Pseudoartroza
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Pseudoartroza, związana z odkładaniem kryształów pirofosforanu wapnia (CPPD), charakteryzuje się patogenezą obejmującą nadprodukcję pirofosforanu nieorganicznego przez chondrocyty oraz zaburzenie równowagi enzymatycznej pirofosfataz, co prowadzi do formowania się kryształów CPP w macierzy okołokomórkowej chrząstki. Kryształy te aktywują inflammasom NLRP3 oraz układ immunologiczny, indukując zapalenie poprzez rekrutację neutrofilów i makrofagów oraz wydzielanie prozapalnych cytokin, takich jak IL-1 i IL-6. Dodatkowo, kryształy CPP wywierają bezpośredni kataboliczny wpływ na chondrocyty i synowiocyty, stymulując produkcję metaloproteinaz macierzy i prostaglandyn, co przyspiesza degenerację chrząstki i uszkodzenie stawu. Czynniki genetyczne, takie jak mutacje w genach ANKH i COL, oraz współistniejące zaburzenia metaboliczne (np. hemochromatoza, nadczynność przytarczyc, hipomagnezemia) zwiększają ryzyko rozwoju choroby, szczególnie u pacjentów powyżej 60 roku życia, u których ryzyko podwaja się z każdą kolejną dekadą życia.

Pseudoartroza – Patogeneza

Pseudoartroza, znana również jako choroba związana z odkładaniem kryształów pirofosforanu wapnia (CPPD – Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease), charakteryzuje się tworzeniem i odkładaniem kryształów pirofosforanu wapnia (CPP) w stawach, co prowadzi do zapalenia i uszkodzenia tkanek. Patogeneza tej choroby jest złożona i obejmuje szereg mechanizmów biochemicznych i komórkowych.12

Powstawanie kryształów CPP

Kluczowym elementem patogenezy pseudoartrozy jest powstawanie kryształów pirofosforanu wapnia, które odkładają się głównie w tkance chrzęstnej stawów. Proces ten rozpoczyna się w macierzy okołokomórkowej chrząstki, gdzie dochodzi do wzrostu stężenia pirofosforanu nieorganicznego.1 Chondrocyty (komórki chrząstki) stale produkują pirofosforan, który w warunkach prawidłowych jest ważnym inhibitorem mineralizacji fosforanu wapnia, zapobiegając zwapnieniu prawidłowej macierzy chrząstki.1

Do powstania kryształów CPP dochodzi w wyniku zaburzenia równowagi między produkcją pirofosforanu a poziomem pirofosfataz w chorobowo zmienionej chrząstce.1 Kiedy stężenie pirofosforanu nieorganicznego wzrasta, łączy się on z jonami wapnia, tworząc kryształy pirofosforanu wapnia. Kryształy te początkowo tworzą się w macierzy okołokomórkowej chondrocytów, a następnie odkładają się w chrząstce szklistej i włóknistej.21

Rola enzymów i pęcherzyków chrzęstnych

Istotną rolę w patogenezie odgrywają enzymy zaangażowane w metabolizm pirofosforanu. Nadaktywność enzymów, takich jak pirofosfataza nukleotydów trójfosforanowych (NTPPPH), obserwowana jest w chrząstce pacjentów z CPPD.1 Zwiększone rozkładanie ATP prowadzi do wzrostu stężenia pirofosforanu nieorganicznego, który następnie wiąże się z wapniem, tworząc kryształy CPP.1

Chondrocyty produkują również pęcherzyki wielkości egzosomów, zwane pęcherzykami chrząstki stawowej, które stanowią ważne miejsca formowania się kryształów w chrząstce.2 Pęcherzyki te przyczyniają się do tworzenia i gromadzenia kryształów CPP w przestrzeni zewnątrzkomórkowej.1

Udział czynników genetycznych

Badania wskazują na istotną rolę czynników genetycznych w rozwoju pseudoartrozy. Zidentyfikowano mutacje w genach ANKH i COL, które mogą być zaangażowane w procesy zapalenia wywołanego przez kryształy.1 Gen ANKH koduje białko uczestniczące w transporcie pirofosforanu nieorganicznego z komórki, regulując procesy zwapnienia, mineralizacji kości i resorpcji kostnej.21

Rodzinna skłonność do rozwoju pseudoartrozy jest związana z mutacjami genu ANKH, co prowadzi do zwiększonego wytwarzania pirofosforanu nieorganicznego i w konsekwencji do tworzenia kryształów CPP.1 Badania sugerują również, że czynniki genetyczne mogą przyczyniać się do rozwoju choroby u młodszych pacjentów z zajęciem wielu stawów.1

Mechanizmy zapalne w pseudoartrozie

Inicjacja reakcji zapalnej

Po utworzeniu kryształów CPP i ich uwolnieniu do płynu stawowego, dochodzi do aktywacji układu immunologicznego, co prowadzi do zapalenia i uszkodzenia tkanek.1 Kryształy CPP inicjują zapalenie poprzez aktywację komponentów inflammasomu NLRP3 oraz poprzez tworzenie zewnątrzkomórkowych pułapek neutrofilowych.1

Proces zapalny rozpoczyna się, gdy kryształy są fagocytowane przez komórki zapalne, głównie neutrofile i makrofagi.1 Makrofagi rozpoznają i fagocytują kryształy CPP, co prowadzi do aktywacji inflammasomów NLRP3 i sekrecji silnie prozapalnych cytokin, takich jak IL-1.1

W patogenezie pseudoartrozy istotną rolę odgrywa również oś IL-6-Th17-neutrofile. Cytokiny zapalne aktywują makrofagi, które wydzielają IL-6, przyczyniając się do różnicowania, funkcjonowania i przeżycia komórek Th17. Te z kolei zwiększają rekrutację neutrofilów do miejsca odkładania kryształów CPP.2

Bezpośredni wpływ na chrząstkę i tkanki stawu

Oprócz wywoływania zapalenia, kryształy CPP mają bezpośredni kataboliczny wpływ na chondrocyty i synowiocyty, wywołując produkcję destrukcyjnych metaloproteinaz macierzy i prostaglandyn.21 Kryształy te zmieniają także właściwości mechaniczne chrząstki, co może powodować lub przyspieszać uszkodzenie stawu.2

Złogi kryształów CPP w chrząstce stawowej wpływają na jej właściwości biomechaniczne, przyczyniając się do degeneracji i przyspieszonego rozwoju zmian zwyrodnieniowych.1 Uważa się, że obecność kryształów wapnia przyspiesza niszczenie powierzchni chrząstki.1

Rola osteoklastów i remodeling kości

Najnowsze badania wskazują na istotną rolę zdrowia kości i procesów naprawczych w CPPD. Osteoklasty w kości podchrzęstnej wydają się być nowym graczem w scenariuszu tworzenia kryształów CPP, co wiąże się z nadmierną aktywnością osteoklastów, które mogą uwalniać transformujący czynnik wzrostu beta (TGF) i inne czynniki do chrząstki, zwiększając produkcję pirofosforanu.1

Zwiększona obecność osteoklastów w kości podchrzęstnej u ludzi i myszy z chorobą zwyrodnieniową stawów, wraz z nieprawidłowymi strukturami kostnymi i zmniejszoną wytrzymałością mechaniczną, potwierdza tę hipotezę.1 Kryształy CPP nasilają osteoklastogenezę mediowaną przez ligand receptora aktywatora czynnika jądrowego κB (RANKL) i czynnik stymulujący kolonie makrofagów 1 (M-CSF) poprzez promowanie szlaków p38 kinazy aktywowanej mitogenami (MAPK) i kinazy regulowanej zewnątrzkomórkowo (ERK).2

Czynniki ryzyka i schorzenia towarzyszące

Wiek i urazy

Wiek jest jednym z najważniejszych czynników ryzyka rozwoju pseudoartrozy. Ryzyko zachorowania znacząco wzrasta po 60 roku życia, a po przekroczeniu tego wieku prawdopodobieństwo wystąpienia choroby podwaja się z każdą dekadą.11 U osób starszych dochodzi do stopniowej degradacji chrząstki, co sprzyja odkładaniu się kryształów CPP.2

Istotnym czynnikiem wyzwalającym objawy pseudoartrozy są urazy. Trauma stawu, w postaci poważnego urazu lub zabiegu chirurgicznego, zwiększa ryzyko wystąpienia choroby w danym stawie.2 Uważa się, że uraz może powodować uwalnianie kryształów pirofosforanu wapnia z chrząstki stawowej, co prowadzi do reakcji zapalnej.2

Zaburzenia metaboliczne i endokrynologiczne

Pseudoartroza jest związana z wieloma zaburzeniami metabolicznymi i endokrynologicznymi, które mogą predysponować do jej rozwoju:11

Ryzyko pseudoartrozy jest wyższe u osób z nadmiernym stężeniem wapnia lub żelaza we krwi oraz ze zbyt małą ilością magnezu.2 Eksperci zalecają, aby pacjenci z pseudoartrózą byli badani pod kątem chorób podstawowych, jeśli są młodsi niż 60 lat i nie mają genetycznego ryzyka choroby CPPD.2

Choroby współistniejące

Pseudoartroza często współistnieje z innymi chorobami stawów:11

  • Choroba zwyrodnieniowa stawów – badania sugerują, że kryształy CPP są 2-3 razy częściej obecne u pacjentów z chorobą zwyrodnieniową stawów1
  • Dna moczanowa – osoby ze zdiagnozowaną dną moczanową mają około 2,5-krotnie większe prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju pseudoartrozy1
  • Reumatoidalne zapalenie stawów – eksperci szacują, że osoby z RZS mają 2 razy większe prawdopodobieństwo zachorowania na pseudoartrózę1

Złogi kryształów związane z pseudoartrózą mogą również powodować uszkodzenie stawów, które może naśladować objawy choroby zwyrodnieniowej stawów lub reumatoidalnego zapalenia stawów.3

Rola składników macierzy pozakomórkowej

Czynniki sprzyjające tworzeniu kryształów

Tworzenie i wzrost kryształów CPP może być promowane przez różne składniki macierzy pozakomórkowej, takie jak osteopontyna, transglutaminaza i kolagen typu I.1 Początkowo nadmiar pirofosforanu łączy się z wapniem, tworząc amorficzne prekursory CPP, które następnie przekształcają się w bardziej stabilne formy krystaliczne i rosną wewnątrz lub wzdłuż włókien kolagenowych.3

Kryształy CPP rzadko tworzą się w tkankach niechrzęstnych.2 Jednakże, obecność tych kryształów w tkankach niechrzęstnych, takich jak ścięgna i więzadła, budzi intrygujące pytania. Może to być wyjaśnione faktem, że przyczep ścięgien i więzadeł zawiera warstwę włóknisto-chrzęstną, co stanowi prawdopodobne wyjaśnienie preferencyjnego odkładania się kryształów CPP w miejscach przyczepu ścięgien i więzadeł.1

Czynniki hamujące tworzenie kryształów

Proteoglikany i kolagen typu II wykazują działanie hamujące na tworzenie kryształów CPP.2 Te składniki macierzy zewnątrzkomórkowej mogą odgrywać rolę ochronną, zapobiegając nadmiernemu tworzeniu i odkładaniu się kryształów w tkankach stawowych.

Zrozumienie roli tych czynników może być kluczowe dla opracowania nowych strategii terapeutycznych ukierunkowanych na zapobieganie tworzeniu kryształów CPP i hamowanie procesu chorobowego.1

Związek z osteoporozą

Niedawno zaproponowany związek między chorobą CPPD a złamaniami osteoporotycznymi może przynieść nowe spojrzenie na równowagę między tworzeniem kryształów CPP a hydroksyapatytu.3 Biorąc pod uwagę, że fosfataza alkaliczna tkanki niespecyficznej (TNAP) odgrywa centralną rolę w równowadze między PPi a Pi, a sporadyczna choroba CPPD wydaje się być związana z osteoporozą, prawdopodobne jest, że regulacja TNAP wymaga dalszych badań, aby zrozumieć to powiązanie.1

Badania sugerują, że zarówno pseudoartroza, jak i osteoporoza mogą mieć wspólne mechanizmy patogenetyczne związane z zaburzeniami metabolizmu minerałów i równowagi między różnymi formami fosforanów w organizmie.2

Podsumowanie mechanizmów patogenetycznych

Patogeneza pseudoartrozy (CPPD) jest złożonym procesem, który obejmuje wiele powiązanych ze sobą mechanizmów:11

  1. Zwiększona produkcja pirofosforanu nieorganicznego przez chondrocyty1
  2. Zaburzenie równowagi między produkcją pirofosforanu a aktywnością enzymów pirofosfataz1
  3. Formowanie kryształów CPP w macierzy okołokomórkowej chrząstki1
  4. Uwalnianie kryształów do płynu stawowego i tkanek okołostawowych1
  5. Aktywacja układu immunologicznego, w szczególności inflammasomu NLRP31
  6. Rekrutacja i aktywacja komórek zapalnych, głównie neutrofilów i makrofagów1
  7. Wydzielanie cytokin prozapalnych i innych mediatorów zapalenia1
  8. Bezpośredni kataboliczny wpływ kryształów na chondrocyty i synowiocyty1
  9. Produkcja metaloproteinaz macierzy i prostaglandyn prowadzących do uszkodzenia tkanek1
  10. Zmiany właściwości mechanicznych chrząstki i przyspieszone uszkodzenie stawu2

Chociaż patogeneza pseudoartrozy nie jest w pełni poznana, zrozumienie tych mechanizmów przyczynia się do opracowania skuteczniejszych strategii terapeutycznych ukierunkowanych na różne etapy procesu chorobowego.2 Badania nad patogenezą pseudoartrozy trwają, a pełne zrozumienie mechanizmów tworzenia i odkładania kryształów CPP wymaga dalszych badań.1

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  1. 15.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK540151/
    Calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease is believed to be caused by an imbalance between the production of pyrophosphate and the levels of pyrophosphatases in diseased cartilage. […] Deposition of calcium pyrophosphate is believed to cause activation of the immune system producing inflammation and further soft tissue injury. […] When deposited, CPP crystals activate the immune system, promoting inflammation and fibrocartilage injury. […] The molecular structure of calcium pyrophosphate has the potential of triggering inflammatory responses.
  • #1 Pathogenesis and etiology of calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition (CPPD) disease – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathogenesis-and-etiology-of-calcium-pyrophosphate-crystal-deposition-cppd-disease
    Pathogenesis and etiology of calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition (CPPD) disease […] The pathogenesis and etiology of CPPD disease will be reviewed here. […] CPP crystal formation and deposition — Calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystal formation is initiated in the pericellular matrix near midzone chondrocytes in both hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage. […] High extracellular pyrophosphate levels in cartilage are necessary for CPP crystal formation. […] Chondrocytes and pyrophosphate — Pyrophosphate is constitutively generated by chondrocytes. It is a potent inhibitor of basic calcium phosphate mineralization and therefore prevents mineralization in normal cartilage matrix. Factors that increase pyrophosphate levels in cartilage contribute to CPPD.
  • #1 Patient education: Calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition (CPPD) disease (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/calcium-pyrophosphate-crystal-deposition-cppd-disease-beyond-the-basics/print
    CPPD DISEASE DEFINITION […] Pyrophosphate is a normal chemical that everyone has in the body. It is important for the healthy function of connective tissues such as bones, cartilage, and joints. However, in some cases, excess pyrophosphate complexes with calcium to form microscopic calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals, which preferentially deposit in joint tissues. […] […] Calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition (CPPD) disease symptoms develop in some (but not all) people in response to the deposition of calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals in the joints. The crystals first develop in the joint cartilage and eventually move to the lining of the joint (also called the synovium) or into the joint fluid, where they can cause inflammation with associated pain, swelling, and disability in the affected joint. In most people with CPPD disease, it is not known exactly why CPP crystals form and deposit in the joints. […] […] Some people, particularly older adults, have CPP crystals in their joints (called „chondrocalcinosis”) but never experience symptoms of acute arthritis. Chondrocalcinosis is present in up to 50 percent of people by age 90, often without or with only modest symptoms.
  • #1 Pathology Outlines – Calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition disease
    https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/jointspseudogout.html
    Calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition (CPPD) is characterized by calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystal accumulation in extracellular cartilage matrix, synovium and joints […] An imbalance between the production of pyrophosphate and the level of pyrophosphatases in diseased cartilage causes high levels of extracellular pyrophosphate, resulting in CPPD […] Pyrophosphate is deposited in the synovium and adjacent tissues and combines with calcium to form calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) […] CPP crystals mediate damage by eliciting inflammation or by inducing the production of destructive matrix metalloproteinases and prostaglandins […] Crystals have a direct catabolic effect on chondrocytes and alter the mechanical properties of cartilage.
  • #1
    https://step2.medbullets.com/rheumatology/120734/pseudogout
    a metabolic arthropathy due to deposition of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPP) in connective tissue […] aging and/or genetic factors may result in increased adenosine triphosphate breakdown producing inorganic pyrophosphate […] CPP is produced after inorganic pyrophosphate binds with calcium […] CPP then deposits in cartilage and synovial fluid leading to a synovitis.
  • #1 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition (CPPD) Disease: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/330936-overview
    Although the exact mechanism for the development of CPPD remains unknown, increased adenosine triphosphate breakdown with resultant increased inorganic pyrophosphate in the joints results from aging, genetic factors, or both. […] Overactivity of enzymes that break down triphosphates, such as nucleoside triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase, has been observed in the cartilage of patients with CPPD disease. Therefore, inorganic pyrophosphate can bind calcium, leading to CPPD deposition in the cartilage and synovium. […] Hypotheses based on in vitro studies propose that pyrophosphohydrolase activity and inorganic phosphate content, as noted above, are generalized phenomena that occur in fibroblasts. […] Genetic defects have been identified as specific gene mutations in a few kindred families.
  • #1
    https://step1.medbullets.com/msk/107047/pseudogout
    aging and/or genetic factors may result in increased adenosine triphosphate breakdown producing inorganic pyrophosphate […] CPP is produced after inorganic pyrophosphate binds with calcium […] CPP then deposits in cartilage and synovial fluid leading to a synovitis.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-024-01161-w
    The increased presence of osteoclasts in the subchondral bone of humans and mice with OA, along with aberrant bone structures and reduced mechanical strength, supports this hypothesis. […] CPP crystals enhance osteoclastogenesis mediated by receptor activator of nuclear factor-B ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 (M-CSF) by promoting the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways. […] Histologic and in vitro observations suggest that CPP crystals form extracellularly, initially in ACVs in pericellular regions of extracellular matrix, where excess PPi can accumulate and complex with calcium. […] An imbalance toward PPi production promotes CPP crystal formation, while BCP crystal formation is prevented. […] Initially, excess PPi complexes with calcium to form amorphous CPP precursors, which are then converted into more stable crystalline forms and grow within or along collagen fibrils.
  • #1 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition (CPPD) Disease: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/330936-overview
    The mutations were in the genes ANKH and COL, which may be involved in crystal-induced inflammation. This is related to synovial tissue and direct cartilage activation, leading to the arthritis caused by CPPD. […] The ANKH protein is involved in transport of inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi), which regulates calcification, bone mineralization, and bone resorption. […] The gene TNFRSF11B encodes osteoprotegerin, which has a critical role in regulating osteoclast development.
  • #1 Pseudogout Is False Gout . . . Calcium, Not Uric Acid.
    https://www.thegoutkiller.com/what-is-gout/what-does-gout-look-like/pseudogout/
    However, in the world of Naturopathic Medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine, pseudogout causes are fundamentally the same as gout causes, which are the same as every other disease: a state of biochemical imbalance. […] Additionally, causes of pseudogout crystals can be due to increased levels of inorganic phosphate, leading to CPPD crystal deposition in the cartilage. And, the malfunctioning of the ANKH gene can also lead to increased formation of CPPD in the cells, as discussed below under, Is It Hereditary. […] The genetic basis of pseudogout has been linked to the ANKH gene, which controls a protein in the cell membrane that helps to transport inorganic pyrophosphate out of the cell. […] Thus, mutations of this gene can lead to familial forms of CPPD disease, or pseudogout. […] The fact is, there are no pharmaceuticals that treat the root cause of pseudogout, because the western medical community really does not know what the root cause of pseudogout is. Thus, in order to treat the root causes of pseudogout, you must focus on creating balance and optimal health at a very holistic level. Ultimately, pseudogout is simply yet-another-disease that shows up as a result of overall poor health resulting from poor lifestyle choices.
  • #1 Pseudogout Causes
    https://www.arthritis-health.com/types/pseudogout-cppd/pseudogout-causes
    Recent research suggests that certain mutations in the ANKH gene, which helps regulate metabolism, increases the risk for developing pseudogout. […] People who are diagnosed with gout are about 2.5 times more likely to develop pseudogout. […] Research suggests that CPP crystals are 2 to 3 times more common in patients who have osteoarthritis than those who do not. […] Experts estimate people with rheumatoid arthritis are 2 times as likely to get pseudogout. […] There are several metabolic and endocrine disorders that can predispose a person to pseudogout (CPPD), including: Hemochromatosis, Hyperparathyroidism, Hypophosphatasia, Hypomagnesemia. […] Experts recommend that patients with pseudogout be screened for underlying conditions if they are younger than 60 and have no genetic risk of CPPD disease.
  • #1 Pseudogout | theDocTab
    https://thedoctab.com/internal-medicine/pseudogout/
    Pseudogout, also known as calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease (CPPD), is a crystal-induced arthritis caused by the deposition of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) crystals in the joints and surrounding tissues. […] The pathogenesis of CPPD deposition is not fully understood but is thought to involve factors such as: […] Age-related changes: Increased prevalence with aging, suggesting cartilage degradation plays a role. […] Metabolic disorders: Conditions like hyperparathyroidism, hemochromatosis, hypomagnesemia, and hypophosphatasia are associated with increased CPPD deposition. […] Genetic predisposition: Familial cases have been reported, particularly in younger patients with polyarticular involvement.
  • #1 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6240444/
    Once CPP crystals are generated, they mediate tissue damage by means of multiple mechanisms. They initiate inflammation by activating components of the NLRP3 inflammasome and by creating neutrophil extracellular traps. […] Apart from inducing inflammation, CPP crystals have important direct catabolic effects on chondrocytes and synoviocytes, eliciting the production of destructive matrix metalloproteinases and prostaglandins. CPP crystal deposits in articular cartilage also alter the mechanical properties of cartilage, which may cause or accelerate joint damage.
  • #1 Pseudogout (Calcium Phyrophosphate Deposition Disease) – Cancer Therapy Advisor
    https://www.cancertherapyadvisor.com/home/decision-support-in-medicine/dermatology/pseudogout-calcium-phyrophosphate-deposition-disease/
    Pseudogout refers to the clinical entity of acute joint inflammation that occurs because of an inflammatory response to deposited calcium-containing crystals. […] The most common crystal causing this is calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD). […] The clinical syndrome of pseudogout occurs when previously asymptomatic crystals trigger acute inflammation. […] The sudden onset of inflammation in or around these crystalline deposits can result in severe neck pain and possibly permanent neurological sequelae due to edema of the proximal spinal cord. […] In addition to the presence of calcium crystals within cartilage, the other necessary ingredient is phagocytosis of crystals by inflammatory cells, usually neutrophils. It is only then that the chondrocalcinosis becomes symptomatic.
  • #1 Newly developed pseudogout arthritis after therapy with MAGE-A4 directed TCR T cells responded to treatment with tocilizumab | Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer
    https://jitc.bmj.com/content/9/7/e002716
    Pseudogout, induced by the deposition of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) crystal, is an autoinflammatory disorder. The innate immune system and inflammasomes are known to play an essential role in its pathogenesis. […] Interestingly, tocilizumab, which was used to treat the CRS and ICANS, also worked for the pseudogout arthritis. […] Immunoprofile of synovial fluid revealed the dominance of Th1 and Th17 cells with abundant IL-6. Innate immune cells, primarily neutrophils and macrophages, are pivotal in the pathogenesis of pseudogout arthritis. Macrophages identify and phagocytose CPPD crystals, activating Nod-like receptor protein inflammasomes, with subsequent secretion of IL-1, a potent inflammatory cytokine. […] Thus, it is plausible that, in our case, inflammatory cytokines activated bystander macrophages, which secreted IL-6, thus contributing to Th17 differentiation, function, and survival. In turn, these Th17 cells enhanced recruitment of neutrophils to the site of the CPPD crystal deposition. Taken together, we speculate that in addition to IL-1 induced by the CPPD crystal, an IL-6-Th17-neutrophil axis played a critical role in the pathogenesis of CPPD arthritis in our patient. […] Comprehensive analyses of more cases and control samples are warranted to understand the underlying mechanisms of pseudogout arthritis and its potential association with IEC therapy.
  • #1 Treatment strategies for calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease
    https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/emd/Article/100756
    Calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease (CPPD) refers to inflammatory arthritis that occurs predominantly in older adults and is caused by calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals. In the articular cartilage pericellular matrix, pyrophosphate from extracellular ATP complexes with calcium to produce CPP crystals, which then stimulate inflammatory cytokines and mechanical cartilage degradation. […] Diagnosis of CPPD is aided by the presence of rhomboid positively birefringent crystals on polarized microscopy of synovial fluid and often chondrocalcinosis on imaging studies. […] Available treatment strategies for CPPD remain untargeted and many of the existing treatments are repurposed from gout, due to connections in pathophysiology. […] The objective in the treatment of acute CPP crystal arthritis is oriented towards rapid relief in contrast to the treatment of refractory or chronic CPP crystal arthritis which is more focused on prevention.
  • #1 Calcium Pyrophosphate Disease / Pseudogout – Arthritis and Rheumatology Clinics of Kansas
    https://arck.org/patient-education/calcium-pyrophosphate-disease-pseudogout/
    CPPD, like gout, is a form of arthritis caused by crystals that induce inflammation within the joint space. […] Unlike gout, however, which is caused by uric acid crystals, CPPD is caused by calcium-containing crystals. […] It is believed that the presence of the calcium crystals more rapidly strips away the lining of the cartilage. […] In many, it may be difficult to determine if the calcium deposits are causing any damage in the joint or are simply present by coincidence. […] The inflammation of CPPD can be treated much in the same way we treat gout. […] The major difference, however, between the two disorders is that long-term therapy for gout results in uric acid crystals being eliminated from the joint, while no such therapy exists for CPPD. […] Phosphocitrate is a medication in experimental stages of development that seems to prevent formation of CPPD crystals as well as other less common calcium crystals.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-024-01161-w
    This could be explained by the fact that the enthesis of tendons and ligaments presents a fibrocartilaginous layer, thus providing a plausible explanation for the preferential deposition of CPP crystals at the insertions of tendons and ligaments. […] CPP crystals can also be found in the synovial membrane, but it remains uncertain whether they are produced by synoviocytes or derived from synovial fluid (SF) and articular cartilage. […] Nonetheless, it is recognized that CPP crystal contributes to synovitis by stimulating synovial fibroblast to increase the production of matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8) and Interleukin 6 (IL-6). […] Bone health and repair processes have been reported to play a key role in CPPD. […] Osteoclasts in subchondral bone seem to be a new player in the CPP crystal formation scenario, and this is related to an excess of osteoclast activity, which may release transforming growth factor beta (TGF) and other factors into cartilage, increasing PPi production.
  • #1 Pseudogout – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pseudogout/symptoms-causes/syc-20376983
    Pseudogout is formally known as calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease or CPPD. […] It isn’t clear why crystals form in joints and cause pseudogout, but the risk increases with age. […] Pseudogout has been linked to the presence of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystals within the affected joint. […] The risk of developing pseudogout increases with age. […] Trauma to a joint, such as a serious injury or surgery, increases the risk of pseudogout in that joint. […] In some families, family members have a hereditary tendency to develop pseudogout. […] The risk of pseudogout is higher for people who have excessive calcium or iron in their blood or too little magnesium. […] Pseudogout has also been linked to an underactive thyroid gland or an overactive parathyroid gland. […] The crystal deposits associated with pseudogout can also cause joint damage, which can mimic the signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis.
  • #1 Pseudogout Causes
    https://www.arthritis-health.com/types/pseudogout-cppd/pseudogout-causes
    Exactly why some people get pseudogout and others do not is unknown. Experts do know several factors can increase and decrease a persons risk for the disease, which can occur when calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals collect in the soft tissues of a joint. […] Most people who develop pseudogout are 60 or older. In fact, after age 60, the likelihood of developing pseudogout doubles with each decade of life. […] Experts theorize this happens because trauma can cause joint cartilage to release the calcium phosphate crystals that have accumulated within it. Once released, the crystals activate an immune system response that leads to swelling and other pseudogout symptoms. […] Genetics plays a role, making some people more prone to accumulating calcium pyrophosphate crystals in their joints.
  • #1 Pseudogout | Calgary Guide
    https://calgaryguide.ucalgary.ca/pseudogout-pathogenesis-and-clinical-findings/pseudogout/
    Pseudogout: Pathogenesis and clinical findings […] Overactivity of the NTPPPH enzyme and mutations in the ANKH gene, pyrophosphate production […] Clearance of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) crystals from joints is inhibited by iron […] The relative absence of magnesium impairs pyrophosphatase activity, reduces pyrophosphate breakdown […] Mechanism unknown serum concentrations of Ca2+ or Pyrophosphate […] Enhanced mineralization in chondrocytes (cells that make cartilage) […] Once in cartilage, high levels of either calcium ions or pyrophosphate can result in them binding together, forming CPPD crystals […] Aggregated CPPD crystals shed into synovial fluid […] Repeated crystal precipitation into joint space over time (subacute process) […] CPPD crystals collect on collagen fibers in articular cartilage
  • #1 Gout and Pseudogout: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/329958-overview
    Gout and pseudogout are the two most common crystal-induced arthropathies. Pseudogout has also been associated with trauma and with many different metabolic abnormalities, the most common of which are hyperparathyroidism and hemochromatosis. […] The CPP crystals that produce pseudogout comprise a combination of inorganic pyrophosphate and calcium. A genetic predisposition exists for pseudogout. However, aging, some metabolic diseases (eg, hyperparathyroidism, hemochromatosis, and hypomagnesemia), and any process that leads to osteoarthritis also can be associated with subsequent CPP crystal deposition and pseudogout. […] Although the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and acute-phase treatment of gout and pseudogout are very similar, the underlying causes of the 2 diseases are very different.
  • #1
    https://grepmed.com/images/8173/pseudogout-symptoms-pathophysiology-diagnosis-signs
    Pseudogout: pathogenesis and clinical findings – Idiopathic (vast majority of cases) – Mechanism unknown – Familial chondrocalcinosis – Overactivity of the NTPPPH enzyme and mutations in the ANKH gene, Incr pyrophosphate production – Hyperparathyroidism – Incr levels of parathyroid hormone produced, incr gut Ca2+ absorption – Hemochromatosis – Clearance of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) crystals from joints is inhibited by iron – Hypomagnesia – The relative absence of magnesium impairs pyrophosphatase activity, reduces pyrophosphate breakdown – Hypophosphatasia – Defective mineralization of calcium and phosphorous in bones […] – CPPD Crystals – Positively birefringent (crystals appear blue parallel to axis of polarizer) – PAINFUL, warm, swollen joint (sudden onset) – Incr C-reactive protein (CRP); erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) – Subchondral sclerosis cysts, joint space narrowing, and osteophytes seen on x-ray
  • #1 Gout and Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease
    https://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/rheumatology/gout-and-pseudogout/
    Calcium pyrophosphate deposition (CPPD) disease is a crystal deposition disease in the joints and soft tissue, resulting in inflammation and tissue damage. The clinical presentation resembles gout in its acute attacks of crystal synovitis and, thus, was previously called pseudogout. Acute CPPD arthritis is now the preferred term for this disease. […] Although the pathogenesis of CPPD disease is not as well understood as the pathogenesis of gout, there is probably excessive pyrophosphate production in cartilage resulting in calcium pyrophosphate super saturation and the formation of CPPD crystals. […] Chondrocalcinosis and CPPD crystals may be associated with certain underlying diseases such as trauma to the joint, hyperparathyroidism, hypomagnesemia, hypophosphatasia, hypothyroidism, and hemochromatosis. This highlights the importance of addressing other possible underlying diseases when evaluating the patient with CPPD and chondrocalcinosis.
  • #1 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition (CPPD)
    https://rheumatology.org/patients/calcium-pyrophosphate-deposition-cppd
    Calcium pyrophosphate deposition (CPPD), also known as pseudogout, is a type of arthritis characterized by the formation of calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals, which settle in joint cartilage and trigger inflammation. […] The exact cause of CPP crystal formation remains unknown, but several risk factors have been identified, including Gitelman syndrome (inherited kidney disorder), hemochromatosis (inherited condition leading to excess iron), familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (inherited disorder causing high calcium levels), hypophosphatasia (inherited disorder affecting bone and teeth mineralization), low magnesium levels, and abnormalities of the parathyroid gland. […] Additionally, CPP crystals are often found in the joints of individuals with osteoarthritis or gout.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-024-01161-w
    CPP crystal formation and growth can also be promoted by other extracellular matrix components, such as osteopontin, transglutaminase and type I collagen. […] In contrast, proteoglycans and type II collagen have been shown to inhibit CPP formation. […] The identification of risk factors for CPPD and associated comorbidities also helped out in the understanding of the pathophysiology of CPPD, and on the general balance between CPPD and hydroxyapatite, involved in bone formation. […] While the only four-decade-old trial including 38 patients using magnesium supplementation failed to demonstrate a decrease in the extent of CPPD on radiographs at 6 months, its results suggested that magnesium could have a positive impact on pain relief. […] The recently proposed association between CPPD disease and osteoporotic fractures may bring new insight into the balance between CPP crystal and hydroxyapatite formation.
  • #1 Treatment strategies for calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease
    https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/emd/Article/100756
    Although randomized controlled studies on all of these options for CPPD have been scarce, this review highlights the progress that has been made with new studies including a recently published controlled trial in which colchicine was compared to oral prednisone and a study that compared loading dose colchicine to non-loading dose for acute CPP crystal arthritis. […] For chronic CPP crystal arthritis, which requires more long-term anti-inflammatory management, low-dose NSAIDs with gastroprotection or low-dose colchicine were recommended as initial therapy by EULAR, but low-dose glucocorticoids, methotrexate, hydroxychloroquine, and biologics have been investigated for chronic CPP crystal arthritis with data mixed regarding treatment response. […] Overall, in this review, we discuss updates to evidence published after the 2011 EULAR guidelines regarding all types of CPPD. […] There is a clear need for randomized controlled trials to determine the most effective therapies for CPP crystal arthritis. Additionally, studies investigating mechanisms of crystal formation and crystal-induced inflammation are needed to identify future therapies.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-024-01161-w
    Given that TNAP plays a central role in the balance between PPi and Pi, and sporadic CPPD disease appears to be associated with osteoporosis, it is probable that TNAP regulation needs to be further explored to understand this association. […] The journey toward a comprehensive understanding of CPPD formation and deposition is ongoing.
  • #1 Pulsenotes | Pseudogout notes
    https://app.pulsenotes.com/medicine/rheumatology/notes/pseudogout
    Pseudogout is a crystal arthropathy, which may cause an acute inflammatory arthritis from deposition of calcium pyrophosphate. […] The principle mechanism underlying pseudogout is deposition of calcium pyrophosphate dihyrate (CPP). […] Calcium pyrophosphate crystal formation and deposition is central to the pathogenesis of pseudogout. […] In pseudogout, excess pyrophosphate production causes local CPP supersaturation, crystal formation and deposition. CPP crystals stimulate a proinflammatory response leading to activation of phagocytes and neutrophils. The inflammatory response is usually self-limited due to the modification of CPP crystals (e.g. addition of lipoproteins), which reduces the inflammation.
  • #1 Primer: CPPD Disease (Pseudogout)
    https://www.hcplive.com/view/primer-cppd-disease-pseudogout
    The pathogenesis of CPPD disease is not fully understood, but the formation of CPP crystals in the pericellular matrix of cartilage is the first step in the disease process. Their presence leads to the destruction of tissue by initiating an inflammatory reaction.
  • #1 Clinical Pathology Glossary: Pseudogout (aka CPPD) | ditki medical & biological sciences
    https://ditki.com/course/pathology/glossary/pathophysiologic-disorder/pseudogout-aka-cppd
    The disease involves cartilaginous or synovial release of calcium pyrophosphate crystals into the joint space, most commonly the knee (whereas in gout it’s most often the MTP joint). […] This deposition produces an inflammatory cascade. There is cartilaginous calcification on X-Ray (chondrocalcinosis).
  • #2 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6240444/
    Calcium pyrophosphate deposition (CPPD) disease is arthritis caused by calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals. Until recently, CPPD disease has been referred to as pseudogout. […] Although the pathogenesis of CPPD disease is not fully understood, the formation of CPP crystals in the pericellular matrix of cartilage is the essential first step in the disease process. CPP crystals rarely form in noncartilaginous tissues. […] For example, chondrocytes constitutively generate pericellular exosome-sized vesicles, termed articular cartilage vesicles, which serve as important sites of crystal formation in cartilage. Chondrocytes also produce high levels of extracellular inorganic pyrophosphate, which is critical to the formation of CPP crystals. […] Inorganic pyrophosphate plays a central role in CPPD that is analogous to that of urate in gout and may be a key therapeutic target.
  • #2 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition (CPPD) Disease: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/330936-overview
    The mutations were in the genes ANKH and COL, which may be involved in crystal-induced inflammation. This is related to synovial tissue and direct cartilage activation, leading to the arthritis caused by CPPD. […] The ANKH protein is involved in transport of inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi), which regulates calcification, bone mineralization, and bone resorption. […] The gene TNFRSF11B encodes osteoprotegerin, which has a critical role in regulating osteoclast development.
  • #2 Newly developed pseudogout arthritis after therapy with MAGE-A4 directed TCR T cells responded to treatment with tocilizumab | Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer
    https://jitc.bmj.com/content/9/7/e002716
    Pseudogout, induced by the deposition of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) crystal, is an autoinflammatory disorder. The innate immune system and inflammasomes are known to play an essential role in its pathogenesis. […] Interestingly, tocilizumab, which was used to treat the CRS and ICANS, also worked for the pseudogout arthritis. […] Immunoprofile of synovial fluid revealed the dominance of Th1 and Th17 cells with abundant IL-6. Innate immune cells, primarily neutrophils and macrophages, are pivotal in the pathogenesis of pseudogout arthritis. Macrophages identify and phagocytose CPPD crystals, activating Nod-like receptor protein inflammasomes, with subsequent secretion of IL-1, a potent inflammatory cytokine. […] Thus, it is plausible that, in our case, inflammatory cytokines activated bystander macrophages, which secreted IL-6, thus contributing to Th17 differentiation, function, and survival. In turn, these Th17 cells enhanced recruitment of neutrophils to the site of the CPPD crystal deposition. Taken together, we speculate that in addition to IL-1 induced by the CPPD crystal, an IL-6-Th17-neutrophil axis played a critical role in the pathogenesis of CPPD arthritis in our patient. […] Comprehensive analyses of more cases and control samples are warranted to understand the underlying mechanisms of pseudogout arthritis and its potential association with IEC therapy.
  • #2 Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6240444/
    Once CPP crystals are generated, they mediate tissue damage by means of multiple mechanisms. They initiate inflammation by activating components of the NLRP3 inflammasome and by creating neutrophil extracellular traps. […] Apart from inducing inflammation, CPP crystals have important direct catabolic effects on chondrocytes and synoviocytes, eliciting the production of destructive matrix metalloproteinases and prostaglandins. CPP crystal deposits in articular cartilage also alter the mechanical properties of cartilage, which may cause or accelerate joint damage.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-024-01161-w
    The increased presence of osteoclasts in the subchondral bone of humans and mice with OA, along with aberrant bone structures and reduced mechanical strength, supports this hypothesis. […] CPP crystals enhance osteoclastogenesis mediated by receptor activator of nuclear factor-B ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 (M-CSF) by promoting the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways. […] Histologic and in vitro observations suggest that CPP crystals form extracellularly, initially in ACVs in pericellular regions of extracellular matrix, where excess PPi can accumulate and complex with calcium. […] An imbalance toward PPi production promotes CPP crystal formation, while BCP crystal formation is prevented. […] Initially, excess PPi complexes with calcium to form amorphous CPP precursors, which are then converted into more stable crystalline forms and grow within or along collagen fibrils.
  • #2 Patient education: Calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition (CPPD) disease (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/calcium-pyrophosphate-crystal-deposition-cppd-disease-beyond-the-basics/print
    CPPD DISEASE DEFINITION […] Pyrophosphate is a normal chemical that everyone has in the body. It is important for the healthy function of connective tissues such as bones, cartilage, and joints. However, in some cases, excess pyrophosphate complexes with calcium to form microscopic calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals, which preferentially deposit in joint tissues. […] […] Calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition (CPPD) disease symptoms develop in some (but not all) people in response to the deposition of calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals in the joints. The crystals first develop in the joint cartilage and eventually move to the lining of the joint (also called the synovium) or into the joint fluid, where they can cause inflammation with associated pain, swelling, and disability in the affected joint. In most people with CPPD disease, it is not known exactly why CPP crystals form and deposit in the joints. […] […] Some people, particularly older adults, have CPP crystals in their joints (called „chondrocalcinosis”) but never experience symptoms of acute arthritis. Chondrocalcinosis is present in up to 50 percent of people by age 90, often without or with only modest symptoms.
  • #2 Pseudogout – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pseudogout/symptoms-causes/syc-20376983
    Pseudogout is formally known as calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease or CPPD. […] It isn’t clear why crystals form in joints and cause pseudogout, but the risk increases with age. […] Pseudogout has been linked to the presence of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystals within the affected joint. […] The risk of developing pseudogout increases with age. […] Trauma to a joint, such as a serious injury or surgery, increases the risk of pseudogout in that joint. […] In some families, family members have a hereditary tendency to develop pseudogout. […] The risk of pseudogout is higher for people who have excessive calcium or iron in their blood or too little magnesium. […] Pseudogout has also been linked to an underactive thyroid gland or an overactive parathyroid gland. […] The crystal deposits associated with pseudogout can also cause joint damage, which can mimic the signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis.
  • #2 Pseudogout Causes
    https://www.arthritis-health.com/types/pseudogout-cppd/pseudogout-causes
    Exactly why some people get pseudogout and others do not is unknown. Experts do know several factors can increase and decrease a persons risk for the disease, which can occur when calcium pyrophosphate (CPP) crystals collect in the soft tissues of a joint. […] Most people who develop pseudogout are 60 or older. In fact, after age 60, the likelihood of developing pseudogout doubles with each decade of life. […] Experts theorize this happens because trauma can cause joint cartilage to release the calcium phosphate crystals that have accumulated within it. Once released, the crystals activate an immune system response that leads to swelling and other pseudogout symptoms. […] Genetics plays a role, making some people more prone to accumulating calcium pyrophosphate crystals in their joints.
  • #2 Pseudogout Causes
    https://www.arthritis-health.com/types/pseudogout-cppd/pseudogout-causes
    Recent research suggests that certain mutations in the ANKH gene, which helps regulate metabolism, increases the risk for developing pseudogout. […] People who are diagnosed with gout are about 2.5 times more likely to develop pseudogout. […] Research suggests that CPP crystals are 2 to 3 times more common in patients who have osteoarthritis than those who do not. […] Experts estimate people with rheumatoid arthritis are 2 times as likely to get pseudogout. […] There are several metabolic and endocrine disorders that can predispose a person to pseudogout (CPPD), including: Hemochromatosis, Hyperparathyroidism, Hypophosphatasia, Hypomagnesemia. […] Experts recommend that patients with pseudogout be screened for underlying conditions if they are younger than 60 and have no genetic risk of CPPD disease.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-024-01161-w
    CPP crystal formation and growth can also be promoted by other extracellular matrix components, such as osteopontin, transglutaminase and type I collagen. […] In contrast, proteoglycans and type II collagen have been shown to inhibit CPP formation. […] The identification of risk factors for CPPD and associated comorbidities also helped out in the understanding of the pathophysiology of CPPD, and on the general balance between CPPD and hydroxyapatite, involved in bone formation. […] While the only four-decade-old trial including 38 patients using magnesium supplementation failed to demonstrate a decrease in the extent of CPPD on radiographs at 6 months, its results suggested that magnesium could have a positive impact on pain relief. […] The recently proposed association between CPPD disease and osteoporotic fractures may bring new insight into the balance between CPP crystal and hydroxyapatite formation.
  • #2 Treatment strategies for calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease
    https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/emd/Article/100756
    Although randomized controlled studies on all of these options for CPPD have been scarce, this review highlights the progress that has been made with new studies including a recently published controlled trial in which colchicine was compared to oral prednisone and a study that compared loading dose colchicine to non-loading dose for acute CPP crystal arthritis. […] For chronic CPP crystal arthritis, which requires more long-term anti-inflammatory management, low-dose NSAIDs with gastroprotection or low-dose colchicine were recommended as initial therapy by EULAR, but low-dose glucocorticoids, methotrexate, hydroxychloroquine, and biologics have been investigated for chronic CPP crystal arthritis with data mixed regarding treatment response. […] Overall, in this review, we discuss updates to evidence published after the 2011 EULAR guidelines regarding all types of CPPD. […] There is a clear need for randomized controlled trials to determine the most effective therapies for CPP crystal arthritis. Additionally, studies investigating mechanisms of crystal formation and crystal-induced inflammation are needed to identify future therapies.
  • #3 Pseudogout – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pseudogout/symptoms-causes/syc-20376983
    Pseudogout is formally known as calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease or CPPD. […] It isn’t clear why crystals form in joints and cause pseudogout, but the risk increases with age. […] Pseudogout has been linked to the presence of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystals within the affected joint. […] The risk of developing pseudogout increases with age. […] Trauma to a joint, such as a serious injury or surgery, increases the risk of pseudogout in that joint. […] In some families, family members have a hereditary tendency to develop pseudogout. […] The risk of pseudogout is higher for people who have excessive calcium or iron in their blood or too little magnesium. […] Pseudogout has also been linked to an underactive thyroid gland or an overactive parathyroid gland. […] The crystal deposits associated with pseudogout can also cause joint damage, which can mimic the signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis.
  • #3
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-024-01161-w
    The increased presence of osteoclasts in the subchondral bone of humans and mice with OA, along with aberrant bone structures and reduced mechanical strength, supports this hypothesis. […] CPP crystals enhance osteoclastogenesis mediated by receptor activator of nuclear factor-B ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 (M-CSF) by promoting the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways. […] Histologic and in vitro observations suggest that CPP crystals form extracellularly, initially in ACVs in pericellular regions of extracellular matrix, where excess PPi can accumulate and complex with calcium. […] An imbalance toward PPi production promotes CPP crystal formation, while BCP crystal formation is prevented. […] Initially, excess PPi complexes with calcium to form amorphous CPP precursors, which are then converted into more stable crystalline forms and grow within or along collagen fibrils.
  • #3
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11926-024-01161-w
    CPP crystal formation and growth can also be promoted by other extracellular matrix components, such as osteopontin, transglutaminase and type I collagen. […] In contrast, proteoglycans and type II collagen have been shown to inhibit CPP formation. […] The identification of risk factors for CPPD and associated comorbidities also helped out in the understanding of the pathophysiology of CPPD, and on the general balance between CPPD and hydroxyapatite, involved in bone formation. […] While the only four-decade-old trial including 38 patients using magnesium supplementation failed to demonstrate a decrease in the extent of CPPD on radiographs at 6 months, its results suggested that magnesium could have a positive impact on pain relief. […] The recently proposed association between CPPD disease and osteoporotic fractures may bring new insight into the balance between CPP crystal and hydroxyapatite formation.