that is often polymicrobial […] US incidence: 750,000 cases annually […] demographics: sexually active women, 15-29 years of age […] risk factors: age, risky sexual behavior, earlier age at first intercourse, increasing number of sex partners.

• #41 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  PID represents a spectrum of infection and there is no single diagnostic gold standard. Clinical diagnosis remains the most important practical approach. Several expert guidelines discuss the clinical approach to the diagnosis of PID. These include the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines on the management of STIs, the International Union against STI European guidelines for the management of PID, and the British Association for Sexual Health and HIV guidelines on the management of PID. […] Patients at risk — Any sexually active female is at risk for sexually transmitted infection (STI) associated pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), but those with multiple sexual partners are at the highest risk. Additionally, age younger than 25, a partner with a sexually transmitted infection, and a history of prior PID or a sexually transmitted infection are important risk factors.

• #42 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  PID represents a spectrum of infection and there is no single diagnostic gold standard. Clinical diagnosis remains the most important practical approach. Several expert guidelines discuss the clinical approach to the diagnosis of PID. These include the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines on the management of STIs, the International Union against STI European guidelines for the management of PID, and the British Association for Sexual Health and HIV guidelines on the management of PID. […] Patients at risk — Any sexually active female is at risk for sexually transmitted infection (STI) associated pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), but those with multiple sexual partners are at the highest risk. Additionally, age younger than 25, a partner with a sexually transmitted infection, and a history of prior PID or a sexually transmitted infection are important risk factors.

• #43 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  The epidemiologic study of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is hindered by symptoms that differ substantially from case to case, and by a substantial number of ”silent” cases with few or no symptoms. […] Demographic data indicate that PID is primarily a disease of the young. […] Race also appears to be a determinant, but whether for biologic or sociologic reasons is not known. […] Women who are not married face a greater risk for PID than married women. […] The majority of PID cases are associated with sexually transmitted diseases. […] Consistent with this finding is the pattern of risk factors related to sexual behavior: young age at first intercourse, high frequency of intercourse, and a large number of sexual partners all increase the risk of PID. […] On the other hand, barrier methods of contraception appear to reduce the risk of PID, as does oral contraception.

• #44 Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20352594

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the female reproductive organs. It most often occurs when sexually transmitted bacteria spread from your vagina to your uterus, fallopian tubes or ovaries. […] Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of one or more of the upper reproductive organs, including the uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries. Untreated can cause scar tissue and pockets of infected fluid (abscesses) to develop in the reproductive tract, which can cause permanent damage. […] Many types of bacteria can cause PID, but gonorrhea or chlamydia infections are the most common. These bacteria are usually acquired during unprotected sex. […] There is a small increased risk of PID after the insertion of an intrauterine device (IUD). This risk is generally confined to the first three weeks after insertion.

• #45 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  Perhaps the best publicized risk factor for PID is another contraceptive, the intrauterine device (IUD). […] The increased risk of PID in IUD users appears to be confined to new users and women at high risk of sexually transmitted disease infection. […] Douching and cigarette smoking may also be associated with the development of PID, but the evidence is weak.

• #46 LA County Department of Public Health

  http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/dhsp/PIDinfo.htm

  Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) Information […] PID occurs when STD germs spread from the vagina up into the uterus and other organs. […] Untreated PID can lead to infertility, abnormal pregnancy, and/or chronic pain. […] Sexually active women in their childbearing years are most at risk, and those under age 25 are more likely to develop PID than those older than 25. […] The more sex partners a woman has, the greater her risk of developing PID. […] Women who douche may have a higher risk of developing PID compared with women who do not douche. […] Women who have an intrauterine device (IUD) inserted may have a slightly increased risk of PID near the time of insertion compared with women using other contraceptives or no contraceptive at all. […] Symptoms of PID vary from none to severe.

• #47 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  Perhaps the best publicized risk factor for PID is another contraceptive, the intrauterine device (IUD). […] The increased risk of PID in IUD users appears to be confined to new users and women at high risk of sexually transmitted disease infection. […] Douching and cigarette smoking may also be associated with the development of PID, but the evidence is weak.

• #48 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  Perhaps the best publicized risk factor for PID is another contraceptive, the intrauterine device (IUD). […] The increased risk of PID in IUD users appears to be confined to new users and women at high risk of sexually transmitted disease infection. […] Douching and cigarette smoking may also be associated with the development of PID, but the evidence is weak.

• #49 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to acute and subclinical infection of the upper genital tract in females, involving any or all of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries; this is often accompanied by involvement of the neighboring pelvic organs. It results in endometritis, salpingitis, oophoritis, peritonitis, perihepatitis, and/or tubo-ovarian abscess. […] The majority of PID cases (over 85 percent) are caused by sexually transmitted pathogens or bacterial vaginosis-associated pathogens. Fewer than 15 percent of acute PID cases are associated with enteric (eg, Escherichia coli, Bacteroides fragilis, Group B streptococci, and Campylobacter spp) or respiratory pathogens (eg, Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Group A streptococci, and Staphylococcus aureus) that have colonized the lower genital tract.

• #50 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Treatment in adults and adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-treatment-in-adults-and-adolescents

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to acute infection of the upper genital tract structures in females, involving any or all of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries and may involve the neighboring pelvic organs. Early diagnosis and treatment are believed to be key elements in the prevention of long-term sequelae, such as infertility and ectopic pregnancy. […] Acute pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an ascending polymicrobial infection caused by cervical microorganisms (including Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and potentially Mycoplasma genitalium), as well as the vaginal microflora, including anaerobic organisms, enteric gram-negative rods, streptococci, genital mycoplasmas, and Gardnerella vaginalis, which is associated with bacterial vaginosis. Treatment of PID generally requires broad antimicrobial coverage, particularly among those with severe disease requiring hospitalization.

• #51 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to acute and subclinical infection of the upper genital tract in females, involving any or all of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries; this is often accompanied by involvement of the neighboring pelvic organs. It results in endometritis, salpingitis, oophoritis, peritonitis, perihepatitis, and/or tubo-ovarian abscess. […] The majority of PID cases (over 85 percent) are caused by sexually transmitted pathogens or bacterial vaginosis-associated pathogens. Fewer than 15 percent of acute PID cases are associated with enteric (eg, Escherichia coli, Bacteroides fragilis, Group B streptococci, and Campylobacter spp) or respiratory pathogens (eg, Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Group A streptococci, and Staphylococcus aureus) that have colonized the lower genital tract.

• #52 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Treatment in adults and adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-treatment-in-adults-and-adolescents

  PID is primarily a disease of sexually active females. The two most important sexually transmitted organisms associated with acute PID, C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae, should be the main targets for treatment. Even if endocervical testing is not positive for either of these pathogens, they should still be covered, as upper tract infection cannot be ruled out. […] Drug resistance is an ongoing challenge in the therapy of gonococcal infections. As an example, the prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance in N. gonorrhoeae reaches nearly 100 percent in some regions, and these agents are no longer recommended for treatment of N. gonorrhoeae infections.

• #53 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

  https://emed.ie/Obs-Gynae/PID.php

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is defined as the clinical syndrome associated with ascending spread of micro-organisms from the vagina or cervix to the endometrium, Fallopian tubes, and/or contiguous structures. […] PID is caused by two major groups of organisms: Sexually transmitted infections (Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoea) and Organisms belonging to the endogenous flora of the lower genital tract. […] C. trachomatis is the most important identifiable pathogen and is responsible for up to 60% of PID in northern European countries. Prevalence rates of C. trachomatis in the community are between 1-8%. […] Approximately 10% of women infected with chlamydia develop PID.

• #54 STI-associated syndromes guide: Pelvic inflammatory disease – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/infectious-diseases/sexual-health-sexually-transmitted-infections/canadian-guidelines/sti-associated-syndromes/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  Approximately 15% of persons with endocervical GC or CT develop PID. […] GC-associated PID tends to be clinically more severe than CT-associated PID. […] The management of people with PID is not adequate unless sexual partners are also evaluated and treated. […] Hospitalization is indicated in the following circumstances: Surgical emergencies such as appendicitis or ectopic pregnancy or tubo-ovarian abscess cannot be ruled out; Pregnancy: Although PID in pregnancy is not common especially after the first trimester, there is an increased risk of adverse outcomes for both the person and the pregnancy; Severe pain, illness, nausea, vomiting or high fever; No clinical response to outpatient treatment regimen 2-3 days after initiation; Inability to follow or tolerate oral treatment regimen; Immunocompromised. […] Evaluate response to treatment after 2-3 days. If there is no clinical improvement, consider consulting an experienced colleague. Hospitalization may be necessary for further investigation, parenteral therapy and observation.

• #55 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

  https://emed.ie/Obs-Gynae/PID.php

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is defined as the clinical syndrome associated with ascending spread of micro-organisms from the vagina or cervix to the endometrium, Fallopian tubes, and/or contiguous structures. […] PID is caused by two major groups of organisms: Sexually transmitted infections (Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoea) and Organisms belonging to the endogenous flora of the lower genital tract. […] C. trachomatis is the most important identifiable pathogen and is responsible for up to 60% of PID in northern European countries. Prevalence rates of C. trachomatis in the community are between 1-8%. […] Approximately 10% of women infected with chlamydia develop PID.

• #56 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  M. genitalium is now duly recognized as one of the organisms that play a role in the pathogenesis of PID, and limited testing capabilities and research data hinder proactive action toward its identification and treatment. PID due to M. genitalium is usually asymptomatic or mild, presenting with less severe pelvic pains, less mucopurulent cervical discharge, and fewer markers of inflammation. […] POC testing for STI during asymptomatic infection will allow early intervention and primary prevention of future reproductive sequelae. Adherence support may be necessary to assist patients through treatment. […] PID affects women of reproductive age across the globe. Prevention strategies such as asymptomatic screening have reduced PID prevalence, but non-adherence to treatment guidelines and antimicrobial resistance pose challenges for the management of affected women.

• #57 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  M. genitalium is now duly recognized as one of the organisms that play a role in the pathogenesis of PID, and limited testing capabilities and research data hinder proactive action toward its identification and treatment. PID due to M. genitalium is usually asymptomatic or mild, presenting with less severe pelvic pains, less mucopurulent cervical discharge, and fewer markers of inflammation. […] POC testing for STI during asymptomatic infection will allow early intervention and primary prevention of future reproductive sequelae. Adherence support may be necessary to assist patients through treatment. […] PID affects women of reproductive age across the globe. Prevention strategies such as asymptomatic screening have reduced PID prevalence, but non-adherence to treatment guidelines and antimicrobial resistance pose challenges for the management of affected women.

• #58 STI-associated syndromes guide: Pelvic inflammatory disease – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/infectious-diseases/sexual-health-sexually-transmitted-infections/canadian-guidelines/sti-associated-syndromes/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  PID is the most common infectious cause of lower abdominal pain in females. Up to two-thirds of cases may not be recognized. […] In Canada, there are approximately 100,000 cases of symptomatic PID diagnosed annually. In addition, it is estimated that 10%-15% of reproductive-aged females have had at least one episode of PID. […] Long-term sequelae of PID include infertility, ectopic pregnancy and chronic pelvic pain. The likelihood of developing these long-term sequelae is related to the number of PID episodes the person has experienced. […] PID can be a complicated polymicrobial infection. Etiologic agents associated with PID may include sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and endogenous anaerobic and facultative (aerobic) bacteria. […] In most cases, the specific microbial etiology of PID is unknown and no specific organism is identified. Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC) are the most identified STIs in cases of PID. CT, GC and Mycoplasma genitalium account for an estimated 30%-40% of cases.

• #59 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to acute and subclinical infection of the upper genital tract in females, involving any or all of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries; this is often accompanied by involvement of the neighboring pelvic organs. It results in endometritis, salpingitis, oophoritis, peritonitis, perihepatitis, and/or tubo-ovarian abscess. […] The majority of PID cases (over 85 percent) are caused by sexually transmitted pathogens or bacterial vaginosis-associated pathogens. Fewer than 15 percent of acute PID cases are associated with enteric (eg, Escherichia coli, Bacteroides fragilis, Group B streptococci, and Campylobacter spp) or respiratory pathogens (eg, Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Group A streptococci, and Staphylococcus aureus) that have colonized the lower genital tract.

• #60 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Treatment in adults and adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-treatment-in-adults-and-adolescents

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to acute infection of the upper genital tract structures in females, involving any or all of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries and may involve the neighboring pelvic organs. Early diagnosis and treatment are believed to be key elements in the prevention of long-term sequelae, such as infertility and ectopic pregnancy. […] Acute pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an ascending polymicrobial infection caused by cervical microorganisms (including Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and potentially Mycoplasma genitalium), as well as the vaginal microflora, including anaerobic organisms, enteric gram-negative rods, streptococci, genital mycoplasmas, and Gardnerella vaginalis, which is associated with bacterial vaginosis. Treatment of PID generally requires broad antimicrobial coverage, particularly among those with severe disease requiring hospitalization.

• #61

  https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/1980/03001/epidemiology_and_diagnosis_of_acute_pelvic.37.aspx

  Epidemiologic factors important in acute pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) are the pathogenic organisms Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis, less pathogenic mycoplasma, and endogenous aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Other risk factors for PID include the number of sexual partners, previous PID, previous gonorrhea, and male gonorrhea. The patient’s age, IUD use, and social factors may be dependent variables for the development of PID. The diagnosis is often difficult to establish; practical diagnostic methods include a careful history and physical examination, laboratory tests (particularly a cervical Gram stain), culdocentesis, and examination of the male. Laparoscopy should be used when the diagnosis is unclear.

• #62 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-0671-2_1

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is the most common serious infection of women. Pelvic inflammatory disease is a cause of about 30% of infertility, 50% of ectopic pregnancies, and it is one of the most common causes of potentially preventable chronic pelvic pain. Pelvic inflammatory disease is not a reportable disease in the United States and precise figures on its prevalence are not available. Based upon a variety of sources, it is estimated that 10% to 15% of reproductive age women have had one episode of PID. An estimated 750,000 new cases occur annually. The rate of PID is highly dependent on age. Among teenagers, an annual 1.5% incidence occurred in Lund, Sweden during the 1970s. In the United States, black women have nearly twice the rate of PID as white women. Between 1982 and 1988, a drop occurred in the cumulative rate of PID in all demographic groups except for white teenagers. There was also an encouraging drop in hospitalization for multiple episodes of PID during this span.

• #63 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a clinical syndrome characterized by infection and inflammation of the upper female genital tract. This process results from the ascending spread of microorganisms in the vagina or cervix to the structures of the upper female genital tract, with potential infection and inflammation of the endometrium, fallopian tubes, pelvic peritoneum, and, in some instances, formation of tubo-ovarian abscess. […] It is difficult to accurately estimate the incidence and prevalence of PID in the United States as there is no single diagnostic test for PID, and it is not a reportable disease. In a comprehensive review of two sentinel data sources (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [NHANES] and the National Survey of Family Growth [NSFG]), investigators summarized the burden of and trends in PID among reproductive-aged women (18 to 44 years of age) in the United States and estimated a 4% self-reported history of PID and estimated 2 million or more reproductive-aged women in the United States having a diagnosis of PID in their lifetime.

• #64 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Due to the difficulty of diagnosis and the potential for damage to the reproductive health of women, health care providers should maintain a high index of suspicion for PID. […] The following summarizes the main criteria recommended in the 2021 STI Treatment Guidelines for making a diagnosis of PID, including criteria for initiating presumptive treatment. […] Although there is no specific reporting requirement for PID, all states have laws and regulations that require clinicians, laboratories, or both, to report women with PID who have a positive test for gonorrhea or chlamydia to public health authorities. […] Prompt presumptive PID treatment should be initiated for sexually active young women (and other women at risk of STIs) if they are experiencing pelvic or lower abdominal pain, if no cause for the illness other than PID can be identified, or if one or more minimum clinical criteria are met. […] All recent sex partners of women with PID should receive evaluation and empiric treatment for chlamydia and gonorrhea, regardless of the pathogens identified in the woman with PID. Repeat testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea should be performed 3 months after PID treatment to screen for reinfection.

• #65 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a clinical syndrome characterized by infection and inflammation of the upper female genital tract. This process results from the ascending spread of microorganisms in the vagina or cervix to the structures of the upper female genital tract, with potential infection and inflammation of the endometrium, fallopian tubes, pelvic peritoneum, and, in some instances, formation of tubo-ovarian abscess. […] It is difficult to accurately estimate the incidence and prevalence of PID in the United States as there is no single diagnostic test for PID, and it is not a reportable disease. In a comprehensive review of two sentinel data sources (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [NHANES] and the National Survey of Family Growth [NSFG]), investigators summarized the burden of and trends in PID among reproductive-aged women (18 to 44 years of age) in the United States and estimated a 4% self-reported history of PID and estimated 2 million or more reproductive-aged women in the United States having a diagnosis of PID in their lifetime.

• #66 Pelvic inflammatory disease – O&G Magazine

  https://www.ogmagazine.org.au/16/3-16/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) inflammation of the upper genital tract may include cervicitis, endometritis, salpingitis, tubo-ovarian abscess and pelvic peritonitis. PID usually occurs from ascending micro-organisms from the vagina and cervix, although a causative organism is not always isolated. PID may result from a sexually transmitted infection, infection post-gynaecological procedure, postnatally or, rarely, from haematological spread. Early diagnosis and treatment reduces the risk of long-term sequelae, including chronic pelvic pain and tubal factor infertility. […] PID is not a notifiable condition and no national surveillance or reporting requirements exist. Estimates of PID incidence are limited and are largely based on hospital admission data, which only include complicated cases. Studies suggest most PID is treated in general practice and ambulatory settings. Recent research indicates hospitalisation for PID has decreased over the last two decades, which may be associated with increased chlamydia screening and treatment in outpatient settings. […] Prompt treatment is necessary to decrease the risk of long-term complications, which include ectopic pregnancy, infertility and chronic pelvic pain. Broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment is necessary to cover sexually transmitted infections and aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.

• #67 Global burden of pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy from 1990 to 2019 | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-023-16663-y

  Limited current data exists on the epidemiology of PID across the globe. […] Women with PID are far more likely to have infertility, chronic pelvic pain, and EP than women without PID. […] The global burden of PID is probably substantial, and the prevention is of urgent need. […] The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study has yearly estimated a range of disease metrics since 1990, which offered a fantastic chance for comparative evaluation of disease burden and trends in the 204 global countries and territories. […] This study estimated the substantial burden of PID and EP among reproductive-aged women worldwide over the past three decades. […] Despite a decreasing trend around the world, disparities exist for regions and countries. […] The increased burden of active PID prevalent cases may be related to global population growth, whereas the decreased ASPR of PID reflected an improvement in medical prevention, management, and treatment.

• #68 LA County Department of Public Health

  http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/dhsp/PIDinfo.htm

  Untreated PID can lead to infertility, where a woman cannot have children. […] Prompt and appropriate treatment can help prevent complications of PID. […] About one in ten women with PID becomes infertile, and if a woman has multiple episodes of PID, her chances of becoming infertile increase. […] Women with repeated episodes of PID are more likely to suffer infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain. […] PID is difficult to diagnose because the symptoms are often subtle and mild. […] Because there are no precise tests for PID, a diagnosis is usually based on clinical findings. […] Prompt antibiotic treatment can prevent severe damage to reproductive organs. […] The longer a woman delays treatment for PID, the more likely she is to become infertile or to have a future ectopic pregnancy because of damage to the fallopian tubes.

• #69 LA County Department of Public Health

  http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/dhsp/PIDinfo.htm

  Untreated PID can lead to infertility, where a woman cannot have children. […] Prompt and appropriate treatment can help prevent complications of PID. […] About one in ten women with PID becomes infertile, and if a woman has multiple episodes of PID, her chances of becoming infertile increase. […] Women with repeated episodes of PID are more likely to suffer infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain. […] PID is difficult to diagnose because the symptoms are often subtle and mild. […] Because there are no precise tests for PID, a diagnosis is usually based on clinical findings. […] Prompt antibiotic treatment can prevent severe damage to reproductive organs. […] The longer a woman delays treatment for PID, the more likely she is to become infertile or to have a future ectopic pregnancy because of damage to the fallopian tubes.

• #70 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  PID represents a spectrum of infection and there is no single diagnostic gold standard. Clinical diagnosis remains the most important practical approach. Several expert guidelines discuss the clinical approach to the diagnosis of PID. These include the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines on the management of STIs, the International Union against STI European guidelines for the management of PID, and the British Association for Sexual Health and HIV guidelines on the management of PID. […] Patients at risk — Any sexually active female is at risk for sexually transmitted infection (STI) associated pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), but those with multiple sexual partners are at the highest risk. Additionally, age younger than 25, a partner with a sexually transmitted infection, and a history of prior PID or a sexually transmitted infection are important risk factors.

• #71 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  PID represents a spectrum of infection and there is no single diagnostic gold standard. Clinical diagnosis remains the most important practical approach. Several expert guidelines discuss the clinical approach to the diagnosis of PID. These include the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines on the management of STIs, the International Union against STI European guidelines for the management of PID, and the British Association for Sexual Health and HIV guidelines on the management of PID. […] Patients at risk — Any sexually active female is at risk for sexually transmitted infection (STI) associated pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), but those with multiple sexual partners are at the highest risk. Additionally, age younger than 25, a partner with a sexually transmitted infection, and a history of prior PID or a sexually transmitted infection are important risk factors.

• #72 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Due to the difficulty of diagnosis and the potential for damage to the reproductive health of women, health care providers should maintain a high index of suspicion for PID. […] The following summarizes the main criteria recommended in the 2021 STI Treatment Guidelines for making a diagnosis of PID, including criteria for initiating presumptive treatment. […] Although there is no specific reporting requirement for PID, all states have laws and regulations that require clinicians, laboratories, or both, to report women with PID who have a positive test for gonorrhea or chlamydia to public health authorities. […] Prompt presumptive PID treatment should be initiated for sexually active young women (and other women at risk of STIs) if they are experiencing pelvic or lower abdominal pain, if no cause for the illness other than PID can be identified, or if one or more minimum clinical criteria are met. […] All recent sex partners of women with PID should receive evaluation and empiric treatment for chlamydia and gonorrhea, regardless of the pathogens identified in the woman with PID. Repeat testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea should be performed 3 months after PID treatment to screen for reinfection.

• #73 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Treatment in adults and adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-treatment-in-adults-and-adolescents

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to acute infection of the upper genital tract structures in females, involving any or all of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries and may involve the neighboring pelvic organs. Early diagnosis and treatment are believed to be key elements in the prevention of long-term sequelae, such as infertility and ectopic pregnancy. […] Acute pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an ascending polymicrobial infection caused by cervical microorganisms (including Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and potentially Mycoplasma genitalium), as well as the vaginal microflora, including anaerobic organisms, enteric gram-negative rods, streptococci, genital mycoplasmas, and Gardnerella vaginalis, which is associated with bacterial vaginosis. Treatment of PID generally requires broad antimicrobial coverage, particularly among those with severe disease requiring hospitalization.

• #74 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-12–infections-in-gynecology–pelvic-inflammatory-disease/id/420013

  PID causes major medical, social, and economic problems worldwide. Long-term sequelae, specifically tubal factor infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain are common and extremely costly. It is estimated that PID accounts for 94% of morbidity in women associated with sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV in high-income countries.

• #75 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499959/

  PID occurs most frequently in women ages 15 to 25 years. In 2001 there were more than 750,000 cases of PID in the United States. Over the past decade, the rates of PID have been decreasing, but it is still commonly seen in both outpatient clinics and emergency department settings. […] Delayed treatment of PID has a strong association with worsened outcomes and long-term complications. However, even with timely treatment, long-term complications can occur. One study estimated that for females with PID between 20 to 24 years of age, 18% would eventually develop chronic pain, 8.5% would develop ectopic pregnancies, and 16.8% would struggle with infertility. […] Each year there are over 150,000 admissions related to PID. The complication rates in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America where health care is not readily accessible are very high. There are also reports that PID may be associated with a higher risk of stroke and ovarian cancer.

• #76 Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20352594

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of the female reproductive organs. It most often occurs when sexually transmitted bacteria spread from your vagina to your uterus, fallopian tubes or ovaries. […] Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of one or more of the upper reproductive organs, including the uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries. Untreated can cause scar tissue and pockets of infected fluid (abscesses) to develop in the reproductive tract, which can cause permanent damage. […] Many types of bacteria can cause PID, but gonorrhea or chlamydia infections are the most common. These bacteria are usually acquired during unprotected sex. […] There is a small increased risk of PID after the insertion of an intrauterine device (IUD). This risk is generally confined to the first three weeks after insertion.

• #77 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-12–infections-in-gynecology–pelvic-inflammatory-disease/id/420013

  PID causes major medical, social, and economic problems worldwide. Long-term sequelae, specifically tubal factor infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain are common and extremely costly. It is estimated that PID accounts for 94% of morbidity in women associated with sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV in high-income countries.

• #78 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499959/

  PID occurs most frequently in women ages 15 to 25 years. In 2001 there were more than 750,000 cases of PID in the United States. Over the past decade, the rates of PID have been decreasing, but it is still commonly seen in both outpatient clinics and emergency department settings. […] Delayed treatment of PID has a strong association with worsened outcomes and long-term complications. However, even with timely treatment, long-term complications can occur. One study estimated that for females with PID between 20 to 24 years of age, 18% would eventually develop chronic pain, 8.5% would develop ectopic pregnancies, and 16.8% would struggle with infertility. […] Each year there are over 150,000 admissions related to PID. The complication rates in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America where health care is not readily accessible are very high. There are also reports that PID may be associated with a higher risk of stroke and ovarian cancer.

• #79 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-12–infections-in-gynecology–pelvic-inflammatory-disease/id/420013

  PID causes major medical, social, and economic problems worldwide. Long-term sequelae, specifically tubal factor infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and chronic pelvic pain are common and extremely costly. It is estimated that PID accounts for 94% of morbidity in women associated with sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV in high-income countries.

• #80 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-0671-2_1

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is the most common serious infection of women. Pelvic inflammatory disease is a cause of about 30% of infertility, 50% of ectopic pregnancies, and it is one of the most common causes of potentially preventable chronic pelvic pain. Pelvic inflammatory disease is not a reportable disease in the United States and precise figures on its prevalence are not available. Based upon a variety of sources, it is estimated that 10% to 15% of reproductive age women have had one episode of PID. An estimated 750,000 new cases occur annually. The rate of PID is highly dependent on age. Among teenagers, an annual 1.5% incidence occurred in Lund, Sweden during the 1970s. In the United States, black women have nearly twice the rate of PID as white women. Between 1982 and 1988, a drop occurred in the cumulative rate of PID in all demographic groups except for white teenagers. There was also an encouraging drop in hospitalization for multiple episodes of PID during this span.

• #81 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Department of Health | Commonwealth of Pennsylvania

  https://www.pa.gov/agencies/health/diseases-conditions/infectious-disease/std/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  Aside from AIDS, the most common and serious complication of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among women is pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), an infection of the upper genital tract. Each year in the United States, more than 1 million women experience an episode of acute PID, with the rate of infection highest among teenagers. More than 100,000 women become infertile each year as a result of PID, and a large proportion of the 70,000 ectopic (tubal) pregnancies occurring every year are due to the consequences of PID. […] Recent data indicate that women who douche once or twice a month may be more likely to have PID than those who douche less than once a month. […] About one-fourth of women with suspected PID must be hospitalized. […] Women with recurrent episodes of PID are more likely than women with a single episode to suffer scarring of the tubes that leads to infertility, tubal pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain. Infertility occurs in approximately 20 percent of women who have had PID. […] As many as one-third of women who have had PID will have the disease at least one more time.

• #82 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  As many as 15 percent of women with PID may become infertile, and if a woman has multiple episodes of PID, her chances of becoming infertile increase. […] Women with repeated episodes of PID are more likely to suffer infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain. […] The diagnosis of PID can be made when all three of the following symptoms are found during a pelvic exam: Lower abdominal tenderness, Tenderness of fallopian tubes and ovaries, Tenderness of the cervix. […] Prompt antibiotic treatment can prevent severe damage to reproductive organs. […] Hospitalization to treat PID may be recommended if the woman (1) is severely ill (e.g., nausea, vomiting, and high fever); (2) is pregnant; (3) does not respond to or cannot take oral medication and needs intravenous antibiotics; (4) has an abscess in the fallopian tube or ovary (tubo-ovarian abscess); or (5) needs to be monitored to be sure that her symptoms are not due to another condition that would require emergency surgery (e.g., appendicitis).

• #83 Association of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) with ectopic pregnancy and preterm labor in Taiwan: A nationwide population-based retrospective cohort study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0219351

  Many women experience a clinically silent spread of infection to the upper genital tract, which results in subclinical PID. […] However, other studies revealed that a history of pelvic inflammatory disease prior to admission was associated with infertility, preterm labor, chronic pelvic pain and ectopic pregnancy. […] Tubal occlusion was found to be diagnosed in 12.8% of patients after one infection, in 35.5% of patients after two infections, and in 75% of patients after three or more infections. […] Some studies have revealed that the tubal adhesion caused by PID may increase the possibility of ectopic pregnancy. […] PID and amnionitis may result in poor outcomes of subsequent pregnancies. […] Therefore, we conducted a population-based study utilizing data from a nationwide health insurance database, the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD), to examine the risk of developing ectopic pregnancy and preterm labor among patients with PID.

• #84 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499959/

  PID occurs most frequently in women ages 15 to 25 years. In 2001 there were more than 750,000 cases of PID in the United States. Over the past decade, the rates of PID have been decreasing, but it is still commonly seen in both outpatient clinics and emergency department settings. […] Delayed treatment of PID has a strong association with worsened outcomes and long-term complications. However, even with timely treatment, long-term complications can occur. One study estimated that for females with PID between 20 to 24 years of age, 18% would eventually develop chronic pain, 8.5% would develop ectopic pregnancies, and 16.8% would struggle with infertility. […] Each year there are over 150,000 admissions related to PID. The complication rates in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America where health care is not readily accessible are very high. There are also reports that PID may be associated with a higher risk of stroke and ovarian cancer.

• #85 Pelvic inflammatory disease epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease_epidemiology_and_demographics

  Pelvic inflammatory disease epidemiology and demographics On the Web […] It is estimated that between 750,000 and 1.2 million women are affected by PID each year in the United States. […] Incidence and prevalence are decreasing since 1985 because of widespread chlamydia screening and treatment. […] PID is the most common gynecologic reason for hospital admission in the United States, accounting for 18 per 10,000 recorded hospital discharges. […] Approximately 50,000 women become infertile in the US each year as a consequence of PID. […] PID is a common disease that tends to affect young women between the ages of 15 and 29 years. […] In the United States, African-American or Black-Caribbean ethnicity has been associated with a higher risk of PID.

• #86 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a common reproductive health disorder among women of reproductive age. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), more than one million women are diagnosed with PID annually, and approximately 2.5 million women of reproductive age have had a PID diagnosis. PID is both a clinical and public health concern due to its potential to result in infertility in undiagnosed or poorly treated cases. This complication affects one in every eight women with a history of PID. Furthermore, PID is associated with other morbidities like chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancy, and recurrence. […] Sexually transmitted infection (STI) screening partner notification and treatment have led to a decline in PID incidence rates. These prevention efforts have also helped reduce the direct and indirect costs of PID and its sequela, estimated to exceed $2000 per-person lifetime cost. The management of PID is slowly evolving, and diagnostic, and treatment guidelines are revised to reflect advances in diagnostics, therapeutics, and clinical research outcomes.

• #87 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499959/

  PID occurs most frequently in women ages 15 to 25 years. In 2001 there were more than 750,000 cases of PID in the United States. Over the past decade, the rates of PID have been decreasing, but it is still commonly seen in both outpatient clinics and emergency department settings. […] Delayed treatment of PID has a strong association with worsened outcomes and long-term complications. However, even with timely treatment, long-term complications can occur. One study estimated that for females with PID between 20 to 24 years of age, 18% would eventually develop chronic pain, 8.5% would develop ectopic pregnancies, and 16.8% would struggle with infertility. […] Each year there are over 150,000 admissions related to PID. The complication rates in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America where health care is not readily accessible are very high. There are also reports that PID may be associated with a higher risk of stroke and ovarian cancer.

• #88 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499959/

  PID occurs most frequently in women ages 15 to 25 years. In 2001 there were more than 750,000 cases of PID in the United States. Over the past decade, the rates of PID have been decreasing, but it is still commonly seen in both outpatient clinics and emergency department settings. […] Delayed treatment of PID has a strong association with worsened outcomes and long-term complications. However, even with timely treatment, long-term complications can occur. One study estimated that for females with PID between 20 to 24 years of age, 18% would eventually develop chronic pain, 8.5% would develop ectopic pregnancies, and 16.8% would struggle with infertility. […] Each year there are over 150,000 admissions related to PID. The complication rates in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America where health care is not readily accessible are very high. There are also reports that PID may be associated with a higher risk of stroke and ovarian cancer.

• #89 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/hivstd/info/pid

  Pelvic inflammatory disease, or PID, is an infection of the female reproductive system. It is a leading cause of infertility in the U.S. Left untreated, PID can result in serious health complications. […] If you have PID, you are at a higher risk to get HIV if you are exposed to it. […] The earlier PID is treated, the less damage it will do to your reproductive system. […] Left untreated, PID can cause: Ectopic pregnancy, a pregnancy outside the uterus that cannot survive; Scar tissue in and around the fallopian tubes; Miscarriage; Infertility (not being able to get pregnant); Chronic pelvic pain; Cystitis (inflammation of the bladder). […] Treatment Guidelines Includes treatment recommendations for PID.

• #90 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | Pediatric Surgery NaT

  https://www.pedsurglibrary.com/apsa/view/Pediatric-Surgery-NaT/829148/all/Pelvic_Inflammatory_Disease

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is an ascending infection of the female upper genital tract which includes endometritis, parametritis, salpingitis, oophoritis, tubo-ovarian abscess, peritonitis and perihepatitis. […] PID is highly preventable through the early recognition and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). […] Unfortunately, evidence shows that adolescents receive suboptimal treatment for PID with large database reviews showing only 30 to 40% adherence to the treatment guidelines of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control. […] Intervention efforts aimed at preventing PID during adolescence focus on prevention of all STDs, early recognition, screening and treatment of gonorrhea and chlamydial infections.

• #91 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256448-overview

  Among 1171 sexually experienced reproductive-aged women in the 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Education Survey (NHANES) the prevalence of self-reported lifetime PID was 4.4%. Therefore, approximately 2.5 million women aged 18-44 years nationwide have received a diagnosis of PID in their lifetime (95% CI = 1.8-3.2 million). […] The CDC has estimated that more than 1 million women experience an episode of PID every year. The disease leads to approximately 2.5 million office visits and 125,000-150,000 hospitalizations yearly. […] No specific international data are available for PID incidence worldwide. In 2005, however, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that approximately 448 million new cases of curable STIs occur annually in individuals aged 15-49 years. […] The annual rate of PID in high-income countries has been reported to be as high as 10-20 per 1000 women of reproductive age. Public health efforts implemented in Scandinavia to decrease the prevalence of STIs have been quite effective in reducing the incidence of PID.

• #92 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  Women can protect themselves from PID by taking action to prevent STDs or by getting early treatment if they do get an STD. […] CDC recommends yearly chlamydia testing of all sexually active women age 25 or younger, older women with risk factors for chlamydial infections (those who have a new sex partner or multiple sex partners), and all pregnant women. […] Untreated PID infections may lead to: Infertility. As many as 10 percent of women with PID will not be able to have children as a result of scarring or damage to cells lining the fallopian tubes. […] It’s important that you talk to your partner as soon as possible so she or he can get treatment.

• #93 LA County Department of Public Health

  http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/dhsp/PIDinfo.htm

  Hospitalization to treat PID may be recommended if the woman is severely ill, is pregnant, does not respond to or cannot take oral medication, has an abscess in the fallopian tube or ovary, or needs to be monitored for other conditions. […] Women can protect themselves from PID by taking action to prevent STDs or by getting early treatment if they do get an STD. […] CDC recommends yearly chlamydia testing of all sexually active women age 25 or younger, older women with risk factors for chlamydial infections, and all pregnant women. […] Treating STDs early can prevent PID.

• #94 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID): What Is It? – Consensus: AI Search Engine for Research

  https://consensus.app/home/blog/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-pid-what-is-it/

  PID is a prevalent condition, particularly among sexually active young women. […] Studies have shown that the incidence of PID is influenced by factors such as age, sexual behavior, and access to healthcare services. […] Screening and early treatment of STIs, particularly chlamydia, have been shown to reduce the incidence of PID.

• #95 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

  https://www.csh.org.tw/dr.tcj/educartion/f/web/PID/index.htm

  PID may occur more frequently in adolescents (age 15 to 19) but can occur in any patients who are sexually active. Age distributions vary with geographical location and etiology. Young age at first intercourse increases risk for PID. […] A direct correlation exists between the incidence of STDs and PID in any given population. […] The classic high-risk patient is a menstruating woman younger than 25 years who has multiple sex partners, does not use contraception, and lives in an area with high prevalence of STD. PID is also more prevalent among unmarried women and individuals who are young at first intercourse. […] Chlamydia trachomatis, an intracellular bacterial pathogen, is the predominant STD organism causing PID. […] Randomized controlled trials suggest that preventing chlamydial infection reduces the incidence of PID. Other methods of preventing PID and sexually transmitted diseases include reducing the number of sexual partners, avoiding unsafe sexual practices, and using condoms with spermicide. Use of mechanical barriers with spermicide also decreases the risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases.

• #96 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  As many as 15 percent of women with PID may become infertile, and if a woman has multiple episodes of PID, her chances of becoming infertile increase. […] Women with repeated episodes of PID are more likely to suffer infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain. […] The diagnosis of PID can be made when all three of the following symptoms are found during a pelvic exam: Lower abdominal tenderness, Tenderness of fallopian tubes and ovaries, Tenderness of the cervix. […] Prompt antibiotic treatment can prevent severe damage to reproductive organs. […] Hospitalization to treat PID may be recommended if the woman (1) is severely ill (e.g., nausea, vomiting, and high fever); (2) is pregnant; (3) does not respond to or cannot take oral medication and needs intravenous antibiotics; (4) has an abscess in the fallopian tube or ovary (tubo-ovarian abscess); or (5) needs to be monitored to be sure that her symptoms are not due to another condition that would require emergency surgery (e.g., appendicitis).

• #97 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/hivstd/info/pid

  Pelvic inflammatory disease, or PID, is an infection of the female reproductive system. It is a leading cause of infertility in the U.S. Left untreated, PID can result in serious health complications. […] If you have PID, you are at a higher risk to get HIV if you are exposed to it. […] The earlier PID is treated, the less damage it will do to your reproductive system. […] Left untreated, PID can cause: Ectopic pregnancy, a pregnancy outside the uterus that cannot survive; Scar tissue in and around the fallopian tubes; Miscarriage; Infertility (not being able to get pregnant); Chronic pelvic pain; Cystitis (inflammation of the bladder). […] Treatment Guidelines Includes treatment recommendations for PID.

• #98 LA County Department of Public Health

  http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/dhsp/PIDinfo.htm

  Untreated PID can lead to infertility, where a woman cannot have children. […] Prompt and appropriate treatment can help prevent complications of PID. […] About one in ten women with PID becomes infertile, and if a woman has multiple episodes of PID, her chances of becoming infertile increase. […] Women with repeated episodes of PID are more likely to suffer infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain. […] PID is difficult to diagnose because the symptoms are often subtle and mild. […] Because there are no precise tests for PID, a diagnosis is usually based on clinical findings. […] Prompt antibiotic treatment can prevent severe damage to reproductive organs. […] The longer a woman delays treatment for PID, the more likely she is to become infertile or to have a future ectopic pregnancy because of damage to the fallopian tubes.

• #99 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  Women can protect themselves from PID by taking action to prevent STDs or by getting early treatment if they do get an STD. […] CDC recommends yearly chlamydia testing of all sexually active women age 25 or younger, older women with risk factors for chlamydial infections (those who have a new sex partner or multiple sex partners), and all pregnant women. […] Untreated PID infections may lead to: Infertility. As many as 10 percent of women with PID will not be able to have children as a result of scarring or damage to cells lining the fallopian tubes. […] It’s important that you talk to your partner as soon as possible so she or he can get treatment.

• #100 NC DPH: Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

  https://epi.dph.ncdhhs.gov/cd/diseases/pid.html

  Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) refers to infection of the uterus (womb), fallopian tubes (tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus) and other female reproductive organs. PID causes symptoms such as lower abdominal pain. It is a serious complication of some sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), especially chlamydia and gonorrhea. PID can damage a woman’s fallopian tubes and tissues in and near the uterus and ovaries. PID can lead to serious consequences, including infertility, ectopic pregnancy (a pregnancy in the fallopian tube or elsewhere outside of the womb), abscess formation and chronic pelvic pain. […] Women can protect themselves from PID by taking action to prevent STDs or by getting early treatment if they do get an STD.

• #101 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

  https://www.csh.org.tw/dr.tcj/educartion/f/web/PID/index.htm

  PID may occur more frequently in adolescents (age 15 to 19) but can occur in any patients who are sexually active. Age distributions vary with geographical location and etiology. Young age at first intercourse increases risk for PID. […] A direct correlation exists between the incidence of STDs and PID in any given population. […] The classic high-risk patient is a menstruating woman younger than 25 years who has multiple sex partners, does not use contraception, and lives in an area with high prevalence of STD. PID is also more prevalent among unmarried women and individuals who are young at first intercourse. […] Chlamydia trachomatis, an intracellular bacterial pathogen, is the predominant STD organism causing PID. […] Randomized controlled trials suggest that preventing chlamydial infection reduces the incidence of PID. Other methods of preventing PID and sexually transmitted diseases include reducing the number of sexual partners, avoiding unsafe sexual practices, and using condoms with spermicide. Use of mechanical barriers with spermicide also decreases the risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases.

• #102 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

  https://www.csh.org.tw/dr.tcj/educartion/f/web/PID/index.htm

  PID may occur more frequently in adolescents (age 15 to 19) but can occur in any patients who are sexually active. Age distributions vary with geographical location and etiology. Young age at first intercourse increases risk for PID. […] A direct correlation exists between the incidence of STDs and PID in any given population. […] The classic high-risk patient is a menstruating woman younger than 25 years who has multiple sex partners, does not use contraception, and lives in an area with high prevalence of STD. PID is also more prevalent among unmarried women and individuals who are young at first intercourse. […] Chlamydia trachomatis, an intracellular bacterial pathogen, is the predominant STD organism causing PID. […] Randomized controlled trials suggest that preventing chlamydial infection reduces the incidence of PID. Other methods of preventing PID and sexually transmitted diseases include reducing the number of sexual partners, avoiding unsafe sexual practices, and using condoms with spermicide. Use of mechanical barriers with spermicide also decreases the risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases.

• #103 Epidemiology of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease | RTI

  https://www.rti.org/publication/epidemiology-pelvic-inflammatory-disease

  The epidemiologic study of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is hindered by symptoms that differ substantially from case to case, and by a substantial number of ”silent” cases with few or no symptoms. […] Demographic data indicate that PID is primarily a disease of the young. […] Race also appears to be a determinant, but whether for biologic or sociologic reasons is not known. […] Women who are not married face a greater risk for PID than married women. […] The majority of PID cases are associated with sexually transmitted diseases. […] Consistent with this finding is the pattern of risk factors related to sexual behavior: young age at first intercourse, high frequency of intercourse, and a large number of sexual partners all increase the risk of PID. […] On the other hand, barrier methods of contraception appear to reduce the risk of PID, as does oral contraception.

• #104 What is Pelvic Inflammatory Disease or PID?

  https://www.health.ny.gov/publications/3804/

  Yes. You are definitely at risk of getting PID again if you have oral, vaginal or anal contact and you and your partners have not been treated. Some women get PID again, even if they are not re-infected. This is because their first infection was not fully treated. […] Not having sex (abstinence) is the only sure way to avoid infection. If you choose to be sexually active, use latex or polyurethane condoms every time you have oral, anal or vaginal sex. This will lower your chances of having PID again. But, using condoms will not totally stop your risk of giving or getting PID. This is because condoms are not 100% effective. Condoms do help prevent the spread of other STDs, including HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.

• #105 What is Pelvic Inflammatory Disease or PID?

  https://www.health.ny.gov/publications/3804/

  Yes. You are definitely at risk of getting PID again if you have oral, vaginal or anal contact and you and your partners have not been treated. Some women get PID again, even if they are not re-infected. This is because their first infection was not fully treated. […] Not having sex (abstinence) is the only sure way to avoid infection. If you choose to be sexually active, use latex or polyurethane condoms every time you have oral, anal or vaginal sex. This will lower your chances of having PID again. But, using condoms will not totally stop your risk of giving or getting PID. This is because condoms are not 100% effective. Condoms do help prevent the spread of other STDs, including HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.

• #106 Acute pelvic inflammatory disease: a narrative review – Greydanus – Pediatric Medicine

  https://pm.amegroups.org/article/view/4950/html

  Research has identified a number of risk factors in PID development that include young age (i.e., adolescence or young adulthood), ectropion of young adolescent females, immature immune system, multiple coital partners, ineffective condom usage, past PID, presence of bacterial vaginosis, vaginal douching, coitus during menstruation, and history of non-barrier contraception. […] Careful management of PID is important to reduce discomfort, improve symptoms as soon as possible, and potentially reduce the complications that include chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancy and infertility. […] Each country should establish comprehensive sexuality education that includes STI prevention education.

• #107 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Due to the difficulty of diagnosis and the potential for damage to the reproductive health of women, health care providers should maintain a high index of suspicion for PID. […] The following summarizes the main criteria recommended in the 2021 STI Treatment Guidelines for making a diagnosis of PID, including criteria for initiating presumptive treatment. […] Although there is no specific reporting requirement for PID, all states have laws and regulations that require clinicians, laboratories, or both, to report women with PID who have a positive test for gonorrhea or chlamydia to public health authorities. […] Prompt presumptive PID treatment should be initiated for sexually active young women (and other women at risk of STIs) if they are experiencing pelvic or lower abdominal pain, if no cause for the illness other than PID can be identified, or if one or more minimum clinical criteria are met. […] All recent sex partners of women with PID should receive evaluation and empiric treatment for chlamydia and gonorrhea, regardless of the pathogens identified in the woman with PID. Repeat testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea should be performed 3 months after PID treatment to screen for reinfection.

• #108 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/pelvic-inflammatory-disease.html

  Women can protect themselves from PID by taking action to prevent STDs or by getting early treatment if they do get an STD. […] CDC recommends yearly chlamydia testing of all sexually active women age 25 or younger, older women with risk factors for chlamydial infections (those who have a new sex partner or multiple sex partners), and all pregnant women. […] Untreated PID infections may lead to: Infertility. As many as 10 percent of women with PID will not be able to have children as a result of scarring or damage to cells lining the fallopian tubes. […] It’s important that you talk to your partner as soon as possible so she or he can get treatment.

• #109 Core Concepts – Pelvic Inflammatory Disease – Self-Study Lessons – National STD Curriculum

  https://www.std.uw.edu/go/comprehensive-study/pelvic-inflammatory-disease/core-concept/all

  Due to the difficulty of diagnosis and the potential for damage to the reproductive health of women, health care providers should maintain a high index of suspicion for PID. […] The following summarizes the main criteria recommended in the 2021 STI Treatment Guidelines for making a diagnosis of PID, including criteria for initiating presumptive treatment. […] Although there is no specific reporting requirement for PID, all states have laws and regulations that require clinicians, laboratories, or both, to report women with PID who have a positive test for gonorrhea or chlamydia to public health authorities. […] Prompt presumptive PID treatment should be initiated for sexually active young women (and other women at risk of STIs) if they are experiencing pelvic or lower abdominal pain, if no cause for the illness other than PID can be identified, or if one or more minimum clinical criteria are met. […] All recent sex partners of women with PID should receive evaluation and empiric treatment for chlamydia and gonorrhea, regardless of the pathogens identified in the woman with PID. Repeat testing for chlamydia and gonorrhea should be performed 3 months after PID treatment to screen for reinfection.

• #110 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Treatment in adults and adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-treatment-in-adults-and-adolescents

  PID is primarily a disease of sexually active females. The two most important sexually transmitted organisms associated with acute PID, C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae, should be the main targets for treatment. Even if endocervical testing is not positive for either of these pathogens, they should still be covered, as upper tract infection cannot be ruled out. […] Drug resistance is an ongoing challenge in the therapy of gonococcal infections. As an example, the prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance in N. gonorrhoeae reaches nearly 100 percent in some regions, and these agents are no longer recommended for treatment of N. gonorrhoeae infections.

• #111 Pelvic inflammatory disease: Treatment in adults and adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-treatment-in-adults-and-adolescents

  PID is primarily a disease of sexually active females. The two most important sexually transmitted organisms associated with acute PID, C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae, should be the main targets for treatment. Even if endocervical testing is not positive for either of these pathogens, they should still be covered, as upper tract infection cannot be ruled out. […] Drug resistance is an ongoing challenge in the therapy of gonococcal infections. As an example, the prevalence of fluoroquinolone resistance in N. gonorrhoeae reaches nearly 100 percent in some regions, and these agents are no longer recommended for treatment of N. gonorrhoeae infections.

• #112 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  Deviations from PID treatment guidelines are a general concern due to the risk of sequelae such as infertility, chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancies, and the risk of fostering antibiotic resistance. Despite existing recommendations for PID management, many surveys report failure to adhere to these guidelines by some care providers. […] In light of burgeoning antibiotic resistance, efforts to identify the most clinically efficacious and cost-effective approaches to PID treatment remain ongoing. The standardization of PID treatment regimens in these three examples reflects current practice in developed societies. In contrast, PID management is less standardized in low- and middle-income countries, and wide variations in antibiotic use exist due to limitations imposed by cost and underdeveloped healthcare systems.

• #113 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  Deviations from PID treatment guidelines are a general concern due to the risk of sequelae such as infertility, chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancies, and the risk of fostering antibiotic resistance. Despite existing recommendations for PID management, many surveys report failure to adhere to these guidelines by some care providers. […] In light of burgeoning antibiotic resistance, efforts to identify the most clinically efficacious and cost-effective approaches to PID treatment remain ongoing. The standardization of PID treatment regimens in these three examples reflects current practice in developed societies. In contrast, PID management is less standardized in low- and middle-income countries, and wide variations in antibiotic use exist due to limitations imposed by cost and underdeveloped healthcare systems.

• #114 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  Deviations from PID treatment guidelines are a general concern due to the risk of sequelae such as infertility, chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancies, and the risk of fostering antibiotic resistance. Despite existing recommendations for PID management, many surveys report failure to adhere to these guidelines by some care providers. […] In light of burgeoning antibiotic resistance, efforts to identify the most clinically efficacious and cost-effective approaches to PID treatment remain ongoing. The standardization of PID treatment regimens in these three examples reflects current practice in developed societies. In contrast, PID management is less standardized in low- and middle-income countries, and wide variations in antibiotic use exist due to limitations imposed by cost and underdeveloped healthcare systems.

• #115 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  Deviations from PID treatment guidelines are a general concern due to the risk of sequelae such as infertility, chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancies, and the risk of fostering antibiotic resistance. Despite existing recommendations for PID management, many surveys report failure to adhere to these guidelines by some care providers. […] In light of burgeoning antibiotic resistance, efforts to identify the most clinically efficacious and cost-effective approaches to PID treatment remain ongoing. The standardization of PID treatment regimens in these three examples reflects current practice in developed societies. In contrast, PID management is less standardized in low- and middle-income countries, and wide variations in antibiotic use exist due to limitations imposed by cost and underdeveloped healthcare systems.

• #116 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  M. genitalium is now duly recognized as one of the organisms that play a role in the pathogenesis of PID, and limited testing capabilities and research data hinder proactive action toward its identification and treatment. PID due to M. genitalium is usually asymptomatic or mild, presenting with less severe pelvic pains, less mucopurulent cervical discharge, and fewer markers of inflammation. […] POC testing for STI during asymptomatic infection will allow early intervention and primary prevention of future reproductive sequelae. Adherence support may be necessary to assist patients through treatment. […] PID affects women of reproductive age across the globe. Prevention strategies such as asymptomatic screening have reduced PID prevalence, but non-adherence to treatment guidelines and antimicrobial resistance pose challenges for the management of affected women.

• #117 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Management in Clinical Practice | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/management-of-pelvic-inflammatory-disease-in-clinical-practice-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  M. genitalium is now duly recognized as one of the organisms that play a role in the pathogenesis of PID, and limited testing capabilities and research data hinder proactive action toward its identification and treatment. PID due to M. genitalium is usually asymptomatic or mild, presenting with less severe pelvic pains, less mucopurulent cervical discharge, and fewer markers of inflammation. […] POC testing for STI during asymptomatic infection will allow early intervention and primary prevention of future reproductive sequelae. Adherence support may be necessary to assist patients through treatment. […] PID affects women of reproductive age across the globe. Prevention strategies such as asymptomatic screening have reduced PID prevalence, but non-adherence to treatment guidelines and antimicrobial resistance pose challenges for the management of affected women.

• #118 Pelvic inflammatory disease and salpingitis: incidence of primary and repeat episodes in England | Epidemiology & Infection | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/pelvic-inflammatory-disease-and-salpingitis-incidence-of-primary-and-repeat-episodes-in-england/54BDB2082DA017A1D2C34B54A7C4051E

  Our primary interest lies in natural history in the absence of screening for STI infections so we used data for 2002. We developed a homogenous Markov model to describe PID and salpingitis history in women in England. […] We estimated that in England in 2002, 336% of women aged 3544 years had experienced at least one episode of PID (diagnosed or not) and 161% of them had experienced at least one episode of salpingitis (diagnosed or not). Further work is required to assess the degree of overlap between routine data sources for PID and of PID history for women diagnosed with PID.

• #119

  https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10100317/

  The epidemiology of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is considered to be a leading cause of morbidity in women but little is known of its epidemiology in England. […] To investigate the epidemiology of PID and explore factors associated with PID. […] The highest burden of disease was seen in general practice where 1.7% of reproductive age women were diagnosed with PID, although management fell below acceptable standards. […] The case-control study showed that PID had the characteristics typical of a sexually transmitted disease. […] Conclusions Diagnostic methods and knowledge of disease aetiology need to be improved if further epidemiological investigations and surveillance initiatives are undertaken.

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