Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Undescended testicle – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/undescended-testicle/symptoms-causes/syc-20351995

  A testicle that doesn’t move down into its proper place in the scrotum before birth is called an undescended testicle. It’s also known as cryptorchidism (krip-TOR-kih-diz-um). […] The exact cause of an undescended testicle isn’t known. Genes, the health of the baby’s mother and other factors might have a combined effect. Together they may disrupt the hormones, physical changes and nerve activity that play roles in how the testicles develop. […] Things that might raise the risk of an undescended testicle in a newborn include: Premature birth or low birth weight. Family history of undescended testicles. Health conditions in the baby, such as cerebral palsy or a problem with the wall of the abdomen. The mother having diabetes before or during pregnancy. Alcohol use during pregnancy. Smoking cigarettes or exposure to secondhand smoke during pregnancy. Exposure to some pesticides during pregnancy.

• #2 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism, the most prevalent congenital condition involving male genitalia, is characterized by the absence of at least one testicle from the scrotum; this often manifests unilaterally or bilaterally, with a higher frequency of involvement observed in the right testicle. […] The cause of cryptorchidism is often indeterminate in full-term infants, rendering it a common yet sporadic, idiopathic congenital abnormality. Experts believe that a combination of genetics, maternal factors, and environmental influences may disrupt the hormonal and physical processes that influence testicular development and descent. […] Birth weight is the primary risk factor for undescended testes, followed by family history. Furthermore, other potential contributing risk factors include: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy (5 or more drinks per week, which can increase the risk up to 3 times), Chemical endocrine disruptors interfering with normal fetal hormone balance, Cigarette smoking, Congenital malformation syndromes such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, and Noonan syndrome, Cosmetics use, Exposure to phthalate (di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate or DEHP), Family history of cryptorchidism, Ibuprofen use, In vitro fertilization, Maternal diabetes, Maternal exposure to diethylstilbestrol, Maternal obesity, Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome, Pesticide exposure, Preeclampsia (especially in its more severe forms, poses an increased risk of cryptorchidism), Premature infants born before the descent of the testicles, Small for gestational-age infants, Smaller placental weight.

• #3 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism): Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17594-undescended-testicles

  During pregnancy, testicles develop in the abdominal cavity. In most cases, they drop into the scrotum before birth. Undescended testicles dont drop before birth. It isnt clear what causes undescended testicles. […] Healthcare providers and medical researchers arent sure why some babies have undescended testicles at birth. In some cases, they think a testosterone deficiency during fetal development may interfere with how the testicles develop. […] There isnt any evidence that anything you do while pregnant causes your baby to have undescended testicles.

• #4 Undescended Testicle Causes and Treatment | UPMC

  https://www.upmc.com/services/urology/conditions/undescended-testicle

  An undescended testicle, sometimes called a cryptorchidism testicle, is a common problem in young boys. […] Up to 30 percent of premature boys, up to five percent of boys born at term, and up to one percent of one-year-old boys will have at least one undescended testis. […] The testicle originally forms in the back of the abdominal cavity, similar to the position of the ovaries in girls. […] Near the end of pregnancy, the testis begins to descend to the scrotum. A path is cleared for the testis by a structure called the processus vaginalis essentially a groin or inguinal hernia. […] If the process is incomplete, the testicle might end up anywhere from inside the abdomen to just above the scrotum. […] Testicles that are undescended have a higher risk of developing testicular cancer than those that descend spontaneously. […] Undescended testicles are almost always associated with hernias.

• #5 Undescended testes

  https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/undescended_testes/

  Testes (testicles) are male sex glands. They produce sperm and hormones for sexual reproduction. The testes are usually situated in the scrotum, but sometimes one or both of the testes do not move down into the scrotum once they develop. This is called undescended testes, and is also known as cryptorchidism. […] About five per cent of male babies are born with undescended testes. […] The testes in a male foetus are formed inside the abdomen. The testes move down a tube called the inguinal canal and into the scrotum. This usually happens in the eighth month of pregnancy. A baby or child with undescended testes will have one or more of their testes located in the groin or abdomen instead of the scrotum. […] Usually doctors cannot find the cause; however, some hormone and genetic disorders can cause undescended testes.

• #6 Cryptorchidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470270/

  Cryptorchidism is associated with male infertility in adulthood, primarily due to poor semen quality, which can be linked to compromised Sertoli cell function and its impact on Leydig cell function. […] A normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is a prerequisite for normal testicular descent, as it coordinates hormonal signals necessary for the developmental process. […] The absence of an appendix testis has been associated with abdominal and cryptorchid testes, mainly when located proximal to the external ring. However, the exact role of the appendix testis in testicular descent remains unclear.

• #7 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  The etiology of cryptorchidism is multifactorial. Extensive research and clinical observations have elucidated some of the factors involved, but the exact mechanism of cryptorchidism has proved elusive. […] Birth weight is the principal determining factor for undescended testes at birth to age 1 year, independent of the length of gestation. […] One study found that almost 23% of index patients with undescended testes had a positive family history of cryptorchidism, as opposed to 7.5% of a control group without cryptorchidism. The familial cluster is 3.6-fold overall, 6.9 if a brother is affected and 4.6 if the father. Mutations in the homeobox gene HOXA10, which plays a pivotal role in regulation of testicular descent, may be involved in select cases. […] Transabdominal descent of the testis involves differential growth of vertebrae and pelvis until 23 weeks gestation. Afterward, further descent is facilitated by the development of the gubernaculum, processus vaginalis, spermatic vessels, and scrotum. A normal hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is a prerequisite for testicular descent. Furthermore, testosterone and its conversion to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) are also necessary for continued migration, especially during the inguinoscrotal phase.

• #8 Risk factors for cryptorchidism

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5815831/

  The relationship between cryptorchidism and testicular cancer remains unclear. […] A failure of one or both testes to descend permanently must be caused by some disruption to these phases. […] In this manuscript, we review the broad range of putative risk factors hypothesised to be associated with the development of cryptorchidism to date, discuss their plausibility with respect to influence on descent of the testis in utero, and make suggestions regarding those risk factors that require further investigation.

• #9 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals may contribute to cryptorchidism, and may account for the increasing incidence rate of cryptorchidism seen in some regions. Synthetic chemicals identified as endocrine disruptors include phthalates, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, diethylstilbestrol, and dioxins. […] Although its exact mechanism of action is unclear, the gubernaculum has significant importance in undescended testes. In patients with cryptorchidism, the gubernaculum is not firmly attached to the scrotum, and the testis is not pulled into the scrotum. […] Intra-abdominal pressure also appears to play a role in testicular descent. Conditions associated with decreased pressure include prune belly syndrome, omphalocele, and gastroschisis, among other various syndromes. Each is associated with an increased risk of undescended testes.

• #10

  https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2024/07050/diagnoses_and_treatment_of_acquired_undescended.20.aspx

  Acquired undescended testes were once considered a sporadic disease. In recent years, reports suggest that they are not uncommon, with an incidence rate about 3 times that of congenital undescended testes. The etiology of acquired undescended testes remains inconclusive, clinical diagnostic standards are unclear, and treatment approaches are still controversial. […] The prevailing view is that acquired undescended testes occur due to the partial absorption of the gubernaculum, which forms part of the parietal peritoneum. The residual gubernacular fibers continuously pull on the spermatic cord, preventing the spermatic cord from elongating proportionately to somatic growth, leading to a re-ascent of the testis. […] The etiology of acquired undescended testes is closely related to the continuous pull of the residual gubernacular fibers on the spermatic cord, which prevents the cord from extending proportionately to body growth.

• #11 Cryptorchidism – Undescended Testicle

  https://www.urology-textbook.com/cryptorchidism.html

  Cryptorchidism is the absence of one testis or both testes from the scrotum, caused by a deficient or irregular testicular descent EAU Guidelines Paediatric Urology, AUA cryptorchidism guideline. […] The complex mechanisms of testicular descent are susceptible to interference (Hutson and Hasthorpe, 2005): […] The testicular descent is controlled by the antimllerian hormone, insulin-like hormone 3 (Insl3), and by androgens (DHT and testosterone). […] An absolute (low concentration) or relative (reduced sensitivity of the target tissue) androgen deficiency leads to cryptorchidism, although the abdominal part of the testicular descent is not impaired. […] Many genetic syndromes are associated with cryptorchidism: e.g., Noonan syndrome, WAGR syndrome, Kallmann syndrome, prune-belly syndrome, exstrophy of the bladder, omphalocele or gastroschisis.

• #12 Cryptorchidism (undescended testicle): Symptoms, risk factors, and ca

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/184604

  An undescended testicle has not moved into the scrotum, the bag of skin that hangs behind the penis, during the development of a fetus. […] The more formal medical term for testicles that do not descend is cryptorchidism. […] Scientists maintain that the testicles might begin to develop incorrectly. […] Abnormal genital development may also stem from androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), a genetic disorder in which XY fetuses do not respond to male hormones, such as testosterone. […] Experts believe that most cases of undescended testicles occur when a combination of genetics, maternal health, and some environmental factors disrupt the hormones, cause physical changes, and interrupt the nerve activity involved in the testicles development. […] However, the exact cause of cryptorchidism remains unclear.

• #13

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/genitourinary-tract/Pages/Undescended-Testicles.aspx

  In some boys, especially those who are born premature, one or both testicles do not make it down to the scrotum before birth. This is known as cryptorchidism, more commonly called undescended testicles. […] Nobody is certain what causes undescended testicles. Premature birth plays a role, but the condition may also be genetic. There is a 7.5% chance that a brother of a boy with undescended testicles will have the same condition. The odds rise to 25% if the brother is an identical twin. […] The goals of this surgery include: […] Reduce the risk of potential hormone and fertility problems. […] Reduce the risk of testicular cancer, which is slightly raised if testicles are undescended.

• #14 Cryptorchidsm / Undescended Testes | ColumbiaDoctors

  https://www.columbiadoctors.org/treatments-conditions/cryptorchidsm-undescended-testes

  Undescended testes (or testicles) may occur for several reasons. While prematurity is a leading cause, other causes are hormonal disorders, spina bifida, retractile testes (a reflex causing a testicle to move back and forth from the scrotum to the groin), or testicular absence. […] There is a genetic component: 6 percent of fathers of boys with undescended testes also had the condition. […] If cryptorchidism is not repaired, these complications may occur as your child grows and matures: increased risk of testicular cancer, infertility (most common in bilateral cases, where both testes are affected), inguinal hernia (a weakened area in the lower abdominal wall or inguinal canal where intestines protrude), psychological consequences associated with an empty scrotum, testicular torsion (painful twisting of the testes that decreases blood supply to the testes).

• #15 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  Cryptorchidism, also known as undescended testis, is the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum. About 3% of full-term and 30% of premature infant boys are born with at least one undescended testis. However, about 80% of cryptorchid testes descend by the first year of life, making the true incidence of cryptorchidism around 1% overall. Cryptorchidism may develop after infancy, sometimes as late as young adulthood, but that is exceptional. […] A combination of genetics, maternal health, and other environmental factors may disrupt the hormones and physical changes that influence the development of the testicles. […] A contributing role of environmental chemicals called endocrine disruptors that interfere with normal fetal hormone balance has been proposed. […] Risk factors may include exposure to regular alcohol consumption during pregnancy, cigarette smoking, and family history of undescended testicles or other problems of genital development.

• #16 Cryptorchidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptorchidism

  Cryptorchidism occurs at a much higher rate in a large number of congenital malformation syndromes. […] In 2008, a study was published that investigated the possible relationship between cryptorchidism and prenatal exposure to a chemical called phthalate (DEHP), which is used in the manufacture of plastics. […] New insight into the testicular descent mechanism has been hypothesized by the concept of a male programming window derived from animal studies. According to this concept, testicular descent status is „set” during the period from 8 to 14 weeks of gestation in humans. Undescended testis is a result of disruption in androgen levels only during this programming window.

• #17 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  About five per cent of boys are born with undescended testicles. […] Premature and low birth weight babies are at increased risk. […] Undescended testicles are linked to a range of health problems and conditions, including hernia, testicular cancer and infertility. […] Premature babies are at increased risk of undescended testicles because the migration of the testicles hasnt had time to occur during development in the womb. Low birth weight babies also have a higher rate of undescended testicles. […] Around 17 per cent of male newborns that weigh under 2.3 kg have undescended testicles. The lower the birth weight, the higher the risk; nearly 100 per cent of male babies weighing under 907 g are born with the condition. […] Undescended testicles are linked to a range of health problems and conditions, including:

• #18 Undescended Testicle | Texas Children’s

  https://www.texaschildrens.org/content/conditions/undescended-testicle

  Cyptrorchidism (also known as undescended testicle) occurs when 1 or both testicles fail to move into the scrotum before birth. […] This condition occurs when testicles develop inside a fetus’ abdomen but do not descend to the scrotum during his mother’s pregnancy. […] The cause remains unknown and is believed to include both genetic and environmental risk factors. Perinatal risk factors include prematurity, low birth weight, breech presentation and maternal diabetes. […] Hormonal treatment of undescended testes has limited success and is not generally suggested in the US.

• #19 Undescended Testicle – Dr. Kai-Wen Chuang

  https://kaiwenchuangmd.com/specialties/undescended-testicle/

  Approximately 3-4% of full-term baby boys are born with cryptorchidism, which is a condition where one or both testicles are not located in the expected scrotal position. […] In premature babies, undescended testicles are usually simply a matter of the baby being born before it is time for the testicles to move into the scrotum. […] For full-term babies, the causes of this condition are not clear. It may have a genetic component if there is a family history of undescended testicles. It may be related to the parents exposure to pesticides or to the mothers use of alcohol or cigarettes. […] In some cases, there is no testicle in the scrotum because it is never developed in the first place or it is damaged during the process of descent.

• #20 Undescended Testes in Children

  https://library.ouhealth.com/Conditions/Neuroscience/90,P03081

  Undescended testes are more often seen in babies who are born early (preterm or premature babies). This is because the testes dont pass down from the belly into the scrotal sac until month 7 of a babys growth in the uterus. […] Other causes may include hormone problems or spina bifida. […] It may be caused by a reflex that causes a testicle to move up and down from the scrotum back into the groin (called retractile testes). […] In some cases, the testes are missing. […] In rare cases, a boy who has inguinal hernia repair may develop undescended testes. […] A baby is more at risk if they are born before 37 weeks of pregnancy (preterm). […] If testes dont descend, this can cause problems, such as infertility, higher risk of testicular cancer, and other problems.

• #21 Signs of cryptorchidism/undescended testicles | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/cryptorchidism/

  Cryptorchidism is also known as undescended testicles (UDT), or undescended testes, and is usually medically defined as a condition in which a testis is not in the scrotum and doesnt descend into the scrotum by the time the baby is four months old. Most cases are idiopathic, which means that the cause is unknown. […] Most cases of cryptorchidism have no obvious cause. […] Risk factors for having a male infant with undescended testicles include: Premature birth, Low birth weight, A family history of undescended testicles, particularly in a father or brother, Maternal exposure to chemicals, such as diethystilbestrol, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, phthalates, and dioxins, polyvinyl chloride, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), or bisphenol A (BPA), Existing congenital malformations of the urinary system or abdominal wall, such as bladder exstrophy, prune-belly syndrome, gastroschisis, or hypospadias, Hereditary syndromes affecting the hypothalamus, connective tissues or nervous system, Consanguinity of parents.

• #22 Undescended Testicle: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/what-is-an-undescended-testicle

  But sometimes, one or both testicles dont fall into place. Thats called an undescended testicle. It can happen to any baby boy, but its more common for those born earlier than expected. […] Doctors arent sure why it happens. They think its related to genes, the mothers health, and outside influences that change how hormones and nerves normally work. […] Even though the cause isnt clear, certain factors might make an undescended testicle more likely: An earlier-than-expected birth, Family history of them or other problems with how genitals develop, Health conditions, such as Down syndrome, that affect how a fetus grows, Low birth weight, Contact by the parents with certain chemicals (pesticides) that kill bugs — these are often used on farms. […] It may also be more likely if the mother: Has diabetes (type 1, type 2, or gestational), Is obese, Smoked cigarettes or drank alcohol during pregnancy.

• #23 Cryptorchidism – Undescended Testicle

  https://www.urology-textbook.com/cryptorchidism.html

  Prenatal treatment of the mother with DES (diethylstilbestrol) leads to cryptorchidism. […] The increasing incidence in industrialized countries argues for environmental toxins, which increase the risk for hypospadias and other diseases (infertility, cryptorchidism, premature births, testicular cancer). […] Decreased abdominal pressure may be a factor for impaired testicular descent in Prune-belly syndrome, exstrophy, omphalocele, or gastroschisis.

• #24 Undescended Testicle

  https://www.healthline.com/health/undescended-testicle

  The exact cause of an undescended testicle isn’t known. However, researchers believe that a combination of certain factors likely plays a role. These include genetics, the mother’s health, and environmental factors, such as exposure to pesticides or secondhand smoke. […] Doctors consider premature birth to be a major contributing risk factor for an undescended testicle. Nearly one-third of premature baby boys have the condition, reports the Lucile Packard Children’s Hospital. An estimated 3 to 5 percent of male babies have it. […] Excess fibrous tissue or muscles that won’t stretch in your child’s groin can cause an undescended testicle.

• #25 Undescended testes

  https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/undescended_testes/

  In babies born early (premature babies), the testes may not have had time to move down into the scrotum by the time the baby is born. […] Sometimes a child is born with the testes in the scrotum, but they develop undescended testes later. As the child grows, the spermatic cord fails to grow at the same rate. It ends up too short, and pulls the testis back up into the groin. This can happen between one and 10 years of age. […] There may be several reasons for undescended testes. Usually the cause is unknown.

• #26 Undescended testicles – myDr.com.au

  https://mydr.com.au/mens-health/undescended-testicles/

  Testicular cancer: This type of cancer is more common in men who have had undescended testicles. […] Testicular torsion: Sometimes the cord that carries semen, blood vessels and nerves becomes twisted, cutting off blood to the testicle. […] Sometimes the testicles are present in the scrotum at birth, but disappear later on. This is called acquired undescended testicles or acquired cryptorchidism, and can happen up to the age of about 10 years. […] It may be caused by an abnormally short spermatic cord. As a boy grows the cord may not grow at the same pace as the rest of the body, causing the testicle to be pulled back up into the groin. […] At this stage, medical experts dont know how to prevent undescended testicles.

• #27

  https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2024/07050/diagnoses_and_treatment_of_acquired_undescended.20.aspx

  The etiology of aUDT is manifold. The mechanism of ascending testes remains a controversial issue. The mainstream belief is that some of the processus vaginalis were absorbed into part of the parietal peritoneum, and the remaining processus vaginalis fibers continue to pull the spermatic cord. This leads to the failure of the spermatic cord to extend in proportion to the growth of somatic cells, and testes ascend again. […] However, an increasing number of studies suggest that a critical factor in the pathogenesis of aUDT is the relative insufficiency of spermatic cord length. […] Boys with severe hypospadias have a significantly higher risk of developing aUDT as a complication. […] The research of Itesako and Nara suggested that the risk of aUDT as a complication was directly linked to the severity of hypospadias.

• #28 Undescended testicle: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000973.htm

  Undescended testicle occurs when one or both testicles fail to move into the scrotum before birth. […] Most of the time, a boy’s testicles descend into the scrotum by the time he is 6 months old. Undescended testicles are common in infants who are born early. The problem occurs less in full-term infants. […] In other cases, no testicle may be found, even during surgery. This may be due to a problem that occurred while the baby was still developing before birth. […] An undescended testicle is more likely to develop cancer, even if it is brought into the scrotum with surgery. Cancer is also more likely in the other testicle. […] In about 50% of males with undescended testicles, the testicles cannot be found at the time of surgery. This is called a vanished or absent testis. As stated earlier, it may be due to something while the baby was still developing during pregnancy.

• #29

  https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2024/07050/diagnoses_and_treatment_of_acquired_undescended.20.aspx

  However, the reasons remained unknown. […] Besides, Cremaster muscle spasms may be 1 of the possible causes of aUDT among children with cerebral palsy. […] Others believe that the remaining fibrous cords from the partial processus vaginalis deformity exist in the depth of spermatic fascia, leading to the failure of umbilical cord extension. […] Other rare factors may also cause aUDT. […] Therefore, MCSC may be responsible for developing aUDT. […] It was concluded from this case that the testes of the newborn are very likely to return to the abdominal cavity due to postoperative adhesions after abdominal surgeries, thus leading to aUDT.

• #30 Undescended testicles | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/undescended-testicles

  infertility […] testicles are housed in the scrotum because sperm production requires a temperature a few degrees lower than the body. Undescended testicles that are not brought into the scrotum from a young age will not produce sperm. […] the risk of testicular cancer is five to 10 times higher for males with undescended testicles than for the general male population. […] The suspected cause is that the spermatic cords, which attach each testicle to the body, fail to grow at the same rate as the rest of the child. […] Acquired undescended testis may also occur in boys who were treated for undescended testis at birth. […] Undescended testicles are diagnosed at three months of age if the testicle has failed to descend into the scrotum by that time. […] Research suggests that future sperm quality in the affected testicle is compromised if the condition is corrected after the child is two years old. […] In about five per cent of cases of undescended testicles, surgeons cant find the missing testicle. It is thought that the developing testicle may have died during development in the womb because of an interrupted blood flow.

• #31 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/undescended-testes-cryptorchidism

  Undescended testicles, also known as cryptorchidism, is a fairly common and normally painless congenital condition in which one or both of a baby’s testicles (testes) have not moved into the proper position. […] Experts have yet to identify any single cause of undescended testicles. The following factors may interfere with the normal descent and development of the testicles: Abnormal anatomy, Hormonal problems, Environmental influences. […] Undescended testicles can increase the risk of infertility. Normally, when the testicles are in the scrotum, they’re about three to five degrees cooler than they would be if they remained inside the body’s abdominal cavity. The warmer temperatures inside the body may impair the development of the testicles and may affect the production of healthy sperm when the boy is older.

• #32 Undescended Testicle: Causes, Treatment and Surgery

  https://dreminozbek.com/en/undescended-testicle-causes-treatment-and-surgery/

  Undescended testis (chriptorchidism) is one of the congenital anomalies (developmental disorder) of the urogenital system that is common in boys. […] The causes of undescended testis are not known exactly. Some of the factors put forward as causes are: Genetic causes, Maternal health problems: Causes hormonal disorders, Environmental factors: Hormonal factors and ultimately can cause undescended testicles, Physical causes and problems with nerve function. […] If timely measures are not taken, the undescended testis will have serious complications in the future. These complications are: Development of testicular cancer: Testicular cancer is common in men with undescended testicles at advanced ages. The development of cancer in a displaced testis is related to the location of the testis.

• #33 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/undescended-testes-cryptorchidism

  Warmer temperatures inside the body can impair the development of the testes and may affect the production of healthy sperm. Orcheopexy moves the testicles into the scrotum, where they’re about three to five degrees cooler than they would be if they remained inside the abdominal cavity. This improves the chances of fertility later in life. […] Boys born with undescended testicles are slightly more prone to testicular cancer, even after corrective surgery, and at a rate of less than 1 percent. However, recent studies suggest that surgical repositioning may help in early detection of a testicular mass prior to the spread of disease, which may reduce the rate of malignancies.

• #34 Undescended Testicles (Cryptorchidism) | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/undescended-testes-cryptorchidism

  Boys born with undescended testicles are also slightly more prone to testicular cancer, even after corrective surgery. The advantage of surgery, however, is that it moves the testes into a place that allows for routine self-examination, which could lead to early detection of any abnormalities later in life. […] Undescended testicles may increase the risk of infertility, especially if both testicles are affected. However, boys who have one undescended testicle tend to father children at the same rate as those who are not affected by the condition at all. […] Boys who have two undescended testicles a much lower percentage of patients do have a significantly lower fertility rate. A child with undescended testicles is slightly more prone to develop testicular cancer, even after corrective surgery. However, surgery performed before puberty may reduce the risk of developing cancer.

• #35 Undescended testes: What general practitioners need to know

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2019/january%E2%80%93february/undescended-testes

  The literature has shown there may be an association between UDT and infertility, but it does not appear to be as great as once feared or as parents are often told, particularly for unilateral UDT. In men with bilateral UDT, despite orchidopexy, the infertility rate may be up to 56%, six times that of the general population, and the paternity rate (the percentage of men attempting who successfully achieve conception) may be 62%. […] The risk of testicular cancer has been approximated at 2% in UDT; although this is four to five times the risk in the general population, parents can be reassured this is still relatively low. A meta-analysis showed a relative risk of 4.8, and UDT is the only risk factor for testicular tumours that has level I evidence. The risk of malignancy in ascending testis is believed to be much lower. Boys with bilateral UDT appear to be at a higher risk than those with unilateral UDT, and the risk of cancer is usually highest in those with intra-abdominal testes, with the notable exception of complete androgen insensitivity. UDT is particularly associated with testicular seminoma, with a relative risk of 7.3. The tumours usually develop in young adults as germ cells rapidly multiply after puberty. One theory posits that the altered position of the UDT increases malignancy risk because of the changed environment of the testis. Some, but not all, evidence suggests men who undergo orchidopexy later in life have an increased risk of malignancy.

• #36 Testicular Cancer Risk Factors | Risks For Testicular Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/testicular-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  One of the main risk factors for testicular cancer is a condition called cryptorchidism, or undescended testicle(s). This means that one or both testicles fail to move from the abdomen (belly) into the scrotum before birth. Males with cryptorchidism are many times more likely to get testicular cancer than those with normally descended testicles. […] The risk of testicular cancer might be a little higher for men whose testicle stayed in the abdomen as opposed to one that has descended at least partway. […] Because of this, some doctors conclude that cryptorchidism doesn’t actually cause testicular cancer, but that there’s something else that leads to both testicular cancer and abnormal positioning of one or both testicles.

• #37 Undescended Testicle: Causes, Treatment and Surgery

  https://dreminozbek.com/en/undescended-testicle-causes-treatment-and-surgery/

  Infertility: The testicles have two most important tasks: producing testosterone (male hormone) and making sperm. In undescended testicles, sperm production cannot fully develop and infertility is seen in these people in the future. […] Testicular torsion: Testicular torsion is the rotation of the structure called the spermatic cord, which contains the vessels and nerves of the testicle, around itself. […] Development of inguinal hernia: Inguinal hernia can be seen in children with undescended testicles. […] The ideal age for surgery in these children is between 6-12 months. If the operation period is delayed, testicular development cannot be complete and serious problems will arise in the future. The most important of these is the development of testicular cancer and the problem of infertility.

• #38 The Undescended Testicle: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2000/1101/p2037.html

  Although there is little solid evidence, the incidence of testicular torsion is thought to be higher in undescended testes than in normal scrotal testes. […] Most true cases of undescended testicles are associated with a patent processus vaginalis. […] Treatment for cryptorchidism can be hormonal, surgical or a combination of the two. […] The inguinal orchiopexy is a well-established operation for the palpable undescended testicle. […] The most significant complication of orchiopexy is testicular atrophy. […] Surgery for the nonpalpable testicle is diagnostic and potentially therapeutic.

• #39 Undescended testes: What general practitioners need to know

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2019/january%E2%80%93february/undescended-testes

  Some studies have shown an increased risk of malignancy in the contralateral testis in unilateral UDT. This supports a theory that the cancer risk may be from an overall syndrome of gonadal dysgenesis, of which UDT is a symptom, and relocating the testis does not reduce risk. To support this theory, other genital anomalies, such as hypospadias, increase the rate of testicular malignancy. There is thought to be an interruption to development of the germ cells in utero. These cells often have the appearance of carcinoma in situ cells and can undergo a malignant transformation. However, there is still much to be understood about UDT in the context of malignancy, and there is a lack of prospective data.

• #40 Risk factors for cryptorchidism

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5815831/

  The relative importance of each risk factor may vary considerably between mother/son pairs depending on an array of genetic, maternal, placental and foetal factors all of which could vary between regions. […] Cryptorchidism is also a risk factor for sub-fertility: it is estimated that men with a history of cryptorchidism are twice as likely to be sub-fertile compared to those without cryptorchidism. […] Cryptorchidism is also one component of theorised Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome, a syndrome in which four individual conditions (cryptorchidism, TC, hypospadias and sub-fertility) possibly share the same prenatal risk factors. […] A testicular defect acquired in the intrauterine environment may be linked to both the development of cryptorchidism and to the risk of neoplasia within the cryptorchid testes, with a consequent increased risk of testicular cancer in later life.

• #41 Cryptorchidism: Practice Essentials, History of the Procedure, Problem

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/438378-overview

  Epididymal abnormalities often accompany undescended testes, but the causal relationship has not been established. […] A Japanese study found that nationwide, the discharge rate of cryptorchidism increased by 14.3% after the Fukushima nuclear accident. Rates of other risk factors for cryptorchidism (ie, low-weight babies, preterm births) remained almost constant during the study period, and age distribution of cryptorchidism surgery also did not change.

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