Tendinopatia
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Tendinopatia jest złożonym schorzeniem ścięgien charakteryzującym się bólem, tkliwością, obrzękiem i upośledzeniem funkcji, wynikającym z interakcji procesów zapalnych i degeneracyjnych. Patogeneza obejmuje trzy etapy: uraz kolagenolityczny, niepowodzenie gojenia oraz objawy kliniczne związane z zaburzeniami macierzy, neowaskularyzacją i nieprawidłową ekspresją cytokin. Histologicznie obserwuje się zmniejszoną liczbę fibroblastów, hiperwaskularyzację, dezorganizację włókien kolagenowych oraz zwiększoną ekspresję mRNA kolagenu typu I i III, proteoglikanów i czynników angiogennych. Mechanizmy zapalne, w tym rola makrofagów i cytokin takich jak IL-33, oraz aktywacja układu odpornościowego i neurogennego, odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie. Hipoksja i aktywacja czynnika indukowanego hipoksją-1 (HIF-1) prowadzą do patologicznej neowaskularyzacji, która mimo obecności nowych naczyń nie zapewnia odpowiedniej perfuzji, co utrudnia regenerację ścięgna. Czynniki ryzyka obejmują wiek, metaboliczne i naczyniowe schorzenia (np. cukrzycę, dyslipidemie), przeciążenie mechaniczne oraz czynniki środowiskowe i genetyczne.

Patogeneza tendinopatii

Tendinopatia (pol. Tendinopatia) jest powszechnym problemem klinicznym, który niesie za sobą znaczne obciążenie chorobowe, nie tylko w kontekście kosztów opieki zdrowotnej, ale również bezpośrednio dla pacjentów w postaci utraty czasu pracy i negatywnego wpływu na jakość życia12. Charakteryzuje się bólem podczas aktywności, tkliwością w trakcie palpacji, obrzękiem i upośledzeniem funkcji3. Pomimo intensywnych badań, patogeneza tendinopatii pozostaje złożona i nie w pełni wyjaśniona.

Rola czynników zapalnych i degeneracyjnych

Przez wiele lat toczyła się debata dotycząca roli zapalenia w patogenezie tendinopatii. Historycznie termin „tendinitis” (zapalenie ścięgna) ustąpił miejsca określeniu „tendinopatia”, co odzwierciedlało sceptycyzm dotyczący roli zapalenia w degeneracji ścięgna4. Obecnie jednak coraz więcej dowodów wskazuje, że zarówno procesy zapalne, jak i zmiany degeneracyjne współistnieją w przebiegu chorób ścięgien, a ich względne udziały są trudne do rozdzielenia56.

Badania wykazały zwiększoną liczbę makrofagów w chorych ścięgnach, co potwierdza rolę zapalenia w patogenezie tendinopatii7. Makrofagi odgrywają kluczową rolę w koordynowaniu stanu zapalnego i naprawy tkanek8. Coraz więcej dowodów pokazuje, że mechanizmy zapalne i wrodzony układ odpornościowy są aktywowane w mikrośrodowisku macierzy ścięgna podczas uszkodzenia tkanki i zaburzonej homeostazy9.

Model trzystopniowego procesu

Jednym z proponowanych modeli patogenezy tendinopatii jest „teoria niepowodzącej się naprawy”, która opisuje proces w trzech etapach: uraz, niepowodzenie procesu gojenia i objawy kliniczne10:

  1. Etap urazu – obejmuje progresywne uszkodzenie kolagenolityczne ścięgna
  2. Etap niepowodzenia gojenia – odnosi się do przedłużonej aktywacji i nierozwiązanego normalnego procesu gojenia
  3. Etap objawów klinicznych – zaburzenia macierzy, zwiększona miejscowa waskularyzacja i nieprawidłowe profile cytokin przyczyniają się do klinicznych objawów przewlekłego bólu ścięgna lub jego zerwania11

Interakcje między urazami ścięgna a niekorzystnym środowiskiem mechanicznym są punktem wyjścia procesu patologicznego. Normalne procesy gojenia są przekierowane na nieprawidłową ścieżkę, prawdopodobnie ze względu na niekorzystne środowisko mechaniczne, zaburzenia lokalnych odpowiedzi zapalnych, stres oksydacyjny lub wpływy farmakologiczne12.

Odpowiedź na obciążenie mechaniczne

Ścięgna są zaprojektowane do wytrzymywania znacznych obciążeń. Mechaniczne obciążenie tkanki ścięgna powoduje regulację w górę ekspresji kolagenu i zwiększoną syntezę białka kolagenowego, której zakres jest prawdopodobnie regulowany przez odkształcenie doświadczane przez rezydujące fibroblasty (tenocyty)13.

Badania wykazały, że przeciążenie ścięgna jest związane ze zmianami kształtu komórek, a także zwiększonymi markerami stanu zapalnego i degradacji macierzy14. Można więc zakładać, że interakcje między ścięgnem, macierzą międzypęczkową i sąsiadującymi poduszkami tłuszczowymi mają kluczowe znaczenie w rozwoju tendinopatii15.

Patogeneza tendinopatii może być przyspieszona przez przeciążenie16. Nadmierne obciążenie ścięgna może zaostrzać te stany, prowadząc do postępującej degeneracji17.

Zmiany strukturalne i komórkowe

Na poziomie histologicznym, tendinopatia charakteryzuje się kilkoma istotnymi zmianami:

  • Zmniejszoną liczbą i zaokrągleniem fibroblastów
  • Zwiększoną zawartością proteoglikanów, glikozaminoglikanów i wody
  • Hiperwaskularyzacją (nadmiernym unaczynieniem)
  • Dezorganizacją włókien kolagenowych18

Na poziomie molekularnym zwiększone są poziomy mRNA dla kolagenu typu I i III, proteoglikanów, czynników angiogennych, białek stresu i regeneracji oraz enzymów proteolitycznych19.

Tendinopatia wiąże się z neowaskularyzacją, ale nowo utworzone naczynia krwionośne (i nerwy) zanikają podczas gojenia20. Istotnie, badania pokazują, że tendinopatia wywołana obciążeniem u ludzi wiąże się ze zwiększeniem stosunku białek kolagenu III:I, przesunięciem od włókien kolagenowych o dużej średnicy do małej, pofałdowaniem pęczków kolagenowych w macierzy pozakomórkowej ścięgna oraz pofałdowaniem komórek tenocytów i ich jąder21.

Mechanizmy odpowiedzi neuronalnej

Odpowiedź neuronalna na uraz ścięgna obejmuje wrastanie nerwów podczas początkowej fazy zapalnej; kolejne fazy proliferacji i przebudowy są regulowane przez nerwy czuciowe, a także układy glutaminergiczne i autonomiczne22.

Wykazano, że glutaminian wywołuje ból i hiperalgezję, gdy jest wstrzykiwany wokół tkanki ścięgna u ludzi23. Badania histologiczne i immunohistochemiczne wykazały, że wzrost barwienia glutaminianu występuje w bolesnych ścięgnach rotatorów objętych tendinopatią wraz z klasycznymi zmianami histologicznymi, które obejmowały zwiększoną dezorganizację kolagenu i komórkowość24.

Przewlekły ból ścięgna charakteryzuje się nadmiernym rozrostem nerwów z wrastaniem do właściwego ścięgna, co odpowiada zmianom obserwowanym również w innych tkankach łącznych w przewlekłych stanach bólowych2526. Bolesne ścięgna wykazują podwyższoną ilość neuromediatorów bólu, takich jak glutaminian i substancja P, a także zwiększoną ekspresję i pobudliwość receptorów bólu, takich jak receptor glutaminianu NMDAR1 i receptor SP NK1, znajdujących się na wrastających nerwach i komórkach immunologicznych27.

Czynniki ryzyka tendinopatii

Czynniki ryzyka tendinopatii są kategoryzowane jako wewnętrzne (wiek, płeć, genetyka, waga, stan zdrowia) lub zewnętrzne (powtarzalne obciążenia, leki, czynniki socjoekonomiczne)28. Wśród nich, starzenie się i nadmierne użycie mięśni są znaczącymi czynnikami przyczyniającymi się do rozwoju tendinopatii29.

Zwiększony wiek jest kluczowym czynnikiem ryzyka rozwoju tendinopatii, podczas gdy zarówno czynniki ryzyka metaboliczne, jak i naczyniowe są związane z rozwojem tendinopatii30. Niedawne systematyczne przeglądy wyraźnie wykazały, że pacjenci z wysokim poziomem cholesterolu i cukrzycą są narażeni na znacznie wyższe ryzyko rozwoju tendinopatii31.

Ponadto, czynniki takie jak otyłość, wcześniejsze i istniejące schorzenia (np. cukrzyca, dyslipidemie) mogą predysponować osoby do tendinopatii poprzez wpływ na strukturę i funkcję ścięgien32. Warunki środowiskowe (np. temperatura, powierzchnia) i błędy treningowe (np. sprzęt o niskiej jakości, obuwie) również mogą przyczyniać się do ryzyka rozwoju tendinopatii33.

Mechanizmy molekularne w tendinopatii

Rola cytokin i układu odpornościowego

Badania mechanistyczne wykazały rolę cytokiny IL-33, członka rodziny cytokin IL-1, która odgrywa główną rolę w wrodzonych i nabytych odpowiedziach immunologicznych, w interakcji macierzy/stanu zapalnego w uszkodzeniu ścięgna34. Wykazano, że ekspresja IL-33 jest podwyższona w biopsjach ludzkiej tendinopatii, podczas gdy rhIL-33 promuje uwalnianie cytokin prozapalnych i znacząco przesuwa produkcję macierzy w kierunku fenotypu kolagenu III35.

W badaniach eksperymentalnych z urazem ścięgna u ludzi zaobserwowano nieproporcjonalną ekspresję niektórych cytokin i metaloproteinaz macierzy (MMP), prostaglandyny E2 (PGE2), interleukiny-6 (IL-6) i interleukiny-1b (IL-1b)36.

Coraz więcej dowodów wskazuje, że komórki tuczne służą jako ważne ogniwo między obwodowym układem nerwowym a układami immunologicznymi, co prowadzi do tak zwanego zapalenia neurogennego37.

Mechanizmy hipoksji i neowaskularyzacji

Badania mikrodializy wykazały wysokie poziomy mleczanu w obrębie tendinozy, nawet w ścięgnach spoczynkowych, co sugeruje, że hipoksja utrzymuje się w tendinopatii. Obecność martwiczych tenocytów, zablokowanych tętnic i enzymów beztlenowych w obrębie zmian tendinopatycznych dodatkowo wspiera rolę hipoksji w etiopatogenezie38.

Podstawowym mechanizmem przetrwania każdej komórki w warunkach hipoksji jest aktywacja czynnika indukowanego hipoksją-1 (HIF-1), czynnika transkrypcyjnego, który włącza ekspresję szeregu genów kodujących angiogenne czynniki wzrostu. Charakterystycznymi cechami zarówno ścięgien z tendinopatią, jak i ścięgien zerwanych są podwyższona ekspresja HIF-1 i jego genów docelowych, proangiogennych czynników wzrostu, takich jak czynnik wzrostu śródbłonka naczyniowego oraz obfita neowaskularyzacja39.

Badania wieloomiczne na dwóch różnych kohortach ludzkich chorych ścięgien zidentyfikowały wzbogacenie szlaku sygnałowego hipoksji, czynnika indukowanego hipoksją 1 (HIF1) i jego szlaków dalszego działania, takich jak glikoliza i angiogeneza w grupie chorych, podczas gdy fosforylacja oksydacyjna była zahamowana40.

Genetyczna delecja HIF1 w tenocytach zapobiegała nieprawidłowej przebudowie ścięgna w warunkach przewlekłego przeciążenia, co identyfikuje sygnalizację HIF1 jako główny czynnik napędzający tendinopatię poprzez nieprawidłową odpowiedź ścięgna na przewlekłe przeciążenie mechaniczne41.

Rola komórkowa i mechanizmy apoptozy

Tenocyt jest przede wszystkim odpowiedzialny za utrzymanie macierzy pozakomórkowej w odpowiedzi na swoje środowisko42. Normalna tkanka ścięgna reaguje na obciążenie zarówno syntezą, jak i degradacją macierzy; jednak szybkość obrotu różni się w zależności od białka43.

Niezależnie od inicjującego zdarzenia (nadmierna stymulacja rezydującego tenocytu, przerwanie/rozdarcie kolagenu, stan zapalny), tendinopatia charakteryzuje się znaczącą odpowiedzią komórkową na uraz44.

Regulacja w górę białek, takich jak białko interakcji z limfocytem B 3 (BNIP3), zaangażowane w szlaki pro-apoptotyczne, które promują uszkodzenie oksydacyjne, może odgrywać rolę w promowaniu tendinopatii45.

Ścięgna zawierające tendinopatię wykazują (1) przedłużone wrastanie nerwów czuciowych, (2) podwyższone poziomy mediatorów bólu i (3) zwiększoną ekspresję i pobudliwość receptorów bólu, uczestnicząc w (4) szlakach neuro-immunologicznych zaangażowanych w regulację bólu46.

Zmiany w procesie różnicowania komórkowego

Nadmierne obciążenie mechaniczne zostało zaproponowane jako czynnik powodujący nieprawidłowe różnicowanie komórek macierzystych ścięgna (TSC) w komórki inne niż ścięgnowe47.

W tendinopatii zaangażowane są następujące procesy komórkowe: apoptoza komórek, dezorganizacja macierzy i neowaskularyzacja48. Klasyczne cechy „tendinozy” obejmują zmiany degeneracyjne w macierzy kolagenowej, hiperkomórkowość, hiperwaskularyzację i brak komórek zapalnych, co podważyło pierwotny termin „tendinitis”49.

Badanie ścięgien łokciowych tenisisty ujawnia tkankę niezapalną, dlatego używa się również terminu „tendinoza angiofiboblastyczna”50. Hodowle z ścięgien z tendinopatią zawierają zwiększoną produkcję kolagenu typu III51.

Implikacje kliniczne i terapeutyczne

Rozpoznanie i diagnostyka

Zaawansowane techniki obrazowania, takie jak ultrasonografia i MRI, są niezbędne do diagnozowania zaburzeń związanych ze ścięgnem52. Te modele są kluczowe dla badania molekularnych i komórkowych mechanizmów leżących u podstaw zwyrodnieniowych stanów ścięgien i dla opracowania bardziej skutecznych terapii53.

Badania wykazały, że zdrowe ścięgna przedstawiały średnią różnicę temperatury wynoszącą 0,24 ± 0,15°C między nogami z maksymalną różnicą 0,4°C. Z drugiej strony, jednostronna tendinopatia przedstawiała średnią różnicę temperatury wynoszącą 1,2 ± 0,9°C, jednak ta różnica mogła być tak duża jak 5,1°C54.

Podejście terapeutyczne

Medycyna regeneracyjna wykazała obiecujące wyniki w terapeutykach, w tym produkty pochodzące z krwi, takie jak osocze bogatopłytkowe (PRP) i produkty oparte na komórkach, takie jak komórki macierzyste (SC) i frakcja naczyniowo-zrębowa (SVF)55. Te produkty wykazały mierzalne poprawy w gojeniu tkanek, co czyni je obiecującymi celami terapeutycznymi dla tendinopatii56.

Program treningu ekscentrycznego został uznany za potencjalnie leczniczy dla tendinopatii Achillesa i zapalenia ścięgna rzepki57. Pierwotna profilaktyka tendinopatii obejmuje odpowiednią ergonomię i wprowadzanie reżimów ćwiczeń, które poprawiają siłę i koordynację jednostek mięśniowo-ścięgnowych, które mogą być predysponowane do tendinopatii związanej z nadmiernym użyciem58.

Potencjalne podejścia do leczenia farmakologicznego oparte na mechanizmach mogłyby być opracowane poprzez blokowanie promotorów wrastania nerwów, takich jak NGF, i promowanie inhibitorów wrastania nerwów, jak semaphoriny, a także blokowanie szlaków receptora glutaminianu-NMDA, które są wyraźne w przewlekłym bólu ścięgna59.

Wyzwania i przyszłe kierunki badań

Pomimo postępów w diagnozowaniu tendinopatii i zrozumieniu jej molekularnych i komórkowych podstaw, nadal istnieje znaczna luka w skutecznych, uniwersalnie skutecznych metodach leczenia60.

Patogeneza tendinopatii jest z pewnością wieloczynnikowa i złożona61. Zasadniczo lepsze zrozumienie patogenezy tendinopatii i podstawowych mechanizmów jest niezbędne, jeśli mamy opracować bardziej skuteczne długoterminowe strategie leczenia tendinopatii62.

Biorąc pod uwagę, że regeneracja tkanek wymaga wystarczającej podaży tlenu i składników odżywczych, istnienie neowaskularyzacji w tendinopatii należy interpretować jako oznakę zarówno utrzymującej się hipoksji, jak i nieudanej próby naprawy tkanki63.

Nowy przedstawiony model proponuje kluczową rolę hipoksji w etiopatogenezie tendinopatii. Ścięgna reagują na hipoksję, wydzielając angiogenne czynniki wzrostu, aby indukować wzrost nowych naczyń. Niestety, te nowe naczynia są z natury niefunkcjonalne, nie dostarczając tlenu i składników odżywczych wymaganych do odwrócenia przeważającej hipoksji. Stabilizacja nowych naczyń mogłaby oferować kuszące przyszłe podejście terapeutyczne do leczenia tendinopatii64.

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    Tendinopathy is a common clinical problem and has a significant disease burden attached, not only in terms of health care costs, but also for patients directly in terms of time off work and impact upon quality of life. […] Controversy surrounds the pathogenesis of tendinopathy, however the recent systematic analysis of the evidence has demonstrated that many of the claims of an absence of inflammation in tendinopathy were more based around belief than robust scientific data. […] The pathogenesis of tendinopathy is certainly multifactorial and complex. […] Increased age is a key risk factor for the development of tendinopathy, […] while both metabolic and vascular risk factors are associated with the development of tendinopathy. […] Recent systematic reviews have clearly demonstrated that patients with high cholesterol and diabetes are at significantly higher risk of developing tendinopathy,
  • #2 Review: emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/143177/
    Tendinopathy is a common clinical problem and has a significant disease burden attached, not only in terms of health care costs, but also for patients directly in terms of time off work and impact upon quality of life. […] Controversy surrounds the pathogenesis of tendinopathy, however the recent systematic analysis of the evidence has demonstrated that many of the claims of an absence of inflammation in tendinopathy were more based around belief than robust scientific data. […] This review is a summary of the emerging research in this topical area, with a particular focus on the role of neuronal regulation and inflammation in tendinopathy.
  • #3 The pathogenesis of tendinopathy: balancing the response to loading | Nature Reviews Rheumatology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrrheum.2010.43
    Tendons are designed to withstand considerable loads. Mechanical loading of tendon tissue results in upregulation of collagen expression and increased synthesis of collagen protein, the extent of which is probably regulated by the strain experienced by the resident fibroblasts (tenocytes). […] Tendinopathy is characterized by pain during activity, localized tenderness upon palpation, swelling and impaired performance. […] Tendon histological changes include reduced numbers and rounding of fibroblasts, increased content of proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans and water, hypervascularization and disorganized collagen fibrils. […] At the molecular level, the levels of messenger RNA for type I and III collagens, proteoglycans, angiogenic factors, stress and regenerative proteins and proteolytic enzymes are increased.
  • #4 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    This study has also shown significant staining of certain ionotropic and metabotropic receptors on tendon cells residing in damaged rotator cuff tissue, for example NMDAR1 and mGluR1. […] This work demonstrated an association between glutaminergic and pro-inflammatory changes in tendon cells and pain. […] The dwindling of popularity of the term tendinitis represented skepticism regarding the role of inflammation in tendon degeneration. […] Several studies have stated that no inflammatory cells were present in samples from tendinopathic patients but had only looked for neutrophils, not other types of inflammatory cell. […] In fact the evidence to support the role of inflammation in tendinopathy pathogenesis has become increasingly overwhelming in recent years with a majority of studies demonstrating increased numbers of macrophages in diseased tendons.
  • #5 Pathogenesis of tendinopathies: inflammation or degeneration?
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2714139/
    The intrinsic pathogenetic mechanisms of tendinopathies are largely unknown and whether inflammation or degeneration has the prominent role is still a matter of debate. […] It is conceivable that inflammation and degeneration are not mutually exclusive, but work together in the pathogenesis of tendinopathies. […] As will be clear in this review, we favor the hypothesis that inflammation and degenerative changes often coexist in the course of tendon disorders, and their relative contributions are difficult to dissect. […] Inflammatory and degenerative changes are not found in isolation in histopathological assessments of TP, and very often coexist in adjacent areas of pathological samples. […] The clinical relevance of these intratendinous degenerative changes is largely unknown: hypoxic degenerative TP, mucoid degeneration, tendolipomatosis, and calcifying TP, either alone or in combination, can be seen in a high percentage of the urban population of healthy, asymptomatic individuals who are at least 35 years old.
  • #6 Pathogenesis of tendinopathies: inflammation or degeneration? | Arthritis Research & Therapy | Full Text
    https://arthritis-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/ar2723
    The intrinsic pathogenetic mechanisms of tendinopathies are largely unknown and whether inflammation or degeneration has the prominent role is still a matter of debate. […] It is conceivable that inflammation and degeneration are not mutually exclusive, but work together in the pathogenesis of tendinopathies. […] As will be clear in this review, we favor the hypothesis that inflammation and degenerative changes often coexist in the course of tendon disorders, and their relative contributions are difficult to dissect. […] Inflammatory and degenerative changes are not found in isolation in histopathological assessments of TP, and very often coexist in adjacent areas of pathological samples. […] The clinical scenario is quite uniform for all TPs. […] These observations in human TPs further support the entangled roles of inflammation and subsequent degeneration within tendons, which are substantiated by biochemical changes revealed by microdialysis studies. […] In conclusion, it is conceivable that inflammation and degeneration are not mutually exclusive, but work together in the pathogenetic cascade of TPs.
  • #7 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    This study has also shown significant staining of certain ionotropic and metabotropic receptors on tendon cells residing in damaged rotator cuff tissue, for example NMDAR1 and mGluR1. […] This work demonstrated an association between glutaminergic and pro-inflammatory changes in tendon cells and pain. […] The dwindling of popularity of the term tendinitis represented skepticism regarding the role of inflammation in tendon degeneration. […] Several studies have stated that no inflammatory cells were present in samples from tendinopathic patients but had only looked for neutrophils, not other types of inflammatory cell. […] In fact the evidence to support the role of inflammation in tendinopathy pathogenesis has become increasingly overwhelming in recent years with a majority of studies demonstrating increased numbers of macrophages in diseased tendons.
  • #8 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    Macrophages are known to play an essential role orchestrating inflammation and tissue repair. […] Increasing evidence has shown that inflammatory mechanisms and the innate immune system are activated within the tendon matrix microenvironment during tissue injury and dysregulated homeostasis. […] Recent mechanistic dissection has highlighted a role for the cytokine IL-33, a member of the IL-1 cytokine family that plays a major role in innate and acquired immune responses, in matrix/inflammatory crosstalk in tendon damage. […] Collectively these data suggest that the reintroduction of miR-29a to the injury-induced miR-29a deficiency in tendon could reverse the key collagen switch that remains a core pathological feature of tendinopathy. […] Fundamentally a better understanding of the pathogenesis of tendinopathy and the underlying mechanisms is essential if we are to develop more effective long term treatment strategies for the management of tendinopathy.
  • #9 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    Macrophages are known to play an essential role orchestrating inflammation and tissue repair. […] Increasing evidence has shown that inflammatory mechanisms and the innate immune system are activated within the tendon matrix microenvironment during tissue injury and dysregulated homeostasis. […] Recent mechanistic dissection has highlighted a role for the cytokine IL-33, a member of the IL-1 cytokine family that plays a major role in innate and acquired immune responses, in matrix/inflammatory crosstalk in tendon damage. […] Collectively these data suggest that the reintroduction of miR-29a to the injury-induced miR-29a deficiency in tendon could reverse the key collagen switch that remains a core pathological feature of tendinopathy. […] Fundamentally a better understanding of the pathogenesis of tendinopathy and the underlying mechanisms is essential if we are to develop more effective long term treatment strategies for the management of tendinopathy.
  • #10 Deciphering the pathogenesis of tendinopathy: a three-stages process | BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation | Full Text
    https://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1758-2555-2-30
    Our understanding of the pathogenesis of „tendinopathy” is based on fragmented evidences like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. […] We propose a „failed healing theory” to knit these fragments together, which can explain previous observations. […] The pathogenesis of tendinopathy can be described as a three stage process: injury, failed healing and clinical presentation. […] The injury stage involves a progressive collagenolytic tendon injury. […] The failed healing stage mainly refers to prolonged activation and failed resolution of the normal healing process. […] Finally, the matrix disturbances, increased focal vascularity and abnormal cytokine profiles contribute to the clinical presentations of chronic tendon pain or rupture. […] The interactions of tendon injuries and unfavorable mechanical environment would be the starting point of the pathological process.
  • #11 Deciphering the pathogenesis of tendinopathy: a three-stages process | BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation | Full Text
    https://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1758-2555-2-30
    Our understanding of the pathogenesis of „tendinopathy” is based on fragmented evidences like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. […] We propose a „failed healing theory” to knit these fragments together, which can explain previous observations. […] The pathogenesis of tendinopathy can be described as a three stage process: injury, failed healing and clinical presentation. […] The injury stage involves a progressive collagenolytic tendon injury. […] The failed healing stage mainly refers to prolonged activation and failed resolution of the normal healing process. […] Finally, the matrix disturbances, increased focal vascularity and abnormal cytokine profiles contribute to the clinical presentations of chronic tendon pain or rupture. […] The interactions of tendon injuries and unfavorable mechanical environment would be the starting point of the pathological process.
  • #12 Deciphering the pathogenesis of tendinopathy: a three-stages process | BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation | Full Text
    https://bmcsportsscimedrehabil.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1758-2555-2-30
    The normal healing processes are diverted to an abnormal pathway, probably due to unfavorable mechanical environment, disturbances of local inflammatory responses, oxidative stress or pharmacological influences. […] The primary results of pathology are the progressive collagenolytic injuries co-existing with a failed healing response, thus both degenerative changes and active healing are observed in the pathological tissues. […] Based on these points, we propose that the pathogenesis of tendinopathy can be perceived as a 3-stages process: injury, failed healing and clinical presentation. […] The second stage is relatively insidious and discriminated from the third stage when clinical presentations are evident, such as ruptures or chronic pain, often resistant to conservative treatments. […] The consequences of failed healing to collagenolytic injuries involve significant changes in extracellular matrix, which are then visible under ultrasound or MRI. […] The insidious deterioration in mechanical properties of the affected tendons may lead to ruptures.
  • #13 The pathogenesis of tendinopathy: balancing the response to loading | Nature Reviews Rheumatology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrrheum.2010.43
    Tendons are designed to withstand considerable loads. Mechanical loading of tendon tissue results in upregulation of collagen expression and increased synthesis of collagen protein, the extent of which is probably regulated by the strain experienced by the resident fibroblasts (tenocytes). […] Tendinopathy is characterized by pain during activity, localized tenderness upon palpation, swelling and impaired performance. […] Tendon histological changes include reduced numbers and rounding of fibroblasts, increased content of proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans and water, hypervascularization and disorganized collagen fibrils. […] At the molecular level, the levels of messenger RNA for type I and III collagens, proteoglycans, angiogenic factors, stress and regenerative proteins and proteolytic enzymes are increased.
  • #14 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    while recent review has demonstrated that an association exists between the metabolic-hormonal imbalances and tendon degeneration. […] This emerging link between metabolic dysregulation and chronic inflammation in tendinopathy has also been supported by a recent study using Achilles tendon biopsies from a group of patients. […] The historical context relating to the rotator cuff provides an interesting insight into the frequent debates and changing viewpoints as regards tendinopathy pathogenesis. […] Certainly not all tendinopathies are identical, as represented by differences in both the tendon’s local anatomy and epidemiological profile. […] Recent evidence has shown that tendon overload is linked to alterations in cell shape, as well as increased markers of inflammation and matrix degradation.
  • #15 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    It may be therefore be postulated that interactions between the tendon, the interfascicular matrix and adjacent fat pads are instrumental in the development of tendinopathy, with the latter being a key potential source of key cytokines and inflammatory cells. […] This may help explain the presence of persistent inflammation in tendinopathy, […] a phenomenon which has been shown to have important effects on tendon cells in vitro. […] The neuronal response to tendon injury involves nerve in growth during the initial inflammatory phase; the subsequent proliferative and remodelling phases are regulated by sensory nerves, as well as the glutaminergic and autonomic systems. […] Glutamate has been shown to induce pain and hyperalgesia when injected around human tendon tissue. […] This histological and immunohistochemical study demonstrated that an increase in glutamate staining was present in the painful tendinopathic rotator cuff tendons alongside the classical histological changes which included increased collagen disorganization and cellularity.
  • #16 The pathogenesis of tendinopathy: balancing the response to loading | Nature Reviews Rheumatology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrrheum.2010.43
    Tendon microrupture and material fatigue have been suggested as possible injury mechanisms, thus implying that one or more 'weak links’ are present in the structure. Understanding how tendon tissue adapts to mechanical loading will help to unravel the pathogenesis of tendinopathy. […] Tendinopathy is associated with neovascularization, but newly formed blood vessels (and nerves) disappear during healing. […] The pathogenesis of tendinopathy can be accelerated by overloading.
  • #17 Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Degenerative Tendinopathy: Evaluating Efficacy and Challenges
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/21/11846
    Degenerative tendinopathy results from the accumulation of minor injuries following unsuccessful tendon repair during acute tendon injuries. […] The process of tendon repair is prolonged and varies between individuals, making it susceptible to reinjury. […] Tendon overloading can exacerbate these conditions, leading to progressive degeneration. […] Excessive loading is a major cause of tendon injury due to the tendon’s slow metabolism, which enables it to endure high stress but also slows healing. […] Advanced imaging techniques, such as ultrasound and MRI, are vital for diagnosing tendon-related disorders. […] These models are crucial for investigating the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying degenerative tendon conditions and for developing more effective therapies. […] Risk factors for tendinopathy are categorized as intrinsic (age, gender, genetics, weight, health conditions) or extrinsic (repetitive loading, medications, socioeconomic factors).
  • #18 The pathogenesis of tendinopathy: balancing the response to loading | Nature Reviews Rheumatology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrrheum.2010.43
    Tendons are designed to withstand considerable loads. Mechanical loading of tendon tissue results in upregulation of collagen expression and increased synthesis of collagen protein, the extent of which is probably regulated by the strain experienced by the resident fibroblasts (tenocytes). […] Tendinopathy is characterized by pain during activity, localized tenderness upon palpation, swelling and impaired performance. […] Tendon histological changes include reduced numbers and rounding of fibroblasts, increased content of proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans and water, hypervascularization and disorganized collagen fibrils. […] At the molecular level, the levels of messenger RNA for type I and III collagens, proteoglycans, angiogenic factors, stress and regenerative proteins and proteolytic enzymes are increased.
  • #19 The pathogenesis of tendinopathy: balancing the response to loading | Nature Reviews Rheumatology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrrheum.2010.43
    Tendons are designed to withstand considerable loads. Mechanical loading of tendon tissue results in upregulation of collagen expression and increased synthesis of collagen protein, the extent of which is probably regulated by the strain experienced by the resident fibroblasts (tenocytes). […] Tendinopathy is characterized by pain during activity, localized tenderness upon palpation, swelling and impaired performance. […] Tendon histological changes include reduced numbers and rounding of fibroblasts, increased content of proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans and water, hypervascularization and disorganized collagen fibrils. […] At the molecular level, the levels of messenger RNA for type I and III collagens, proteoglycans, angiogenic factors, stress and regenerative proteins and proteolytic enzymes are increased.
  • #20 The pathogenesis of tendinopathy: balancing the response to loading | Nature Reviews Rheumatology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrrheum.2010.43
    Tendon microrupture and material fatigue have been suggested as possible injury mechanisms, thus implying that one or more 'weak links’ are present in the structure. Understanding how tendon tissue adapts to mechanical loading will help to unravel the pathogenesis of tendinopathy. […] Tendinopathy is associated with neovascularization, but newly formed blood vessels (and nerves) disappear during healing. […] The pathogenesis of tendinopathy can be accelerated by overloading.
  • #21 Tendinopathy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendinopathy
    Classic characteristics of „tendinosis” include degenerative changes in the collagenous matrix, hypercellularity, hypervascularity, and a lack of inflammatory cells which has challenged the original misnomer „tendinitis”. […] Examination of pathologic tennis elbow tissue reveals noninflammatory tissue, so the term „angiofibroblastic tendinosis” is also used. […] Cultures from tendinopathic tendons contain an increased production of type III collagen. […] Load-induced non-rupture tendinopathy in humans is associated with an increase in the ratio of collagen III:I proteins, a shift from large to small diameter collagen fibrils, buckling of the collagen fascicles in the tendon extracellular matrix, and buckling of the tenocyte cells and their nuclei.
  • #22 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    It may be therefore be postulated that interactions between the tendon, the interfascicular matrix and adjacent fat pads are instrumental in the development of tendinopathy, with the latter being a key potential source of key cytokines and inflammatory cells. […] This may help explain the presence of persistent inflammation in tendinopathy, […] a phenomenon which has been shown to have important effects on tendon cells in vitro. […] The neuronal response to tendon injury involves nerve in growth during the initial inflammatory phase; the subsequent proliferative and remodelling phases are regulated by sensory nerves, as well as the glutaminergic and autonomic systems. […] Glutamate has been shown to induce pain and hyperalgesia when injected around human tendon tissue. […] This histological and immunohistochemical study demonstrated that an increase in glutamate staining was present in the painful tendinopathic rotator cuff tendons alongside the classical histological changes which included increased collagen disorganization and cellularity.
  • #23 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    It may be therefore be postulated that interactions between the tendon, the interfascicular matrix and adjacent fat pads are instrumental in the development of tendinopathy, with the latter being a key potential source of key cytokines and inflammatory cells. […] This may help explain the presence of persistent inflammation in tendinopathy, […] a phenomenon which has been shown to have important effects on tendon cells in vitro. […] The neuronal response to tendon injury involves nerve in growth during the initial inflammatory phase; the subsequent proliferative and remodelling phases are regulated by sensory nerves, as well as the glutaminergic and autonomic systems. […] Glutamate has been shown to induce pain and hyperalgesia when injected around human tendon tissue. […] This histological and immunohistochemical study demonstrated that an increase in glutamate staining was present in the painful tendinopathic rotator cuff tendons alongside the classical histological changes which included increased collagen disorganization and cellularity.
  • #24 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    It may be therefore be postulated that interactions between the tendon, the interfascicular matrix and adjacent fat pads are instrumental in the development of tendinopathy, with the latter being a key potential source of key cytokines and inflammatory cells. […] This may help explain the presence of persistent inflammation in tendinopathy, […] a phenomenon which has been shown to have important effects on tendon cells in vitro. […] The neuronal response to tendon injury involves nerve in growth during the initial inflammatory phase; the subsequent proliferative and remodelling phases are regulated by sensory nerves, as well as the glutaminergic and autonomic systems. […] Glutamate has been shown to induce pain and hyperalgesia when injected around human tendon tissue. […] This histological and immunohistochemical study demonstrated that an increase in glutamate staining was present in the painful tendinopathic rotator cuff tendons alongside the classical histological changes which included increased collagen disorganization and cellularity.
  • #25 Tendon pain – what are the mechanisms behind it?
    https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/sjpain-2022-0018/html?lang=en&srsltid=AfmBOopqfuNTWCQWRv21PHN-BW2xPQlVvJptQWuWpw-qaQ5frSyJ1JvX
    Chronic tendon pain is difficult to manage due to poor knowledge of the underlying pathophysiology of chronic tendon pain, priorly known as tendinitis but now termed tendinopathy. […] The synthesis demonstrated that chronic tendon pain, however, is characterized by excessive nerve sprouting with ingrowth in the tendon proper, which corresponds to alterations observed also in other connective tissues of chronic pain conditions. […] Chronic painful tendons exhibit elevated amounts of pain neuromediators, such as glutamate and substance P as well as up-regulated expression and excitability of pain receptors, such as the glutamate receptor NMDAR1 and the SP receptor NK1, found on ingrown nerves and immune cells. […] Increasing evidence indicates that mast cells serve as an important link between the peripheral nervous system and the immune systems resulting in so-called neurogenic inflammation.
  • #26 Tendon pain – what are the mechanisms behind it?
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/sjpain-2022-0018/html?lang=en
    Chronic tendon pain is difficult and controversial due to poor knowledge of the underlying pathophysiology of chronic tendon pain, priorly known as tendinitis but now termed tendinopathy. […] The synthesis demonstrated that chronic tendon pain, however, is characterized by excessive nerve sprouting with ingrowth in the tendon proper, which corresponds to alterations observed also in other connective tissues of chronic pain conditions. […] Chronic painful tendons exhibit elevated amounts of pain neuromediators, such as glutamate and substance P as well as up-regulated expression and excitability of pain receptors, such as the glutamate receptor NMDAR1 and the SP receptor NK1, found on ingrown nerves and immune cells. […] Increasing evidence indicates that mast cells serve as an important link between the peripheral nervous system and the immune systems resulting in so-called neurogenic inflammation.
  • #27 Tendon pain – what are the mechanisms behind it?
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/sjpain-2022-0018/html?lang=en
    Chronic tendon pain is difficult and controversial due to poor knowledge of the underlying pathophysiology of chronic tendon pain, priorly known as tendinitis but now termed tendinopathy. […] The synthesis demonstrated that chronic tendon pain, however, is characterized by excessive nerve sprouting with ingrowth in the tendon proper, which corresponds to alterations observed also in other connective tissues of chronic pain conditions. […] Chronic painful tendons exhibit elevated amounts of pain neuromediators, such as glutamate and substance P as well as up-regulated expression and excitability of pain receptors, such as the glutamate receptor NMDAR1 and the SP receptor NK1, found on ingrown nerves and immune cells. […] Increasing evidence indicates that mast cells serve as an important link between the peripheral nervous system and the immune systems resulting in so-called neurogenic inflammation.
  • #28 Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Degenerative Tendinopathy: Evaluating Efficacy and Challenges
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/21/11846
    Degenerative tendinopathy results from the accumulation of minor injuries following unsuccessful tendon repair during acute tendon injuries. […] The process of tendon repair is prolonged and varies between individuals, making it susceptible to reinjury. […] Tendon overloading can exacerbate these conditions, leading to progressive degeneration. […] Excessive loading is a major cause of tendon injury due to the tendon’s slow metabolism, which enables it to endure high stress but also slows healing. […] Advanced imaging techniques, such as ultrasound and MRI, are vital for diagnosing tendon-related disorders. […] These models are crucial for investigating the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying degenerative tendon conditions and for developing more effective therapies. […] Risk factors for tendinopathy are categorized as intrinsic (age, gender, genetics, weight, health conditions) or extrinsic (repetitive loading, medications, socioeconomic factors).
  • #29 Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Degenerative Tendinopathy: Evaluating Efficacy and Challenges
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/21/11846
    Among these, aging and muscular overuse are significant contributors to DT. […] Each phase involves specific cellular activities and biochemical pathways essential for effective healing. […] The variability in patient outcomes emphasizes the need for personalized treatment plans in managing degenerative tendinopathy. […] Regenerative medicine has shown promise in therapeutics, including blood-derived products like platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and cell-based products such as stem cells (SCs) and stromal vascular fraction (SVF). […] These products have demonstrated measurable improvements in tissue healing, making them promising therapeutic targets for DT. […] Although much progress has been made in diagnosing DT and understanding its molecular and cellular underpinnings, there remains a significant gap in effective, universally successful treatments.
  • #30 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    Tendinopathy is a common clinical problem and has a significant disease burden attached, not only in terms of health care costs, but also for patients directly in terms of time off work and impact upon quality of life. […] Controversy surrounds the pathogenesis of tendinopathy, however the recent systematic analysis of the evidence has demonstrated that many of the claims of an absence of inflammation in tendinopathy were more based around belief than robust scientific data. […] The pathogenesis of tendinopathy is certainly multifactorial and complex. […] Increased age is a key risk factor for the development of tendinopathy, […] while both metabolic and vascular risk factors are associated with the development of tendinopathy. […] Recent systematic reviews have clearly demonstrated that patients with high cholesterol and diabetes are at significantly higher risk of developing tendinopathy,
  • #31 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    Tendinopathy is a common clinical problem and has a significant disease burden attached, not only in terms of health care costs, but also for patients directly in terms of time off work and impact upon quality of life. […] Controversy surrounds the pathogenesis of tendinopathy, however the recent systematic analysis of the evidence has demonstrated that many of the claims of an absence of inflammation in tendinopathy were more based around belief than robust scientific data. […] The pathogenesis of tendinopathy is certainly multifactorial and complex. […] Increased age is a key risk factor for the development of tendinopathy, […] while both metabolic and vascular risk factors are associated with the development of tendinopathy. […] Recent systematic reviews have clearly demonstrated that patients with high cholesterol and diabetes are at significantly higher risk of developing tendinopathy,
  • #32 Tendinitis, Tendinosis, Tendinopathy: A Guide to Optimising Recovery
    https://espphysio.com/tendinitis-tendinosis-tendinopathy-a-guide-to-optimising-recovery/
    Factors such as age, obesity, previous and pre-existing medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, dyslipidaemias) can predispose individuals to tendinopathy by affecting tendon structure and function. […] Environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, surface) and training errors (e.g., poor-quality equipment, footwear) can also contribute to the risk of developing tendinopathy.
  • #33 Tendinitis, Tendinosis, Tendinopathy: A Guide to Optimising Recovery
    https://espphysio.com/tendinitis-tendinosis-tendinopathy-a-guide-to-optimising-recovery/
    Factors such as age, obesity, previous and pre-existing medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, dyslipidaemias) can predispose individuals to tendinopathy by affecting tendon structure and function. […] Environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, surface) and training errors (e.g., poor-quality equipment, footwear) can also contribute to the risk of developing tendinopathy.
  • #34 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    Macrophages are known to play an essential role orchestrating inflammation and tissue repair. […] Increasing evidence has shown that inflammatory mechanisms and the innate immune system are activated within the tendon matrix microenvironment during tissue injury and dysregulated homeostasis. […] Recent mechanistic dissection has highlighted a role for the cytokine IL-33, a member of the IL-1 cytokine family that plays a major role in innate and acquired immune responses, in matrix/inflammatory crosstalk in tendon damage. […] Collectively these data suggest that the reintroduction of miR-29a to the injury-induced miR-29a deficiency in tendon could reverse the key collagen switch that remains a core pathological feature of tendinopathy. […] Fundamentally a better understanding of the pathogenesis of tendinopathy and the underlying mechanisms is essential if we are to develop more effective long term treatment strategies for the management of tendinopathy.
  • #35 The role of inflammation and cytokines in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy – Enlighten Theses
    https://theses.gla.ac.uk/3431/
    Herein I demonstrate that IL-33 expression is up regulated in human tendinopathic biopsies whilst rhIL-33 promotes proinflammatory cytokine release and significantly shifts matrix production toward a collagen III phenotype. […] Based on these experiments I propose IL-33 as an important and influential alarmin in early tendon injury and tendinopathy, which may be influential in the balance between reparation and degeneration in tendon disease.
  • #36 A Molecular Mechanisms of Regeneration in Chronic Tendinopathy Using Ultrasound-Guided Intratissue Percutaneous Electrolysis (EPI®) – MedCrave online
    https://medcraveonline.com/MOJI/a-molecular-mechanisms-of-regeneration-in-chronic-tendinopathy-using-ultrasound-guided-intratissue-percutaneous-electrolysis-epireg.html
    Aberrant mechanical stimulation induces the production of biological factors, including metalloproteinases, growth factors and prostaglandins, which can all lead to extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling defects. […] Moreover, excessive mechanical loading has been proposed to cause aberrant differentiation of Tendon stem cells (TSCs) into nontendon cells. […] In experimental studies with human tendon injury, there has been a disproportionate expression of certain cytokines and matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), interleukin6 (IL6) and interleukin1b (IL1b). […] A recent experimental study by SnchezIbez JM and cowokers (2014) showed that with the use of EPI technique in patellar tendinopathy increase of antiinflammatory proteins, like peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor gamma (PPAR). […] The EPI technique makes for the activation of molecular and cellular mechanisms of the tendon responsible for phagocytosis and the regeneration of degenerated tissue.
  • #37 Tendon pain – what are the mechanisms behind it?
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/sjpain-2022-0018/html?lang=en
    Chronic tendon pain is difficult and controversial due to poor knowledge of the underlying pathophysiology of chronic tendon pain, priorly known as tendinitis but now termed tendinopathy. […] The synthesis demonstrated that chronic tendon pain, however, is characterized by excessive nerve sprouting with ingrowth in the tendon proper, which corresponds to alterations observed also in other connective tissues of chronic pain conditions. […] Chronic painful tendons exhibit elevated amounts of pain neuromediators, such as glutamate and substance P as well as up-regulated expression and excitability of pain receptors, such as the glutamate receptor NMDAR1 and the SP receptor NK1, found on ingrown nerves and immune cells. […] Increasing evidence indicates that mast cells serve as an important link between the peripheral nervous system and the immune systems resulting in so-called neurogenic inflammation.
  • #38 Neovascularisation in tendinopathy: from eradication to stabilisation? | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/54/1/1
    Tendinopathy is the most common disorder in sports medicine. Multiple hypotheses have been proposed for the aetiopathogenesis, but many aspects still remain elusive. Microdialysis studies have shown high levels of lactate within tendinosis, even at resting tendons, suggesting that hypoxia persists in tendinopathy. The presence of necrotic tenocytes, blocked arteries and anaerobic enzymes within tendinopathy lesions lend further support to the role of hypoxia in the aetiopathogenesis. Finally, tendinosis, the pathognomonic histopathological finding in tendinopathy, is composed of hypoxic, mucoid, hyaline and fibrinoid tissue. These tissue types are known to be hypoxia induced. […] The fundamental survival mechanism of any cell under hypoxia is the activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), a transcription factor that turns on the expression of a large range of genes encoding angiogenic growth factors. Characteristic features of both tendinopathic and ruptured tendons are elevated expression of HIF-1 and its target genes, the proangiogenic growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor and abundant neovascularisation. The neovascularisation has even been proposed as the origin of tendinopathy-related pain, and accordingly, its eradication has been used as a therapy for the condition. Given that tissue regeneration requires sufficient supply of oxygen and nutrients, the existence of neovascularisation in tendinopathy should be interpreted as a sign of both persisting hypoxia and failed tissue repair attempt.
  • #39 Neovascularisation in tendinopathy: from eradication to stabilisation? | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/54/1/1
    Tendinopathy is the most common disorder in sports medicine. Multiple hypotheses have been proposed for the aetiopathogenesis, but many aspects still remain elusive. Microdialysis studies have shown high levels of lactate within tendinosis, even at resting tendons, suggesting that hypoxia persists in tendinopathy. The presence of necrotic tenocytes, blocked arteries and anaerobic enzymes within tendinopathy lesions lend further support to the role of hypoxia in the aetiopathogenesis. Finally, tendinosis, the pathognomonic histopathological finding in tendinopathy, is composed of hypoxic, mucoid, hyaline and fibrinoid tissue. These tissue types are known to be hypoxia induced. […] The fundamental survival mechanism of any cell under hypoxia is the activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), a transcription factor that turns on the expression of a large range of genes encoding angiogenic growth factors. Characteristic features of both tendinopathic and ruptured tendons are elevated expression of HIF-1 and its target genes, the proangiogenic growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor and abundant neovascularisation. The neovascularisation has even been proposed as the origin of tendinopathy-related pain, and accordingly, its eradication has been used as a therapy for the condition. Given that tissue regeneration requires sufficient supply of oxygen and nutrients, the existence of neovascularisation in tendinopathy should be interpreted as a sign of both persisting hypoxia and failed tissue repair attempt.
  • #40 The role of hypoxic-signaling in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy – Research Collection
    https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/handle/20.500.11850/730550
    The role of hypoxic-signaling in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy […] Tendinopathy, the most common tendon disorder, is a complex and multifactorial pathological condition characterized by pain, swelling and reduced function. […] To gain insight into the molecular mechanism underlying tendon pathology, we performed multi-omics analysis on two different cohorts of human diseased tendons. […] Our findings identified enrichment of hypoxia signaling, hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF1) and its downstream pathways, such as glycolysis and angiogenesis in the diseased group, whereas oxidative phosphorylation was suppressed. […] These results led us to hypothesize that during tendinopathy, the activation of hypoxia signaling pathway may result in rewiring of tendon fibroblast metabolism and vascular recruitment into the originally healthy tendon.
  • #41 The role of hypoxic-signaling in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy – Research Collection
    https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/handle/20.500.11850/730550
    However, persistent HIF1 stabilization, driven by tendon overuse and/or overload induces vascular recruitment, catabolic matrix turnover, and pain. […] Notably, genetic deletion of HIF1 in tenocytes prevented abnormal tendon remodeling under chronic overload conditions, identifying HIF1 signaling as a primary driver of tendinopathy through a maladaptive tendon response under chronic mechanical overload. […] Those results suggest that PHD2 modulates hypoxia signaling downstream pathways, but it does not exacerbate the maladaptive response to chronic overload. […] In conclusion, our work identifies HIF1 as a central regulator of tendinopathy and maladaptive tendon in responses to chronic mechanical overload. These findings provide novel insights into tendinopathy pathogenesis and highlight potential therapeutic targets.
  • #42 Revisiting the continuum model of tendon pathology: what is its merit in clinical practice and research? | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/19/1187
    The tenocyte is primarily responsible for maintaining the extracellular matrix in response to its environment. […] The aim of the 2009 continuum model was threefold: (1) to express the varied capability of pathological tendons to recover structure, (2) to discuss the structural factors that limit return to pain-free function and (3) to propose interventions tailored to the stage of pathology. […] While the stages of the continuum are primarily based on structural features, it does not suggest that there is a direct relationship between structure, pain and dysfunction. […] The identity of the nociceptive driver in tendinopathy remains elusive. […] The strong relationship between tendon pain and mechanical load, together with the mechanoresponsiveness of tenocytes and lack of sensory innervation of the deep tendon tissue, may implicate paracrine signalling by the tendon cells as a potential driver of nociception.
  • #43 Revisiting the continuum model of tendon pathology: what is its merit in clinical practice and research? | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/19/1187
    Normal tendon tissue responds to load with both synthesis and degradation of the matrix; however, turnover rates vary depending on the protein. […] It is unclear whether these changes are adaptive or pathological and whether they have a lasting effect on the health of the tendon (in reference to pain). […] Regardless of the initiating event (overstimulation of resident tenocyte, collagen disruption/tearing, inflammation), tendon pathology is characterised by a significant cell response to injury.
  • #44 Revisiting the continuum model of tendon pathology: what is its merit in clinical practice and research? | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/19/1187
    Normal tendon tissue responds to load with both synthesis and degradation of the matrix; however, turnover rates vary depending on the protein. […] It is unclear whether these changes are adaptive or pathological and whether they have a lasting effect on the health of the tendon (in reference to pain). […] Regardless of the initiating event (overstimulation of resident tenocyte, collagen disruption/tearing, inflammation), tendon pathology is characterised by a significant cell response to injury.
  • #45 Tendinopathy | PM&R KnowledgeNow
    https://now.aapmr.org/tendinopathy/
    Persistent tendon pain and dysfunction is related to mechanical loading. […] Overuse with poor or altered mechanics. Contributing factors include an altered healing response, relative ischemia, apoptosis of tenocytes and changes in neuronal homeostasis leading to stimulation of nerve endings and mast cells which alters the tendon matrix. […] Pathologic changes include macrostructural thickening and increased vascularity. Microstructure changes include degeneration and disorganization of collagen fibers, increased cellularity, minimal inflammation, lengthening and decreasing volume of tenocytes, and increased Type III collagen density. […] Upregulation of proteins, such as B-cell lymphoma interacting protein 3(BNIP3), implicated in pro-apoptotic pathways that promote oxidative injury, may play a role in promoting tendinopathy.
  • #46 Tendon pain – what are the mechanisms behind it?
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/sjpain-2022-0018/html?lang=en
    Chronic painful tendons exhibit (1) protracted ingrowth of sensory nerves (2) elevated pain mediator levels and (3) up-regulated expression and excitability of pain receptors, participating in (4) neuro-immune pathways involved in pain regulation. […] Potential mechanism-based pharmacological treatment approaches could be developed by blocking promotors of nerve ingrowth, such as NGF, and promoting inhibitors of nerve ingrowth, like semaphorins, as well as blocking glutamate-NMDA-receptor pathways, which are prominent in chronic tendon pain.
  • #47 A Molecular Mechanisms of Regeneration in Chronic Tendinopathy Using Ultrasound-Guided Intratissue Percutaneous Electrolysis (EPI®) – MedCrave online
    https://medcraveonline.com/MOJI/a-molecular-mechanisms-of-regeneration-in-chronic-tendinopathy-using-ultrasound-guided-intratissue-percutaneous-electrolysis-epireg.html
    Aberrant mechanical stimulation induces the production of biological factors, including metalloproteinases, growth factors and prostaglandins, which can all lead to extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling defects. […] Moreover, excessive mechanical loading has been proposed to cause aberrant differentiation of Tendon stem cells (TSCs) into nontendon cells. […] In experimental studies with human tendon injury, there has been a disproportionate expression of certain cytokines and matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), interleukin6 (IL6) and interleukin1b (IL1b). […] A recent experimental study by SnchezIbez JM and cowokers (2014) showed that with the use of EPI technique in patellar tendinopathy increase of antiinflammatory proteins, like peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor gamma (PPAR). […] The EPI technique makes for the activation of molecular and cellular mechanisms of the tendon responsible for phagocytosis and the regeneration of degenerated tissue.
  • #48 Tendinopathy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendinopathy
    Tendinopathy is a type of tendon disorder that results in pain, swelling, and impaired function. […] As of 2016, the pathophysiology of tendinopathy is poorly understood. While inflammation appears to play a role, the relationships among changes to the structure of tissue, the function of tendons, and pain are not understood and there are several competing models, none of which have been fully validated or falsified. […] Molecular mechanisms involved in inflammation includes release of inflammatory cytokines like IL-1 which reduces the expression of type I collagen mRNA in human tenocytes and causes extracellular matrix degradation in the tendon. […] The most commonly accepted cause for this condition is seen to be an overuse syndrome in combination with intrinsic and extrinsic factors leading to what may be seen as a progressive interference or the failing of the innate healing response. Tendinopathy involves cellular apoptosis, matrix disorganization and neovascularization.
  • #49 Tendinopathy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendinopathy
    Classic characteristics of „tendinosis” include degenerative changes in the collagenous matrix, hypercellularity, hypervascularity, and a lack of inflammatory cells which has challenged the original misnomer „tendinitis”. […] Examination of pathologic tennis elbow tissue reveals noninflammatory tissue, so the term „angiofibroblastic tendinosis” is also used. […] Cultures from tendinopathic tendons contain an increased production of type III collagen. […] Load-induced non-rupture tendinopathy in humans is associated with an increase in the ratio of collagen III:I proteins, a shift from large to small diameter collagen fibrils, buckling of the collagen fascicles in the tendon extracellular matrix, and buckling of the tenocyte cells and their nuclei.
  • #50 Tendinopathy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendinopathy
    Classic characteristics of „tendinosis” include degenerative changes in the collagenous matrix, hypercellularity, hypervascularity, and a lack of inflammatory cells which has challenged the original misnomer „tendinitis”. […] Examination of pathologic tennis elbow tissue reveals noninflammatory tissue, so the term „angiofibroblastic tendinosis” is also used. […] Cultures from tendinopathic tendons contain an increased production of type III collagen. […] Load-induced non-rupture tendinopathy in humans is associated with an increase in the ratio of collagen III:I proteins, a shift from large to small diameter collagen fibrils, buckling of the collagen fascicles in the tendon extracellular matrix, and buckling of the tenocyte cells and their nuclei.
  • #51 Tendinopathy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendinopathy
    Classic characteristics of „tendinosis” include degenerative changes in the collagenous matrix, hypercellularity, hypervascularity, and a lack of inflammatory cells which has challenged the original misnomer „tendinitis”. […] Examination of pathologic tennis elbow tissue reveals noninflammatory tissue, so the term „angiofibroblastic tendinosis” is also used. […] Cultures from tendinopathic tendons contain an increased production of type III collagen. […] Load-induced non-rupture tendinopathy in humans is associated with an increase in the ratio of collagen III:I proteins, a shift from large to small diameter collagen fibrils, buckling of the collagen fascicles in the tendon extracellular matrix, and buckling of the tenocyte cells and their nuclei.
  • #52 Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Degenerative Tendinopathy: Evaluating Efficacy and Challenges
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/21/11846
    Degenerative tendinopathy results from the accumulation of minor injuries following unsuccessful tendon repair during acute tendon injuries. […] The process of tendon repair is prolonged and varies between individuals, making it susceptible to reinjury. […] Tendon overloading can exacerbate these conditions, leading to progressive degeneration. […] Excessive loading is a major cause of tendon injury due to the tendon’s slow metabolism, which enables it to endure high stress but also slows healing. […] Advanced imaging techniques, such as ultrasound and MRI, are vital for diagnosing tendon-related disorders. […] These models are crucial for investigating the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying degenerative tendon conditions and for developing more effective therapies. […] Risk factors for tendinopathy are categorized as intrinsic (age, gender, genetics, weight, health conditions) or extrinsic (repetitive loading, medications, socioeconomic factors).
  • #53 Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Degenerative Tendinopathy: Evaluating Efficacy and Challenges
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/21/11846
    Degenerative tendinopathy results from the accumulation of minor injuries following unsuccessful tendon repair during acute tendon injuries. […] The process of tendon repair is prolonged and varies between individuals, making it susceptible to reinjury. […] Tendon overloading can exacerbate these conditions, leading to progressive degeneration. […] Excessive loading is a major cause of tendon injury due to the tendon’s slow metabolism, which enables it to endure high stress but also slows healing. […] Advanced imaging techniques, such as ultrasound and MRI, are vital for diagnosing tendon-related disorders. […] These models are crucial for investigating the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying degenerative tendon conditions and for developing more effective therapies. […] Risk factors for tendinopathy are categorized as intrinsic (age, gender, genetics, weight, health conditions) or extrinsic (repetitive loading, medications, socioeconomic factors).
  • #54
    https://scispace.com/papers/infrared-thermography-in-the-diagnosis-of-achilles-eg8by9qumg
    It is concluded that infrared thermography can be used safely and non-invasively to aid in the diagnosis of Achilles tendon tendinopathy. […] Tendinopathy is a clinical syndrome resulting from disorientation of AT fibers, and inflammatory signs characteristic of tendinitis or tissue degeneration present in tendinosis can be found. […] The condition can manifest itself through functional changes accompanied by clinical signs such as crackling, tenderness, pain and edema. […] The results demonstrate that healthy tendons presented an average temperature difference of 0.24 0.15 C between legs with a maximal difference of 0.4 C. On the other hand, unilateral tendinopathy presented an average temperature difference of 1.2 0.9 C, however, this difference could be as big as 5.1 C. […] It is concluded that infrared thermography can be used safely and non-invasively to aid in the diagnosis of Achilles tendon tendinopathy.
  • #55 Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Degenerative Tendinopathy: Evaluating Efficacy and Challenges
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/21/11846
    Among these, aging and muscular overuse are significant contributors to DT. […] Each phase involves specific cellular activities and biochemical pathways essential for effective healing. […] The variability in patient outcomes emphasizes the need for personalized treatment plans in managing degenerative tendinopathy. […] Regenerative medicine has shown promise in therapeutics, including blood-derived products like platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and cell-based products such as stem cells (SCs) and stromal vascular fraction (SVF). […] These products have demonstrated measurable improvements in tissue healing, making them promising therapeutic targets for DT. […] Although much progress has been made in diagnosing DT and understanding its molecular and cellular underpinnings, there remains a significant gap in effective, universally successful treatments.
  • #56 Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Degenerative Tendinopathy: Evaluating Efficacy and Challenges
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/21/11846
    Among these, aging and muscular overuse are significant contributors to DT. […] Each phase involves specific cellular activities and biochemical pathways essential for effective healing. […] The variability in patient outcomes emphasizes the need for personalized treatment plans in managing degenerative tendinopathy. […] Regenerative medicine has shown promise in therapeutics, including blood-derived products like platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and cell-based products such as stem cells (SCs) and stromal vascular fraction (SVF). […] These products have demonstrated measurable improvements in tissue healing, making them promising therapeutic targets for DT. […] Although much progress has been made in diagnosing DT and understanding its molecular and cellular underpinnings, there remains a significant gap in effective, universally successful treatments.
  • #57 Tendinopathy | PM&R KnowledgeNow
    https://now.aapmr.org/tendinopathy/
    The subacute or chronic nature of tendinopathy repeats the blunted inflammatory cycle resulting in a thickened and degenerated tendon susceptible to pain or an acute tear. […] Tendinopathy is commonly recognized in the subacute or chronic stage. […] An eccentric strengthening program has been demonstrated as potentially curative for Achilles tendinopathy and patellar tendinitis. […] Primary prevention for tendinopathy includes adequate ergonomics and introducing exercise regimens that improve strength and coordination of muscle tendon units that may be predisposed to overuse-related tendinopathy.
  • #58 Tendinopathy | PM&R KnowledgeNow
    https://now.aapmr.org/tendinopathy/
    The subacute or chronic nature of tendinopathy repeats the blunted inflammatory cycle resulting in a thickened and degenerated tendon susceptible to pain or an acute tear. […] Tendinopathy is commonly recognized in the subacute or chronic stage. […] An eccentric strengthening program has been demonstrated as potentially curative for Achilles tendinopathy and patellar tendinitis. […] Primary prevention for tendinopathy includes adequate ergonomics and introducing exercise regimens that improve strength and coordination of muscle tendon units that may be predisposed to overuse-related tendinopathy.
  • #59 Tendon pain – what are the mechanisms behind it?
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/sjpain-2022-0018/html?lang=en
    Chronic painful tendons exhibit (1) protracted ingrowth of sensory nerves (2) elevated pain mediator levels and (3) up-regulated expression and excitability of pain receptors, participating in (4) neuro-immune pathways involved in pain regulation. […] Potential mechanism-based pharmacological treatment approaches could be developed by blocking promotors of nerve ingrowth, such as NGF, and promoting inhibitors of nerve ingrowth, like semaphorins, as well as blocking glutamate-NMDA-receptor pathways, which are prominent in chronic tendon pain.
  • #60 Advancements in Therapeutic Approaches for Degenerative Tendinopathy: Evaluating Efficacy and Challenges
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/21/11846
    Among these, aging and muscular overuse are significant contributors to DT. […] Each phase involves specific cellular activities and biochemical pathways essential for effective healing. […] The variability in patient outcomes emphasizes the need for personalized treatment plans in managing degenerative tendinopathy. […] Regenerative medicine has shown promise in therapeutics, including blood-derived products like platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and cell-based products such as stem cells (SCs) and stromal vascular fraction (SVF). […] These products have demonstrated measurable improvements in tissue healing, making them promising therapeutic targets for DT. […] Although much progress has been made in diagnosing DT and understanding its molecular and cellular underpinnings, there remains a significant gap in effective, universally successful treatments.
  • #61 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    Tendinopathy is a common clinical problem and has a significant disease burden attached, not only in terms of health care costs, but also for patients directly in terms of time off work and impact upon quality of life. […] Controversy surrounds the pathogenesis of tendinopathy, however the recent systematic analysis of the evidence has demonstrated that many of the claims of an absence of inflammation in tendinopathy were more based around belief than robust scientific data. […] The pathogenesis of tendinopathy is certainly multifactorial and complex. […] Increased age is a key risk factor for the development of tendinopathy, […] while both metabolic and vascular risk factors are associated with the development of tendinopathy. […] Recent systematic reviews have clearly demonstrated that patients with high cholesterol and diabetes are at significantly higher risk of developing tendinopathy,
  • #62 Review: Emerging concepts in the pathogenesis of tendinopathy
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5714045/
    Macrophages are known to play an essential role orchestrating inflammation and tissue repair. […] Increasing evidence has shown that inflammatory mechanisms and the innate immune system are activated within the tendon matrix microenvironment during tissue injury and dysregulated homeostasis. […] Recent mechanistic dissection has highlighted a role for the cytokine IL-33, a member of the IL-1 cytokine family that plays a major role in innate and acquired immune responses, in matrix/inflammatory crosstalk in tendon damage. […] Collectively these data suggest that the reintroduction of miR-29a to the injury-induced miR-29a deficiency in tendon could reverse the key collagen switch that remains a core pathological feature of tendinopathy. […] Fundamentally a better understanding of the pathogenesis of tendinopathy and the underlying mechanisms is essential if we are to develop more effective long term treatment strategies for the management of tendinopathy.
  • #63 Neovascularisation in tendinopathy: from eradication to stabilisation? | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/54/1/1
    Tendinopathy is the most common disorder in sports medicine. Multiple hypotheses have been proposed for the aetiopathogenesis, but many aspects still remain elusive. Microdialysis studies have shown high levels of lactate within tendinosis, even at resting tendons, suggesting that hypoxia persists in tendinopathy. The presence of necrotic tenocytes, blocked arteries and anaerobic enzymes within tendinopathy lesions lend further support to the role of hypoxia in the aetiopathogenesis. Finally, tendinosis, the pathognomonic histopathological finding in tendinopathy, is composed of hypoxic, mucoid, hyaline and fibrinoid tissue. These tissue types are known to be hypoxia induced. […] The fundamental survival mechanism of any cell under hypoxia is the activation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), a transcription factor that turns on the expression of a large range of genes encoding angiogenic growth factors. Characteristic features of both tendinopathic and ruptured tendons are elevated expression of HIF-1 and its target genes, the proangiogenic growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor and abundant neovascularisation. The neovascularisation has even been proposed as the origin of tendinopathy-related pain, and accordingly, its eradication has been used as a therapy for the condition. Given that tissue regeneration requires sufficient supply of oxygen and nutrients, the existence of neovascularisation in tendinopathy should be interpreted as a sign of both persisting hypoxia and failed tissue repair attempt.
  • #64 Neovascularisation in tendinopathy: from eradication to stabilisation? | British Journal of Sports Medicine
    https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/54/1/1
    The novel model presented proposes a pivotal role for hypoxia in the aetiopathogenesis of tendinopathy. Tendons respond to hypoxia by secreting angiogenic growth factors to induce the growth of neovessels. Unfortunately, these neovessels are non-functional by nature, failing to deliver oxygen and nutrients required to reverse the prevailing hypoxia. Stabilisation of neovessels could offer a tempting future therapeutic approach for the treatment of tendinopathy.