Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  Currently, it is estimated that more than 11 million humans in the world are infected by helminth parasites of Trichinella species, mainly by Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis), responsible for causing Trichinellosis disease in both animals and humans. […] Trichinellosis is a cosmopolitan parasitic zoonotic disease, which has direct relevance to human and animal health, because it presents a constant and important challenge to the hosts immune system, especially through the intestinal tract. […] The main characteristic of the epidemiology of T. spiralis is its obligatory transmission by ingestion of infected meat. […] When a host ingests meat infected with L1 of T. spiralis (T. spiralis-L1), the digestive juices of the stomach dissolve the collagen capsule, also called nurse cell (NC), releasing the T. spiralis-L1, which travel to the small intestine, where they invade the columnar epithelium, giving rise to the intestinal phase of the infection.

• #2 Trichinellosis – WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health

  https://www.woah.org/en/disease/trichinellosis/

  Trichinellosis is a serious zoonotic disease (an animal disease that can infect humans) caused by parasitic nematodes (roundworms) of the genus Trichinella. […] An infected human or animal has larvae lodged in its muscle. When a person or animal eats meat which is infected, the larvae are released from the muscle as it is digested and rapidly develop into adults in the intestine of the new host. The adult worms reproduce and produce live larvae that penetrate the wall of the intestine and travel via the lymphatic and blood system throughout the body to finally enter muscle cells. In some Trichinella species the cells turned nurse cells form cysts that can remain viable for years. […] Trichinella is very prolific and an infected animal might have up to several hundred larvae per gram of muscle. The life cycle in animals can continue as larvae are able to survive in decaying carcasses for a long time, facilitating transmission by scavenging. […] On the other hand, humans are a dead end for the parasite.

• #3 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  Currently, it is estimated that more than 11 million humans in the world are infected by helminth parasites of Trichinella species, mainly by Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis), responsible for causing Trichinellosis disease in both animals and humans. […] Trichinellosis is a cosmopolitan parasitic zoonotic disease, which has direct relevance to human and animal health, because it presents a constant and important challenge to the hosts immune system, especially through the intestinal tract. […] The main characteristic of the epidemiology of T. spiralis is its obligatory transmission by ingestion of infected meat. […] When a host ingests meat infected with L1 of T. spiralis (T. spiralis-L1), the digestive juices of the stomach dissolve the collagen capsule, also called nurse cell (NC), releasing the T. spiralis-L1, which travel to the small intestine, where they invade the columnar epithelium, giving rise to the intestinal phase of the infection.

• #4 Trichinosis – Knowledge and References – Taylor & Francis

  https://taylorandfrancis.com/knowledge/Medicine_and_healthcare/Infectious_diseases/Trichinosis/

  Trichinosis is a parasitic infection caused by nematodes of the genus Trichinella, which is acquired by consuming undercooked meat, particularly pork or bear. The clinical manifestations of trichinosis include months of nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea without blood or mucus, followed by high fever, periorbital edema, myalgias, muscle masses, and CN palsies. […] Trichinosis has a worldwide distribution, but is most prevalent in Europe and North America. The adult Trichinella spiralis are 1 to 4mm in length. The female is viviparous, delivering larvae; thus, there is no external egg stage. All carnivorous species, including humans, are the definitive hosts. Most human infections result from ingestion of inadequately cooked meat. Bear, wild pig, boar, horse, and dog meat are the usual sources, but pork is the most common cause in the United States. Adult worms, living in the small intestine, release larvae into the mucosal epithelium. The larvae enter the bloodstream and migrate to muscle tissue, where they embed and mature to the infective stage. A cyst envelops the larva, and it remains infective until the cyst calcifies, killing the larva. When meat containing encysted larvae is ingested, the cysts are dissolved by gastric secretions, and the infective larvae are released. Within 36 hours, maturation occurs, and within a week larvae are produced, to become encysted in this new host. Diagnosis of trichinosis is based on the history of ingestion of undercooked meat and a compatible clinical picture. Definitive diagnosis requires either laboratory detection of specific antibodies or muscle biopsy finding encysted larvae.

• #5 Trichinosis (Trichinellosis): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230490-overview

  Trichinella species require two hosts to sustain their life cycles, spreading through the ingestion of infected flesh rather than relying on traditional arthropod intermediate hosts. […] The life cycle of Trichinella is maintained by animals that consume other animals containing encysted infective larvae in their striated muscles, such as pigs, horses, and predators such as bears, foxes, and boars. […] After ingestion, the larvae excyst in the small intestine, penetrate the mucosal lining, and develop into adults within 6 to 8 days, with females measuring about 2.2 mm and males around 1.2 mm. […] Mature females release live larvae for 4 to 6 weeks before dying or being expelled. […] The newborn larvae migrate through the bloodstream and lymphatic system, ultimately residing in striated skeletal muscle cells.

• #6 Trichinosis | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/articles/trichinosis

  Trichinosis is caused by zoonotic infestation of nematode in the genus Trichinella. […] The life cycle of Trichinella includes: (1) enteric phase (the larvae enter the duodenal walls), (2) migratory phase (the newborn larvae penetrate through the intestinal walls into the lymphatic and blood vessels), and (3) parenteral phase (the larvae resume their lives as an intracellular parasite). […] During the migratory phase, the newborn larvae pass through the intestinal wall into the lymphatic vessels and circulatory system. Once in a capillary bed of a given tissue, the larvae penetrate the circulation in a random fashion. By this route, larvae can reach any organs, and then they seed and provoke an inflammatory reaction. […] During the parenteral phase, the larvae resume their lives as an intracellular parasite only in skeletal muscle. The infected striated muscle is transformed to nurse cells. This process takes 20 days to complete.

• #7 Trichinella spiralis Infection – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538511/

  Ingestion of undercooked or raw meat from domestic or sylvatic animals containing encysted larvae of Trichinella species can lead to Trichinellosis. T. spiralis results from the consumption of inadequately cooked or raw pork from domestic pigs. […] Enteric or gastrointestinal phase: After ingestion of infected meat by humans, the enzymes pepsin and hydrochloric acid act in the stomach and cause the release of the 1st stage of the larvae. These larvae invade the small intestine. Invasion can be asymptomatic or sometimes associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Larvae then turn into adults and mate. Female trichinella worms produce larvae, which completes the gastrointestinal or enteric phase. […] Systemic (parenteral) phase: Larvae enter the lymphatic circulation and then into the blood, reaching skeletal muscles, myocardium, and brain which are high in oxygen content. This phase leads to systemic symptoms like fevers, myositis, myalgias, periorbital edema and can even cause myocarditis and encephalitis. […] The larvae provoke significant eosinophilia, especially in patients who develop cardiac and CNS dysfunction.

• #8 Trichinella spiralis Infection | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/616

  Ingestion of undercooked or raw meat from domestic or sylvatic animals containing encysted larvae of Trichinella species can lead to Trichinellosis. T. spiralis results from the consumption of inadequately cooked or raw pork from domestic pigs. […] After ingestion of infected meat by humans, the enzymes pepsin and hydrochloric acid act in the stomach and cause the release of the 1st stage of the larvae. These larvae invade the small intestine. Invasion can be asymptomatic or sometimes associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Larvae then turn into adults and mate. Female trichinella worms produce larvae, which completes the gastrointestinal or enteric phase. […] Larvae enter the lymphatic circulation and then into the blood, reaching skeletal muscles, myocardium, and brain which are high in oxygen content. This phase leads to systemic symptoms like fevers, myositis, myalgias, periorbital edema and can even cause myocarditis and encephalitis. […] The larvae provoke significant eosinophilia, especially in patients who develop cardiac and CNS dysfunction.

• #9 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  After 10-30 hours post-infection (pi), T. spiralis-L1 mature to female and male adult worms (AD). […] Approximately 7 days pi, copulation occurs between female and male AD. […] The NBL of T. spiralis possess a stylet in their oral cavity, which they use to internalize within the epithelial cells of the host, penetrating the submucosa of the small intestine, migrating mainly through the circulatory system to various organs and subsequently invading the musculoskeletal cells, causing tissue damage. […] Only the NBL of T. spiralis that invade the musculoskeletal cells can survive and grow, giving rise to the muscle phase of the infection. […] During the muscular phase, the NBL of T. spiralis are in the muscle fibers, destroying them partially, and begin a period of post-embryonic development, growing and developing exponentially.

• #10 CDC – DPDx – Trichinellosis

  https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/trichinellosis/index.html

  Trichinellosis (trichinosis) is caused by nematodes (roundworms) of the genus Trichinella. […] Trichinellosis is caused by the ingestion of undercooked meat containing encysted larvae (except for T. pseudospiralis and T. papuae, which do not encyst) of Trichinella species. After exposure to gastric acid and pepsin, the larvae are released from the cysts and invade the small bowel mucosa where they develop into adult worms. […] Diagnosis is usually made based on clinical symptoms, and is confirmed by serology or identification of encysted or non-encysted larvae in biopsy or autopsy specimens. […] The suspicion of trichinellosis (trichinosis), based on history, clinical symptoms, and eosinophilia, can be confirmed by specific diagnostic tests, including antibody detection, muscle biopsy, and microscopy.

• #11 Trichinosis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/trichinosis

  The Trichinella life cycle is maintained by animals that are fed (eg, pigs) or eat (eg, bears, foxes, boars) other animals whose striated muscles contain encysted infective larvae (eg, rodents). Humans become infected by eating undercooked meat from infected animals, most commonly pigs, wild boar, or bear. […] Larvae excyst in the small intestine, penetrate the mucosa, and become adults in 6 to 8 days. […] Mature females release living larvae for 4 to 6 weeks and then die or are expelled. Newborn larvae migrate through the bloodstream and lymphatics but ultimately survive only within striated skeletal muscle cells. Larvae fully encyst in 1 to 2 months and remain viable for several years as intracellular parasites. […] Anthelmintics eliminate adult Trichinella worms from the gastrointestinal tract, but once larvae encyst in skeletal muscle, treatment may not eradicate them or any associated symptoms. However, most people with trichinosis recover fully. […] The efficacy of higher doses and prolonged courses in killing encysted larvae is uncertain and adverse effects are more likely.

• #12 Trichinosis (Trichinellosis): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230490-overview

  Trichinella species require two hosts to sustain their life cycles, spreading through the ingestion of infected flesh rather than relying on traditional arthropod intermediate hosts. […] The life cycle of Trichinella is maintained by animals that consume other animals containing encysted infective larvae in their striated muscles, such as pigs, horses, and predators such as bears, foxes, and boars. […] After ingestion, the larvae excyst in the small intestine, penetrate the mucosal lining, and develop into adults within 6 to 8 days, with females measuring about 2.2 mm and males around 1.2 mm. […] Mature females release live larvae for 4 to 6 weeks before dying or being expelled. […] The newborn larvae migrate through the bloodstream and lymphatic system, ultimately residing in striated skeletal muscle cells.

• #13 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  After 10-30 hours post-infection (pi), T. spiralis-L1 mature to female and male adult worms (AD). […] Approximately 7 days pi, copulation occurs between female and male AD. […] The NBL of T. spiralis possess a stylet in their oral cavity, which they use to internalize within the epithelial cells of the host, penetrating the submucosa of the small intestine, migrating mainly through the circulatory system to various organs and subsequently invading the musculoskeletal cells, causing tissue damage. […] Only the NBL of T. spiralis that invade the musculoskeletal cells can survive and grow, giving rise to the muscle phase of the infection. […] During the muscular phase, the NBL of T. spiralis are in the muscle fibers, destroying them partially, and begin a period of post-embryonic development, growing and developing exponentially.

• #14 Trichinosis – UF Health

  https://ufhealth.org/conditions-and-treatments/trichinosis

  Trichinosis is a parasitic disease caused by eating meat that has not been thoroughly cooked and contains cysts (larvae, or immature worms) of Trichinella spiralis. […] When a person eats meat from an infected animal, trichinella cysts break open in the intestine and grow into adult roundworms. The roundworms produce other worms that move through the gut wall and into the bloodstream. The worms invade muscle tissues, including the heart and diaphragm (the breathing muscle under the lungs). They can also infect the lungs and brain. The cysts can remain alive for years. […] The cysts hatch in the intestines and produce large numbers of larvae that migrate into muscle tissue. The cysts may cause muscle pain and swelling in the face and around the eyes.

• #15 Trichinellosis – Helminthiases – Parasitic Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.69.3.

  Trichinellosis (trichinosis) is a systemic inflammatory parasitic zoonosis that involves the skeletal muscles and causes allergic vasculitis. […] Larvae present in contaminated meat consumed by the patient enter the intestinal mucosa, within ~48 hours transform into the adult form, and after subsequent 5 to 6 days start producing new larvae (for ~5 weeks). The larvae enter the intestinal blood vessels and lymphatic vessels and are carried by bloodstream to various organs (mainly skeletal muscles with a high metabolic rate: tongue, diaphragm, as well as intercostal muscles, masseter muscle, extraocular muscles, neck muscles, and flexor muscles of the extremities). In the muscles the larvae encyst in a capsule produced by the host (termed a nurse cell), where they may survive up to a few years. In cell types other than the skeletal muscle the larvae are not able to encyst and continue to migrate, thus causing inflammation and necrosis.

• #16 Trichinosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichinosis

  The larvae travel by capillaries to various organs, such as the retina, myocardium, or lymph nodes; however, only larvae that migrate to skeletal muscle cells survive and encyst. […] The development of a capillary network around the nurse cell completes encystation of the larva. Trichinosis is not soil-transmitted, as the parasite does not lay eggs, nor can it survive long outside a host.

• #17 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  After 10-30 hours post-infection (pi), T. spiralis-L1 mature to female and male adult worms (AD). […] Approximately 7 days pi, copulation occurs between female and male AD. […] The NBL of T. spiralis possess a stylet in their oral cavity, which they use to internalize within the epithelial cells of the host, penetrating the submucosa of the small intestine, migrating mainly through the circulatory system to various organs and subsequently invading the musculoskeletal cells, causing tissue damage. […] Only the NBL of T. spiralis that invade the musculoskeletal cells can survive and grow, giving rise to the muscle phase of the infection. […] During the muscular phase, the NBL of T. spiralis are in the muscle fibers, destroying them partially, and begin a period of post-embryonic development, growing and developing exponentially.

• #18 Trichinosis pathophysiology – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Trichinosis_pathophysiology

  Trichinosis is acquired by ingesting meat containing cysts (encysted larvae) (life cycle stage: 1) of Trichinella. […] After exposure to gastric acid and pepsin, the larvae are released (life cycle stage: 2) from the cysts and invade the small bowel mucosa. […] The newborn larvae enter the lymphatic vessels and then enter the bloodstream. […] The larvae travel by capillaries to various organs, such as the retina, myocardium, or lymph nodes; however, only larvae that migrate to skeletal muscle cells survive and encyst. […] Encystment is completed in 4 to 5 weeks and the encysted larvae may remain viable for several years (life cycle stage: 5).

• #19 Trichinellosis in Animals – Generalized Conditions – Merck Veterinary Manual

  https://www.merckvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/trichinellosis/trichinellosis-in-animals

  Infection occurs by means of ingestion of larvae that parasitize striated muscle cells. The cyst wall is digested in the stomach, and the free larvae penetrate the duodenal and jejunal mucosa. Within ~4 days, the larvae develop into sexually mature adults. After mating, the females (34 mm) penetrate deeper into the mucosa and discharge living larvae (up to 1,500) throughout 416 weeks. After reproduction, the adult worms die and usually are digested. The young larvae (0.1 mm) migrate into the lymphatics, are carried via the portal system into the peripheral circulation, and reach striated muscle, where they penetrate individual muscle cells. They grow rapidly (to 1 mm) and begin to coil within the cell, usually one per cell. […] In encapsulated taxa, capsule formation begins ~15 days after infection and is completed by 48 weeks, at which time the larvae are infective. Infected cells degenerate as the larva grows, followed by calcification which occurs at different rates in various hosts. Larvae may remain viable within cysts for years and their development continues only if ingested by another suitable host. The diaphragm, tongue, masseter, and intercostal muscles are among those most frequently infected in pigs.

• #20 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  The NC formation process is a complex process and includes the cellular response of the infected muscle and the responses of the NC. […] This explains why CN seems intact and active for years despite intracellular parasitism. […] The main striated muscles where the L1-T. spiralis is implanted are the most active such as the diaphragm, masseters, intercostals, eye muscles, muscles of the tongue, and anterior and posterior extremities. […] The severity of the clinical disease is strongly dependent and directly correlated with the number of L1-T. spiralis ingested, age, sex, invaded tissue, nutritional, hormonal and immune status. […] The clinical pathology of Trichinellosis can be divided based on the phases of the T. spiralis life cycle. […] The Th1 type immune response against T. spiralis is characterized by a significant increase in Th1 cytokines such as IL-12, INF-, IL-1 and TNF-.

• #21 Trichinella/Trichinellosis | Concise Medical Knowledge

  https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/trichinella-trichinellosis/

  Encysted larvae live within the striated muscles of the reservoir animal (some species are not encysted). […] Larvae are ingested when undercooked meat is consumed. […] After exposure to gastric acid and pepsin, larvae are released from the cysts. […] Larvae invade small-bowel mucosa and then become adult worms. […] Mating occurs; life span in the small bowel lasts approximately 4 weeks. […] Females release larvae that enter circulation. […] Larvae migrate to striated muscles. […] Tissue migration can last up to 1 month, causing symptoms. […] Highly active muscles affected include diaphragm, tongue, masseter, intercostals, and extraocular muscles. […] Can reach myocardium and the brain and lead to cardiac and cerebral inflammatory reaction. […] As larvae encyst, tissue infiltration (by PMNs and eosinophils) and edema occur. […] Calcification follows after a period of months, and after that, they remain in that state for years, but symptoms decrease after months.

• #22 Trichinella spiralis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichinella_spiralis

  The migration and encystment of larvae can cause fever and pain, brought on by the host inflammatory response. In some cases, accidental migration to specific organ tissues can cause myocarditis and encephalitis that can result in death. […] Nurse cell formation in skeletal muscle tissue is mediated by the hypoxic environment surrounding the new vessel formation. The hypoxic environment stimulates muscle cells in the surrounding tissue to upregulate and secrete angiogenic cytokines, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). This allows the migrating T. spiralis larva to enter the myocyte and induce the transformation into the nurse cell. VEGF expression is detected surrounding the nurse cell immediately after nurse cell formation, and the continued secretion of VEGF can maintain the constant state of hypoxia.

• #23 Trichinellosis – WikiLectures

  https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Trichinellosis

  The larva disrupts the cell membrane and nests in the cytoplasm. Here, it twists and causes specific morphological changes in the host cell as needed by the parasite – it affects metabolism, DNA biosynthesis, increases collagen and EGF production. The result is the formation of a collagen casing. […] All these changes lead to the protection of the larva from the body’s immune cells and also ensure the nutrition of the parasite larva. The cell thus changed is then called a nurse cell.

• #24 Trichinellosis – WikiLectures

  https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Trichinellosis

  The larva disrupts the cell membrane and nests in the cytoplasm. Here, it twists and causes specific morphological changes in the host cell as needed by the parasite – it affects metabolism, DNA biosynthesis, increases collagen and EGF production. The result is the formation of a collagen casing. […] All these changes lead to the protection of the larva from the body’s immune cells and also ensure the nutrition of the parasite larva. The cell thus changed is then called a nurse cell.

• #25 Trichinella spiralis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichinella_spiralis

  The migration and encystment of larvae can cause fever and pain, brought on by the host inflammatory response. In some cases, accidental migration to specific organ tissues can cause myocarditis and encephalitis that can result in death. […] Nurse cell formation in skeletal muscle tissue is mediated by the hypoxic environment surrounding the new vessel formation. The hypoxic environment stimulates muscle cells in the surrounding tissue to upregulate and secrete angiogenic cytokines, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). This allows the migrating T. spiralis larva to enter the myocyte and induce the transformation into the nurse cell. VEGF expression is detected surrounding the nurse cell immediately after nurse cell formation, and the continued secretion of VEGF can maintain the constant state of hypoxia.

• #26 Trichinellosis – WikiLectures

  https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Trichinellosis

  The larva disrupts the cell membrane and nests in the cytoplasm. Here, it twists and causes specific morphological changes in the host cell as needed by the parasite – it affects metabolism, DNA biosynthesis, increases collagen and EGF production. The result is the formation of a collagen casing. […] All these changes lead to the protection of the larva from the body’s immune cells and also ensure the nutrition of the parasite larva. The cell thus changed is then called a nurse cell.

• #27 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  The NC formation process is a complex process and includes the cellular response of the infected muscle and the responses of the NC. […] This explains why CN seems intact and active for years despite intracellular parasitism. […] The main striated muscles where the L1-T. spiralis is implanted are the most active such as the diaphragm, masseters, intercostals, eye muscles, muscles of the tongue, and anterior and posterior extremities. […] The severity of the clinical disease is strongly dependent and directly correlated with the number of L1-T. spiralis ingested, age, sex, invaded tissue, nutritional, hormonal and immune status. […] The clinical pathology of Trichinellosis can be divided based on the phases of the T. spiralis life cycle. […] The Th1 type immune response against T. spiralis is characterized by a significant increase in Th1 cytokines such as IL-12, INF-, IL-1 and TNF-.

• #28 Trichinella inflammatory myopathy: host or parasite strategy? | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text

  https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-3305-4-42

  The immunological response to T. spiralis muscle invasion is mainly characterized by a Th2 phenotype, in fact cells collected from cervical lymph nodes of infected mice produce IL-5, IL-10, IL-13 and IFN- after stimulation with somatic larval antigens. […] In knock-out (KO) mice for the interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene (IL10-/-), the extent of the inflammatory infiltrate around the NC was markedly increased compared with control mice during the acute phase of infection, though the cellular composition remained the same. […] The role of eosinophils in experimental trichinellosis shows that muscle larvae are damaged by an immune response driven by Th1 cells which seem to be downregulated by eosinophils. […] Information derived from the studies on Trichinella-induced muscle inflammation provide new perspectives of the host-parasite relationship. For this reason it appears beneficial for the parasite to elicit in its host a Th2 response leading to tissue eosinophilia, during the muscle stage of infection.

• #29 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  Studies have shown that the production of Th1 cytokines is directly associated with the development of the inflammatory response and intestinal pathology, which favors the infection by T. spiralis. […] However, exogenous administration of IL-12 in T. spiralis infection suppresses intestinal mastocytosis, delaying the expulsion of the parasite and increasing the parasitic muscle burden. […] TNF- is a potent proinflammatory cytokine, which plays a key role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, since it participates in the activation of a cascade of proinflammatory cytokines. […] Studies have shown that TSL-1 antigens are capable to induce the expression of iNOS with the consequent production of NO. […] However, NO production is also associated with the development of intestinal pathology in T. spiralis infection.

• #30 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  Studies have shown that the production of Th1 cytokines is directly associated with the development of the inflammatory response and intestinal pathology, which favors the infection by T. spiralis. […] However, exogenous administration of IL-12 in T. spiralis infection suppresses intestinal mastocytosis, delaying the expulsion of the parasite and increasing the parasitic muscle burden. […] TNF- is a potent proinflammatory cytokine, which plays a key role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, since it participates in the activation of a cascade of proinflammatory cytokines. […] Studies have shown that TSL-1 antigens are capable to induce the expression of iNOS with the consequent production of NO. […] However, NO production is also associated with the development of intestinal pathology in T. spiralis infection.

• #31 The Present Understanding of the Mechanism of Immunity to Trichinella Spiralis in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 16 Issue 2 (1967)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/abstract/journals/tpmd/16/2/article-p123.xml

  Our present knowledge warrants the conclusion that the mechanism causing expulsion of adult T. spiralis is triggered by a specific delayed hypersensitivity reaction. […] The resultant tissue damage provides the stimuli for initiation of nonspecific allergic inflammation, which in turn directly effects expulsion of worms, probably due to the creation of an unsuitable biochemical environment. […] Further, the evidence indicates that humoral antibodies at best play only a minor role in the elimination of worms. Nevertheless, they are important in the total immunity in that they produce direct deleterious effects against the worms, such as interference with growth and reduction of the reproductive potential, and they are responsible for contributing to cellular destruction as a consequence of anaphylactic hypersensitivity reactions. […] Considerable work remains to clarify various aspects of the delayed response to T. spiralis, such as demonstration of the responsible antigen(s) and, by electron microscopy, the true identity of the immunologically competent cells.

• #32 Pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita pepo subsp. ovifera) decoction promotes Trichinella spiralis expulsion during intestinal phase via “Weep and Sweep” mechanism | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-51616-4

  Trichinosis is a zoonotic disease of communal health concern as it instigated human outbreaks in several countries. […] The pumpkin decoction’s anthelmintic action was facilitated by the TGF-1 and IL-17-driven Weep and Sweep mechanism. […] It has been demonstrated that having worms in the bowel causes a number of pathological alterations that cause acute inflammatory reactions in the small intestine. […] The goblet cell hyperplasia seen in Trichinella infections is a mucosal epithelial response to Th2 cytokines, primarily regulated by IL-13. […] To remove gastro-intestinal helminths an integrated response including the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems are used to expel the parasites. This is achieved by rising intestinal hydration and muscle contraction, which causes the worms to separate from the intestine and be released outside the body as part of a „Weep and Sweep” reaction. […] The Weep and Sweep mechanism is essential for the expulsion of Trichinella spiralis from the intestine. […] Pumpkin seeds decoction exhibited anthelmintic activity by two mechanisms: inducing weep and sweep processes and stimulating immunity Type 2.

• #33 Trichinella inflammatory myopathy: host or parasite strategy? | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text

  https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-3305-4-42

  The immunological response to T. spiralis muscle invasion is mainly characterized by a Th2 phenotype, in fact cells collected from cervical lymph nodes of infected mice produce IL-5, IL-10, IL-13 and IFN- after stimulation with somatic larval antigens. […] In knock-out (KO) mice for the interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene (IL10-/-), the extent of the inflammatory infiltrate around the NC was markedly increased compared with control mice during the acute phase of infection, though the cellular composition remained the same. […] The role of eosinophils in experimental trichinellosis shows that muscle larvae are damaged by an immune response driven by Th1 cells which seem to be downregulated by eosinophils. […] Information derived from the studies on Trichinella-induced muscle inflammation provide new perspectives of the host-parasite relationship. For this reason it appears beneficial for the parasite to elicit in its host a Th2 response leading to tissue eosinophilia, during the muscle stage of infection.

• #34 Trichinella inflammatory myopathy: host or parasite strategy? | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text

  https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-3305-4-42

  The immunological response to T. spiralis muscle invasion is mainly characterized by a Th2 phenotype, in fact cells collected from cervical lymph nodes of infected mice produce IL-5, IL-10, IL-13 and IFN- after stimulation with somatic larval antigens. […] In knock-out (KO) mice for the interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene (IL10-/-), the extent of the inflammatory infiltrate around the NC was markedly increased compared with control mice during the acute phase of infection, though the cellular composition remained the same. […] The role of eosinophils in experimental trichinellosis shows that muscle larvae are damaged by an immune response driven by Th1 cells which seem to be downregulated by eosinophils. […] Information derived from the studies on Trichinella-induced muscle inflammation provide new perspectives of the host-parasite relationship. For this reason it appears beneficial for the parasite to elicit in its host a Th2 response leading to tissue eosinophilia, during the muscle stage of infection.

• #35 Trichinella inflammatory myopathy: host or parasite strategy? | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text

  https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-3305-4-42

  The immunological response to T. spiralis muscle invasion is mainly characterized by a Th2 phenotype, in fact cells collected from cervical lymph nodes of infected mice produce IL-5, IL-10, IL-13 and IFN- after stimulation with somatic larval antigens. […] In knock-out (KO) mice for the interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene (IL10-/-), the extent of the inflammatory infiltrate around the NC was markedly increased compared with control mice during the acute phase of infection, though the cellular composition remained the same. […] The role of eosinophils in experimental trichinellosis shows that muscle larvae are damaged by an immune response driven by Th1 cells which seem to be downregulated by eosinophils. […] Information derived from the studies on Trichinella-induced muscle inflammation provide new perspectives of the host-parasite relationship. For this reason it appears beneficial for the parasite to elicit in its host a Th2 response leading to tissue eosinophilia, during the muscle stage of infection.

• #36 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  The synthesis and release of IL-4 and IL-13 induce B cell proliferation and the expression of surface antigens, including the CD23 receptor (FcRII) of low affinity to IgE and MHC class II molecules, stimulating the production of IgE. […] Immunotherapy with T. spiralis TS antigen provoked a primary immune response, with a reduction in parasite burden, as well as damage to CN in the muscular phase of the infection. […] Thus, 45-kDa immunodominant antigen has been shown to be the most effective antigen against T. spiralis infection.

• #37 Trichinosis | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/articles/trichinosis

  Mechanisms underlying vital organ involvement are still debated. Whether disseminated larvae alone or with an associated toxemia account for the damage to the internal organs has not yet been clearly demonstrated. A purely mechanical theory suggests that the larva cause the occlusion of small cerebral endarterioles, resulting in distal ischemia. […] However, although direct invasion of myocardium and brain parenchyma by T spiralis has been evident, larva encystment in these organs has been reported only rarely.

• #38 Trichinosis | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/articles/trichinosis

  Mechanisms underlying vital organ involvement are still debated. Whether disseminated larvae alone or with an associated toxemia account for the damage to the internal organs has not yet been clearly demonstrated. A purely mechanical theory suggests that the larva cause the occlusion of small cerebral endarterioles, resulting in distal ischemia. […] However, although direct invasion of myocardium and brain parenchyma by T spiralis has been evident, larva encystment in these organs has been reported only rarely.

• #39 Trichinosis complicated with hepatitis and myopericarditis

  https://www.oatext.com/Trichinosis-complicated-with-hepatitis-and-myopericarditis.php

  Trichinenosis also called trichinellosis is a parasitic infection caused by nematode helminthes of trichinella. This disease is a zoonosis that could be acquired when consuming of undercooked or raw meat or meat infected with trichinella larvae. The most common etiology is consumption of pork, but meat of other animals may cause the disease as well. […] The pathogenesis of the hepatic involvement is due to the penetration of the larvae to the hepatic sinusoids. This hepatic changes may be seen through or after the intestinal phase and could be attributed to direct injury (the larvae) or indirect injury (immunological or eosinophilia) and a long course of the disease might result in irreversible damage. […] These enzymes are released to the peripheral blood in greater amounts than their normal concentrations when there is a damage to the liver cell membrane resulting in higher permeability, same pathogenesis is believed to be caused by trichinilosis infection. […] To summarize, Trichinella infection is a multi-organ infiltrative disease despite the fact that little was reported in the recent years.

• #40 Trichinosis complicated with hepatitis and myopericarditis

  https://www.oatext.com/Trichinosis-complicated-with-hepatitis-and-myopericarditis.php

  Trichinenosis also called trichinellosis is a parasitic infection caused by nematode helminthes of trichinella. This disease is a zoonosis that could be acquired when consuming of undercooked or raw meat or meat infected with trichinella larvae. The most common etiology is consumption of pork, but meat of other animals may cause the disease as well. […] The pathogenesis of the hepatic involvement is due to the penetration of the larvae to the hepatic sinusoids. This hepatic changes may be seen through or after the intestinal phase and could be attributed to direct injury (the larvae) or indirect injury (immunological or eosinophilia) and a long course of the disease might result in irreversible damage. […] These enzymes are released to the peripheral blood in greater amounts than their normal concentrations when there is a damage to the liver cell membrane resulting in higher permeability, same pathogenesis is believed to be caused by trichinilosis infection. […] To summarize, Trichinella infection is a multi-organ infiltrative disease despite the fact that little was reported in the recent years.

• #41 Trichinosis complicated with hepatitis and myopericarditis

  https://www.oatext.com/Trichinosis-complicated-with-hepatitis-and-myopericarditis.php

  Trichinenosis also called trichinellosis is a parasitic infection caused by nematode helminthes of trichinella. This disease is a zoonosis that could be acquired when consuming of undercooked or raw meat or meat infected with trichinella larvae. The most common etiology is consumption of pork, but meat of other animals may cause the disease as well. […] The pathogenesis of the hepatic involvement is due to the penetration of the larvae to the hepatic sinusoids. This hepatic changes may be seen through or after the intestinal phase and could be attributed to direct injury (the larvae) or indirect injury (immunological or eosinophilia) and a long course of the disease might result in irreversible damage. […] These enzymes are released to the peripheral blood in greater amounts than their normal concentrations when there is a damage to the liver cell membrane resulting in higher permeability, same pathogenesis is believed to be caused by trichinilosis infection. […] To summarize, Trichinella infection is a multi-organ infiltrative disease despite the fact that little was reported in the recent years.

• #42 Trichinellosis – Helminthiases – Parasitic Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.69.3.

  Depending on severity, invasion may be asymptomatic, subclinical, or associated with mild, moderate, or severe symptoms, including: […] Typical symptoms of trichinellosis, which are caused by penetration of larvae to muscle cells and a severe local inflammatory reaction: […] Signs and symptoms of parasitic tissue damage: Periorbital or (rarely) facial edema, petechiae in the conjunctiva and nail beds (in severe cases similar hemorrhages are also found in the brain, lungs, pericardium, and endocardium). […] In patients with severe trichinellosis (massive invasion) death can occur as a result of myocarditis, heart failure, meningitis, or encephalitis.

• #43 Pathology of Trichinellosis (Trichinosis) – Dr Sampurna Roy MD

  http://www.histopathology-india.net/trichinosis.htm

  Trichinellosis, or trichinosis, is a parasitic zoonosis caused by nematodes of the genus Trichinella. […] Humans become infected by eating undercooked or raw meat containing encysted larvae, mainly pork. […] The cysts located in striated muscle, are digested, liberating larvae that mature to adult worms that attach to the wall of the small intestine. […] Female worms there liberate larvae that invade the intestinal wall, enter the circulation, and penetrate striated muscle, where they encyst and remain viable for years. […] On invasion of the muscle the larvae cause inflammation and destruction of muscle fibres. A fibrous hyaline layer develops around a single coiled larva. Histiocytes and giant cells may surround the cyst, which eventually calcifies. […] Larvae in other organs, including the heart and brain, cause edema, necrosis, and focal infiltration of neutrophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes, but they do not encyst.

• #44 Trichinellosis – Helminthiases – Parasitic Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.69.3.

  Depending on severity, invasion may be asymptomatic, subclinical, or associated with mild, moderate, or severe symptoms, including: […] Typical symptoms of trichinellosis, which are caused by penetration of larvae to muscle cells and a severe local inflammatory reaction: […] Signs and symptoms of parasitic tissue damage: Periorbital or (rarely) facial edema, petechiae in the conjunctiva and nail beds (in severe cases similar hemorrhages are also found in the brain, lungs, pericardium, and endocardium). […] In patients with severe trichinellosis (massive invasion) death can occur as a result of myocarditis, heart failure, meningitis, or encephalitis.

• #45 Trichinellosis – Helminthiases – Parasitic Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.69.3.

  Depending on severity, invasion may be asymptomatic, subclinical, or associated with mild, moderate, or severe symptoms, including: […] Typical symptoms of trichinellosis, which are caused by penetration of larvae to muscle cells and a severe local inflammatory reaction: […] Signs and symptoms of parasitic tissue damage: Periorbital or (rarely) facial edema, petechiae in the conjunctiva and nail beds (in severe cases similar hemorrhages are also found in the brain, lungs, pericardium, and endocardium). […] In patients with severe trichinellosis (massive invasion) death can occur as a result of myocarditis, heart failure, meningitis, or encephalitis.

• #46 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  The NC formation process is a complex process and includes the cellular response of the infected muscle and the responses of the NC. […] This explains why CN seems intact and active for years despite intracellular parasitism. […] The main striated muscles where the L1-T. spiralis is implanted are the most active such as the diaphragm, masseters, intercostals, eye muscles, muscles of the tongue, and anterior and posterior extremities. […] The severity of the clinical disease is strongly dependent and directly correlated with the number of L1-T. spiralis ingested, age, sex, invaded tissue, nutritional, hormonal and immune status. […] The clinical pathology of Trichinellosis can be divided based on the phases of the T. spiralis life cycle. […] The Th1 type immune response against T. spiralis is characterized by a significant increase in Th1 cytokines such as IL-12, INF-, IL-1 and TNF-.

• #47 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  The NC formation process is a complex process and includes the cellular response of the infected muscle and the responses of the NC. […] This explains why CN seems intact and active for years despite intracellular parasitism. […] The main striated muscles where the L1-T. spiralis is implanted are the most active such as the diaphragm, masseters, intercostals, eye muscles, muscles of the tongue, and anterior and posterior extremities. […] The severity of the clinical disease is strongly dependent and directly correlated with the number of L1-T. spiralis ingested, age, sex, invaded tissue, nutritional, hormonal and immune status. […] The clinical pathology of Trichinellosis can be divided based on the phases of the T. spiralis life cycle. […] The Th1 type immune response against T. spiralis is characterized by a significant increase in Th1 cytokines such as IL-12, INF-, IL-1 and TNF-.

• #48 Clinical Overview of Trichinellosis | Trichinellosis (Trichinosis) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/trichinellosis/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html

  Trichinellosis is caused by infection with the parasite Trichinella. The severity of disease is related to the infectious dose and host characteristics, such as age of the patient or immunological priming as a result of previous Trichinella infection. […] Some reports have linked severity of disease to the infecting species of Trichinella, suggesting that certain species are more likely to cause severe disease than others. However, the pathogenicity of various species is difficult to define clinically without quantifying infectious dose. […] Digestion releases the parasite larvae from the meat, then larvae penetrate the intestinal mucosa where they mature into adult worms. The adult worms mate and produce new larvae, which migrate via the bloodstream to skeletal muscle throughout the body. The immune response leads to expulsion of the adult worms after several weeks, but the larvae, once in striated muscle cells, can persist for months or years.

• #49 Clinical Overview of Trichinellosis | Trichinellosis (Trichinosis) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/trichinellosis/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html

  Trichinellosis is caused by infection with the parasite Trichinella. The severity of disease is related to the infectious dose and host characteristics, such as age of the patient or immunological priming as a result of previous Trichinella infection. […] Some reports have linked severity of disease to the infecting species of Trichinella, suggesting that certain species are more likely to cause severe disease than others. However, the pathogenicity of various species is difficult to define clinically without quantifying infectious dose. […] Digestion releases the parasite larvae from the meat, then larvae penetrate the intestinal mucosa where they mature into adult worms. The adult worms mate and produce new larvae, which migrate via the bloodstream to skeletal muscle throughout the body. The immune response leads to expulsion of the adult worms after several weeks, but the larvae, once in striated muscle cells, can persist for months or years.

• #50 CDC – DPDx – Trichinellosis

  https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/trichinellosis/index.html

  Trichinellosis (trichinosis) is caused by nematodes (roundworms) of the genus Trichinella. […] Trichinellosis is caused by the ingestion of undercooked meat containing encysted larvae (except for T. pseudospiralis and T. papuae, which do not encyst) of Trichinella species. After exposure to gastric acid and pepsin, the larvae are released from the cysts and invade the small bowel mucosa where they develop into adult worms. […] Diagnosis is usually made based on clinical symptoms, and is confirmed by serology or identification of encysted or non-encysted larvae in biopsy or autopsy specimens. […] The suspicion of trichinellosis (trichinosis), based on history, clinical symptoms, and eosinophilia, can be confirmed by specific diagnostic tests, including antibody detection, muscle biopsy, and microscopy.

• #51 Clinical Overview of Trichinellosis | Trichinellosis (Trichinosis) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/trichinellosis/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html

  In addition to physical damage to affected tissues, larval penetration and tissue migration cause an immune-mediated inflammatory reaction and stimulate the development of eosinophilia. More severe manifestations include myocarditis, encephalitis, and thromboembolic disease. […] Muscle biopsies are infrequently performed, but they allow for the molecular identification of the Trichinella species or genotype, which is not possible with antibody testing. Usually, 0.2 to 0.5 grams of human or animal skeletal muscle tissue is collected and examined for Trichinella larvae via artificial digestion or histological analysis.

• #52 CDC – DPDx – Trichinellosis

  https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/trichinellosis/index.html

  Trichinellosis (trichinosis) is caused by nematodes (roundworms) of the genus Trichinella. […] Trichinellosis is caused by the ingestion of undercooked meat containing encysted larvae (except for T. pseudospiralis and T. papuae, which do not encyst) of Trichinella species. After exposure to gastric acid and pepsin, the larvae are released from the cysts and invade the small bowel mucosa where they develop into adult worms. […] Diagnosis is usually made based on clinical symptoms, and is confirmed by serology or identification of encysted or non-encysted larvae in biopsy or autopsy specimens. […] The suspicion of trichinellosis (trichinosis), based on history, clinical symptoms, and eosinophilia, can be confirmed by specific diagnostic tests, including antibody detection, muscle biopsy, and microscopy.

• #53 Clinical Overview of Trichinellosis | Trichinellosis (Trichinosis) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/trichinellosis/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html

  In addition to physical damage to affected tissues, larval penetration and tissue migration cause an immune-mediated inflammatory reaction and stimulate the development of eosinophilia. More severe manifestations include myocarditis, encephalitis, and thromboembolic disease. […] Muscle biopsies are infrequently performed, but they allow for the molecular identification of the Trichinella species or genotype, which is not possible with antibody testing. Usually, 0.2 to 0.5 grams of human or animal skeletal muscle tissue is collected and examined for Trichinella larvae via artificial digestion or histological analysis.

• #54 Clinical Overview of Trichinellosis | Trichinellosis (Trichinosis) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/trichinellosis/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html

  In addition to physical damage to affected tissues, larval penetration and tissue migration cause an immune-mediated inflammatory reaction and stimulate the development of eosinophilia. More severe manifestations include myocarditis, encephalitis, and thromboembolic disease. […] Muscle biopsies are infrequently performed, but they allow for the molecular identification of the Trichinella species or genotype, which is not possible with antibody testing. Usually, 0.2 to 0.5 grams of human or animal skeletal muscle tissue is collected and examined for Trichinella larvae via artificial digestion or histological analysis.

• #55 Trichinosis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/trichinosis

  The Trichinella life cycle is maintained by animals that are fed (eg, pigs) or eat (eg, bears, foxes, boars) other animals whose striated muscles contain encysted infective larvae (eg, rodents). Humans become infected by eating undercooked meat from infected animals, most commonly pigs, wild boar, or bear. […] Larvae excyst in the small intestine, penetrate the mucosa, and become adults in 6 to 8 days. […] Mature females release living larvae for 4 to 6 weeks and then die or are expelled. Newborn larvae migrate through the bloodstream and lymphatics but ultimately survive only within striated skeletal muscle cells. Larvae fully encyst in 1 to 2 months and remain viable for several years as intracellular parasites. […] Anthelmintics eliminate adult Trichinella worms from the gastrointestinal tract, but once larvae encyst in skeletal muscle, treatment may not eradicate them or any associated symptoms. However, most people with trichinosis recover fully. […] The efficacy of higher doses and prolonged courses in killing encysted larvae is uncertain and adverse effects are more likely.

• #56 Trichinosis Fact Sheet – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/trichinosis/trichinosis.html

  Trichinosis can be treated with safe and effective anti-parasitic drugs that are available by prescription. Treatment decisions should be made as early as possible, in consultation with medical experts. Mild cases can resolve on their own, but severe cases can be fatal without treatment. There is no treatment once the larvae are embedded in muscles.

• #57 Trichinosis: Causes, symptoms, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/trichinosis

  Trichinosis, also known as trichinellosis, is an infection with a parasite called Trichinella. In humans, it starts in the stomach and small intestine. […] After a person ingests the parasites, the larvae enter the small intestine, where they mature and reproduce. The female worms then release larvae that migrate from the small intestine into the circulation to reach the muscles. Once in the muscles, the worms can live for an extended period. […] Treating trichinosis within the first 3 days of infection can prevent muscular invasion and disease progression. […] As Trichinella is a helminth (parasitic worm), a doctor will prescribe an antihelminthic drug, such as albendazole or mebendazole.

• #58 Trichinosis Fact Sheet – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/trichinosis/trichinosis.html

  Trichinosis can be treated with safe and effective anti-parasitic drugs that are available by prescription. Treatment decisions should be made as early as possible, in consultation with medical experts. Mild cases can resolve on their own, but severe cases can be fatal without treatment. There is no treatment once the larvae are embedded in muscles.

• #59 Trichinosis – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/trichinosis/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20378587

  Trichinella larvae travel from the small intestine through your bloodstream to bury themselves inside muscle tissue. […] Anti-parasitic medication is the first line of treatment for trichinosis. If your provider discovers that you have roundworm (trichinella) parasites early, albendazole (Albenza) or mebendazole (Emverm) can kill the worms and larvae in the small intestine. […] If your provider discovers the infection after the larvae bury themselves in muscle tissues, the anti-parasitic drugs may not kill all the parasites. However, your provider might prescribe one if you have brain, heart or lung problems due to larvae causing pain and swelling (inflammation) in these organs. […] Sometimes trichinosis can cause an allergic reaction. This happens when the parasite enters muscle tissue or when dead or dying larvae release chemicals in your muscle tissue. Your provider might prescribe a steroid medication to control pain and swelling.

• #60 Research progress on the immune evasion mechanism in Trichinella spiralis infection

  https://www.jsczz.cn/EN/Y2023/V41/I4/492

  Trichinella spiralis infection can cause zoonotic trichinellosis that seriously endangers human health. […] The immune evasion mechanism, as a common natural selection mechanism, is an adaptation of pathogens to the immune system under natural selection. It enables the pathogens to relieve or alleviate the host’s immune responses, avoid attacking from the immune system, and ensure that they can survive and reproduce. […] Further research of the immune evasion mechanism of Trichinella spiralis is of great significance for the prevention and control of trichinosis, the treatment of human autoimmune diseases, and allergic diseases.

• #61 Research progress on the immune evasion mechanism in Trichinella spiralis infection

  https://www.jsczz.cn/EN/Y2023/V41/I4/492

  Trichinella spiralis infection can cause zoonotic trichinellosis that seriously endangers human health. […] The immune evasion mechanism, as a common natural selection mechanism, is an adaptation of pathogens to the immune system under natural selection. It enables the pathogens to relieve or alleviate the host’s immune responses, avoid attacking from the immune system, and ensure that they can survive and reproduce. […] Further research of the immune evasion mechanism of Trichinella spiralis is of great significance for the prevention and control of trichinosis, the treatment of human autoimmune diseases, and allergic diseases.

• #62 Trichinella spiralis Infection – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538511/

  Ingestion of undercooked or raw meat from domestic or sylvatic animals containing encysted larvae of Trichinella species can lead to Trichinellosis. T. spiralis results from the consumption of inadequately cooked or raw pork from domestic pigs. […] Enteric or gastrointestinal phase: After ingestion of infected meat by humans, the enzymes pepsin and hydrochloric acid act in the stomach and cause the release of the 1st stage of the larvae. These larvae invade the small intestine. Invasion can be asymptomatic or sometimes associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Larvae then turn into adults and mate. Female trichinella worms produce larvae, which completes the gastrointestinal or enteric phase. […] Systemic (parenteral) phase: Larvae enter the lymphatic circulation and then into the blood, reaching skeletal muscles, myocardium, and brain which are high in oxygen content. This phase leads to systemic symptoms like fevers, myositis, myalgias, periorbital edema and can even cause myocarditis and encephalitis. […] The larvae provoke significant eosinophilia, especially in patients who develop cardiac and CNS dysfunction.

• #63 Trichinella spiralis Infection | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/616

  Ingestion of undercooked or raw meat from domestic or sylvatic animals containing encysted larvae of Trichinella species can lead to Trichinellosis. T. spiralis results from the consumption of inadequately cooked or raw pork from domestic pigs. […] After ingestion of infected meat by humans, the enzymes pepsin and hydrochloric acid act in the stomach and cause the release of the 1st stage of the larvae. These larvae invade the small intestine. Invasion can be asymptomatic or sometimes associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Larvae then turn into adults and mate. Female trichinella worms produce larvae, which completes the gastrointestinal or enteric phase. […] Larvae enter the lymphatic circulation and then into the blood, reaching skeletal muscles, myocardium, and brain which are high in oxygen content. This phase leads to systemic symptoms like fevers, myositis, myalgias, periorbital edema and can even cause myocarditis and encephalitis. […] The larvae provoke significant eosinophilia, especially in patients who develop cardiac and CNS dysfunction.

• #64 Trichinella spiralis Infection – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538511/

  Ingestion of undercooked or raw meat from domestic or sylvatic animals containing encysted larvae of Trichinella species can lead to Trichinellosis. T. spiralis results from the consumption of inadequately cooked or raw pork from domestic pigs. […] Enteric or gastrointestinal phase: After ingestion of infected meat by humans, the enzymes pepsin and hydrochloric acid act in the stomach and cause the release of the 1st stage of the larvae. These larvae invade the small intestine. Invasion can be asymptomatic or sometimes associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Larvae then turn into adults and mate. Female trichinella worms produce larvae, which completes the gastrointestinal or enteric phase. […] Systemic (parenteral) phase: Larvae enter the lymphatic circulation and then into the blood, reaching skeletal muscles, myocardium, and brain which are high in oxygen content. This phase leads to systemic symptoms like fevers, myositis, myalgias, periorbital edema and can even cause myocarditis and encephalitis. […] The larvae provoke significant eosinophilia, especially in patients who develop cardiac and CNS dysfunction.

• #65 Trichinella spiralis Infection | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/616

  Ingestion of undercooked or raw meat from domestic or sylvatic animals containing encysted larvae of Trichinella species can lead to Trichinellosis. T. spiralis results from the consumption of inadequately cooked or raw pork from domestic pigs. […] After ingestion of infected meat by humans, the enzymes pepsin and hydrochloric acid act in the stomach and cause the release of the 1st stage of the larvae. These larvae invade the small intestine. Invasion can be asymptomatic or sometimes associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Larvae then turn into adults and mate. Female trichinella worms produce larvae, which completes the gastrointestinal or enteric phase. […] Larvae enter the lymphatic circulation and then into the blood, reaching skeletal muscles, myocardium, and brain which are high in oxygen content. This phase leads to systemic symptoms like fevers, myositis, myalgias, periorbital edema and can even cause myocarditis and encephalitis. […] The larvae provoke significant eosinophilia, especially in patients who develop cardiac and CNS dysfunction.

• #66 A novel Trichinella spiralis serine proteinase disrupted gut epithelial barrier and mediated larval invasion through binding to RACK1 and activating MAPK/ERK1/2 pathway | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0011872

  A novel Trichinella spiralis serine proteinase disrupted gut epithelial barrier and mediated larval invasion through binding to RACK1 and activating MAPK/ERK1/2 pathway. […] The aim of this study was to characterize the interacted proteins of TsSPc and IECs, and to investigate the molecular mechanisms of TsSPc mediating larval invasion of gut mucosa. […] rTsSPc bound to RACK1 receptor in gut epithelium, activated MAPK/ERK1/2 pathway, decreased the expression of gut epithelial TJs proteins and disrupted the epithelial integrity, consequently mediated T. spiralis larval invasion of gut epithelium. […] The results indicated that TsSPc binding to gut epithelial RACK1 receptor activated MAPK/ERK1/2 pathway, decreased expression of gut TJs proteins, and destroyed gut epithelial integrity, thereby mediated T. spiralis larval invasion of gut mucosa. […] The results demonstrated that rTsSPc binding to RACK1 receptor in Caco-2 cells activated ERK1/2 signaling pathway, reduced the expression of TJs proteins and damaged the integrity and barrier function of gut epithelium, consequently mediated the larval invasion of gut mucosa.

• #67 Current Aspects in Trichinellosis | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/63554

  The synthesis and release of IL-4 and IL-13 induce B cell proliferation and the expression of surface antigens, including the CD23 receptor (FcRII) of low affinity to IgE and MHC class II molecules, stimulating the production of IgE. […] Immunotherapy with T. spiralis TS antigen provoked a primary immune response, with a reduction in parasite burden, as well as damage to CN in the muscular phase of the infection. […] Thus, 45-kDa immunodominant antigen has been shown to be the most effective antigen against T. spiralis infection.

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