Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Chronic Pancreatitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482325/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a progressive fibroinflammatory disease characterized by irreversible damage to the pancreatic tissue, resulting in exocrine and endocrine dysfunction. […] The TIGAR-O classification system (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, and Obstructive) categorizes the causes of chronic pancreatitis using the acronym TIGAR. […] In adults, alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis, whereas in children, genetic conditions, especially cystic fibrosis, and anatomic variants are the primary causes. […] Alcohol increases protein secretion from acinar cells, producing more viscous pancreatic fluid. This hyperviscosity leads to ductal obstruction, acinar fibrosis, and atrophy. However, fewer than 10% of individuals with alcohol use disorder develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that other factors, such as smoking, may also contribute to its development.

• #2 Chronic Pancreatitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/chronic-pancreatitis.html

  Your pancreas is an organ with many important functions. It makes enzymes that help you digest food. It also makes insulin to keep your blood sugar levels under control. […] If you have chronic pancreatitis, the digestive enzymes that would normally travel by tubes inside your pancreas and empty into your upper intestine, become trapped inside your pancreas. This causes pain and scarring. The trapped enzymes slowly cause severe damage to your pancreas. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking a lot of alcohol over a long period of time. Other causes include: An attack of acute pancreatitis that damages your pancreatic ducts, a blockage of the main pancreatic duct caused by cancer, certain autoimmune disorders, cystic fibrosis, hereditary diseases of the pancreas, smoking, and unknown cause in some cases.

• #3 Chronic pancreatitis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201760

  Chronic pancreatitis is defined as a pathological fibro-inflammatory syndrome of the pancreas in individuals with genetic, environmental and/or other risk factors who develop persistent pathological responses to parenchymal injury or stress. Potential causes can include toxic factors (such as alcohol or smoking), metabolic abnormalities, idiopathic mechanisms, genetics, autoimmune responses and obstructive mechanisms. […] The pathophysiology of chronic pancreatitis is fairly complex and includes acinar cell injury, acinar stress responses, duct dysfunction, persistent or altered inflammation, and/or neuro-immune crosstalk, but these mechanisms are not completely understood. […] Chronic pancreatitis is characterized by ongoing inflammation of the pancreas that results in progressive loss of the endocrine and exocrine compartment owing to atrophy and/or replacement with fibrotic tissue. […] This Primer highlights the major progress that has been made in understanding the pathophysiology, presentation, prevalence and management of chronic pancreatitis and its complications.

• #4 Chronic pancreatitis: review and update of etiology, risk factors, and management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958317/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a syndrome involving inflammation, fibrosis, and loss of acinar and islet cells which can manifest in unrelenting abdominal pain, malnutrition, and exocrine and endocrine insufficiency. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Recent evidence supports the notion that, in most patients, more than one etiology is present. […] The development of this classification system was based on the principle that an individuals risk of developing CP is decided by one or more risk factors. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Data indicate that AP progresses to RAP then to CP in a disease continuum. However, not all AP becomes recurrent, and not all RAP progresses to CP. Whether AP proceeds to RAP and to CP is determined by a multitude of risk factors, including exposure to alcohol, smoking, hereditary mutations, ductal obstruction, and autoimmune factors.

• #5 Causes and Symptoms of Chronic Pancreatitis – Mission: Cure

  https://mission-cure.org/chronic-pancreatitis/causes-and-symptoms-of-chronic-pancreatitis/

  Chronic pancreatitis can be caused by many factors, including genetic abnormality, physical injury to the pancreas, gallstones or other blockages, and medications. Alcohol use and smoking can contribute to chronic pancreatitis. For many patients, the cause is unknown (idiopathic pancreatitis). […] Causes of chronic pancreatitis include: Genetics, Autoimmune disorders, Hypercalcemia (high levels of calcium in the blood), Chronic renal failure (decrease in the kidneys ability to filter waste and fluid from blood), Physical injury to the pancreas, Obstructions (gallstones, other blockages), Certain medications, Diabetes/Glucose Intolerance, Acute/Recurrent Acute Pancreatitis, Cystic Fibrosis, Smoking, Heavy alcohol consumption may contribute, Idiopathic (unknown cause), High Triglycerides. […] There is usually not just one factor causing chronic pancreatitis. Rather, research suggests that chronic pancreatitis is caused by a combination of lifestyle, environmental, and genetic factors.

• #6 Chronic Pancreatitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482325/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a progressive fibroinflammatory disease characterized by irreversible damage to the pancreatic tissue, resulting in exocrine and endocrine dysfunction. […] The TIGAR-O classification system (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, and Obstructive) categorizes the causes of chronic pancreatitis using the acronym TIGAR. […] In adults, alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis, whereas in children, genetic conditions, especially cystic fibrosis, and anatomic variants are the primary causes. […] Alcohol increases protein secretion from acinar cells, producing more viscous pancreatic fluid. This hyperviscosity leads to ductal obstruction, acinar fibrosis, and atrophy. However, fewer than 10% of individuals with alcohol use disorder develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that other factors, such as smoking, may also contribute to its development.

• #7 Chronic pancreatitis: review and update of etiology, risk factors, and management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958317/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a syndrome involving inflammation, fibrosis, and loss of acinar and islet cells which can manifest in unrelenting abdominal pain, malnutrition, and exocrine and endocrine insufficiency. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Recent evidence supports the notion that, in most patients, more than one etiology is present. […] The development of this classification system was based on the principle that an individuals risk of developing CP is decided by one or more risk factors. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Data indicate that AP progresses to RAP then to CP in a disease continuum. However, not all AP becomes recurrent, and not all RAP progresses to CP. Whether AP proceeds to RAP and to CP is determined by a multitude of risk factors, including exposure to alcohol, smoking, hereditary mutations, ductal obstruction, and autoimmune factors.

• #8 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Diagnosis

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/pancreatitis/guide/chronic/

  Chronic pancreatitis, on the other hand, is a lasting illness that can cause serious and life-threatening problems. […] Long-term, heavy alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis. Some estimates suggest chronic alcohol use accounts for up to 70 percent of chronic pancreatitis cases in adults, according to a study. […] Other potential causes and risk factors of chronic pancreatitis are outlined in this TIGAR-O classification system mnemonic: Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic (unknown causes), Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, Obstructive. […] Toxic-metabolic causes and risk factors of chronic pancreatitis include: Alcohol, Tobacco (smoking is a risk factor for chronic pancreatitis), Chronic kidney failure, Hyperlipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia (elevated levels of lipids or fat in the blood), Hypercalcemia (elevated blood calcium levels), Toxins, Various types of medication, such as statins, steroids, valproic acid, oral contraceptives, and interferon.

• #9 Chronic Pancreatitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482325/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a progressive fibroinflammatory disease characterized by irreversible damage to the pancreatic tissue, resulting in exocrine and endocrine dysfunction. […] The TIGAR-O classification system (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, and Obstructive) categorizes the causes of chronic pancreatitis using the acronym TIGAR. […] In adults, alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis, whereas in children, genetic conditions, especially cystic fibrosis, and anatomic variants are the primary causes. […] Alcohol increases protein secretion from acinar cells, producing more viscous pancreatic fluid. This hyperviscosity leads to ductal obstruction, acinar fibrosis, and atrophy. However, fewer than 10% of individuals with alcohol use disorder develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that other factors, such as smoking, may also contribute to its development.

• #10 Chronic pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Long-term alcohol misuse is responsible for around 7 out of every 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis. This is because heavy drinking over a number of years can repeatedly damage the pancreas. […] Most cases of chronic pancreatitis are associated with drinking excessive amounts of alcohol over a long period of time. […] However, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause can’t be identified known as idiopathic chronic pancreatitis. […] Rare cases of chronic pancreatitis are the result of a problem with the immune system, which causes it to attack the pancreas. This is known as autoimmune pancreatitis and it’s not clear exactly why it happens. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are inherited. This is thought to be caused by mutations (alterations) in a number of genes, including genes called PRSS1 and SPINK-1. These mutations disrupt the normal working of the pancreas. […] Several other rare causes of chronic pancreatitis have also been identified, including injury to the pancreas, blocked or narrowed openings (ducts) of the pancreas, smoking, and radiotherapy to the abdomen.

• #11 Chronic pancreatitis – Guts UK

  https://gutscharity.org.uk/advice-and-information/conditions/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a long-standing inflammation of the pancreas. The causes of chronic pancreatitis vary greatly. In most people with chronic pancreatitis there is probably a combination of family (genetic) and environmental factors. The most frequent cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking too much alcohol (about 7 in 10 people with chronic pancreatitis). Smoking tobacco is recognised as harmful to the pancreas as well. High levels of fats (triglycerides) or calcium in the blood are also known to cause chronic pancreatitis. Some prescribed medications can cause chronic pancreatitis. Some people who have specific genes are prone to develop chronic pancreatitis. The most common is the cystic fibrosis gene. Autoimmune pancreatitis occurs when the body’s own immune system attacks the pancreas. Pancreas divisum happens in 1 in 10 people. Bile duct obstructions caused by tumours, stones or scarring from trauma/injury can also cause chronic pancreatitis. There is an association with gallstones. Unfortunately, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause cannot be identified, despite thorough investigation. This is known as “idiopathic” chronic pancreatitis.

• #12 Chronic Pancreatitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482325/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a progressive fibroinflammatory disease characterized by irreversible damage to the pancreatic tissue, resulting in exocrine and endocrine dysfunction. […] The TIGAR-O classification system (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, and Obstructive) categorizes the causes of chronic pancreatitis using the acronym TIGAR. […] In adults, alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis, whereas in children, genetic conditions, especially cystic fibrosis, and anatomic variants are the primary causes. […] Alcohol increases protein secretion from acinar cells, producing more viscous pancreatic fluid. This hyperviscosity leads to ductal obstruction, acinar fibrosis, and atrophy. However, fewer than 10% of individuals with alcohol use disorder develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that other factors, such as smoking, may also contribute to its development.

• #13 Chronic Pancreatitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482325/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a progressive fibroinflammatory disease characterized by irreversible damage to the pancreatic tissue, resulting in exocrine and endocrine dysfunction. […] The TIGAR-O classification system (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, and Obstructive) categorizes the causes of chronic pancreatitis using the acronym TIGAR. […] In adults, alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis, whereas in children, genetic conditions, especially cystic fibrosis, and anatomic variants are the primary causes. […] Alcohol increases protein secretion from acinar cells, producing more viscous pancreatic fluid. This hyperviscosity leads to ductal obstruction, acinar fibrosis, and atrophy. However, fewer than 10% of individuals with alcohol use disorder develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that other factors, such as smoking, may also contribute to its development.

• #14 Chronic Pancreatitis – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/chronic-pancreatitis-a-to-z

  Most cases of chronic pancreatitis are caused by long-standing overuse of alcohol. […] Since only a small percentage of people who overuse alcohol develop chronic pancreatitis, there probably are other factors that influence whether someone develops chronic pancreatitis. […] Besides overuse of alcohol, other causes of chronic pancreatitis include: Hereditary chronic pancreatitis is a rare genetic disorder that predisposes a person to develop the disease, usually before age 20. […] Mutations of the cystic fibrosis gene is the most widely recognized genetic cause. […] Blockage of the duct that drains digestive enzymes from the pancreas. […] Autoimmune pancreatitis. […] Very high blood triglyceride levels. […] Sometimes the underlying cause of chronic pancreatitis cannot be identified.

• #15 Etiology of Pancreatitis and Risk Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/47453

  The annual incidence of CP in industrialized countries has been estimated at 5-12 per 100,000, with a prevalence of about 50 per 100,000 persons. […] Alcohol intake is the single most common cause of CP, and the second after gallstones for AP being responsible for about 30-35% of cases of acute attacks. […] The risk of acute alcohol-induced pancreatitis increases in a dose-dependent manner, with a threshold for CP of approximately 4-5 drinks/day. […] Chronic alcoholic patients eventually develop CP after 10 to 20 years of continuous alcohol abuse. […] It has been found that abdominal adiposity increases the risk and severity of AP. […] Some studies found that type 2 diabetes mellitus increases the risk of AP by 1.5 to 3-fold, particularly in younger diabetic patients. […] This type of hyperlipidemia induces AP in about 1-4% of cases, and this is an uncommon etiology of CP. […] Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetrance rates up to 80%. […] This disorder is associated with mutations in the trypsinogen gen PRSS1 that promotes the premature conversion of trypsinogen to active trypsin, resulting in pancreatic autodigestion.

• #16 Etiology of Pancreatitis and Risk Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/47453

  The annual incidence of CP in industrialized countries has been estimated at 5-12 per 100,000, with a prevalence of about 50 per 100,000 persons. […] Alcohol intake is the single most common cause of CP, and the second after gallstones for AP being responsible for about 30-35% of cases of acute attacks. […] The risk of acute alcohol-induced pancreatitis increases in a dose-dependent manner, with a threshold for CP of approximately 4-5 drinks/day. […] Chronic alcoholic patients eventually develop CP after 10 to 20 years of continuous alcohol abuse. […] It has been found that abdominal adiposity increases the risk and severity of AP. […] Some studies found that type 2 diabetes mellitus increases the risk of AP by 1.5 to 3-fold, particularly in younger diabetic patients. […] This type of hyperlipidemia induces AP in about 1-4% of cases, and this is an uncommon etiology of CP. […] Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetrance rates up to 80%. […] This disorder is associated with mutations in the trypsinogen gen PRSS1 that promotes the premature conversion of trypsinogen to active trypsin, resulting in pancreatic autodigestion.

• #17 Pulsenotes | Chronic pancreatitis

  https://app.pulsenotes.com/surgery/hepatobiliary/notes/chronic-pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis is traditionally considered as chronic, irreversible, inflammation and/or fibrosis of the pancreas. […] In the Western world, the leading cause of chronic pancreatitis is alcohol. […] There are a huge number of causes of chronic pancreatitis and patients often have more than one aetiological factor. […] There are many causes of chronic pancreatitis. Examples include alcohol, high triglycerides or autoimmune pancreatitis. […] Alcohol is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis in the Western world. […] It is estimated that an intake of 5 or more drinks per day is needed for the development of chronic pancreatitis. […] Autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP) is a complex condition that refers to two conditions: […] This refers to the development of acute recurrent pancreatitis or chronic pancreatitis by the inheritance of abnormal genes through a mendelian pattern of inheritance. […] The classic examples of hereditary pancreatitis include: […] Chronic pancreatitis is associated with an increased mortality and severely impacts quality of life. […] Typical complications associated with chronic pancreatitis include:

• #18 Chronic Pancreatitis – Gastrointestinal Disorders – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/pancreatitis/chronic-pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis can cause calcification of the pancreatic parenchyma, formation of intraductal stones, or both as well as pancreatic atrophy. […] In the United States, about 50% of cases of chronic pancreatitis result from heavy alcohol consumption, and chronic pancreatitis is more common among men than women. However, only a minority of people with sustained alcohol exposure ultimately develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that there are other cofactors required to trigger overt disease. Cigarette smoking is an independent, dose-dependent risk factor for developing chronic pancreatitis. […] Less common causes of chronic pancreatitis include genetic disorders, systemic diseases, and ductal obstruction caused by stenosis, stones, or cancer. […] Tropical pancreatitis is an idiopathic form of chronic pancreatitis that occurs in children and young adults in tropical regions such as India, Indonesia, and Nigeria. Tropical pancreatitis is characterized by an early age of onset, large ductal calculi, an accelerated course of the disease, and an increased risk of pancreatic cancer.

• #19 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/digestive-health/chronic-pancreatitis-leaflet

  Chronic pancreatitis can cause tummy (abdominal) pain, poor digestion, diabetes and other complications. Alcohol is the common cause. […] The reason why alcohol or other factors trigger this inflammation is not clear, although in some people it is thought to relate to their genes. […] Alcohol – is the common cause (about 7 in 10 cases). Men aged 40-50 are the most common group of people affected. In most cases the person has been drinking heavily for 10 years or more before symptoms first begin. […] Smoking – has recently been found to be linked to chronic pancreatitis. […] Genetic conditions – there are some rare genetic conditions which can lead to chronic pancreatitis developing. Cystic fibrosis can be one cause. […] Autoimmune conditions – your own immune system attacks the pancreas.

• #20 Chronic Pancreatitis: Common Causes & Risk Factors

  https://www.healixhospitals.com/blogs/why-chronic-pancreatitis-occurs:-common-causes

  Chronic pancreatitis is a complex disease with genetic and environmental factors playing a role in its occurrence. […] Recent studies suggest that tobacco smoke is a more significant risk factor than alcohol consumption, which is surprising. […] One of the most common causes of chronic pancreatitis is excessive alcohol consumption. Chronic alcohol abuse can lead to pancreas inflammation and scarring, ultimately resulting in chronic pancreatitis. […] Some individuals may have a genetic predisposition to chronic pancreatitis. Genetic mutations can make the pancreas more susceptible to inflammation. […] Autoimmune pancreatitis is a less common but significant cause of chronic pancreatitis. […] Gallstones can block the pancreatic duct, causing digestive enzymes to back up into the pancreas. This can trigger inflammation and lead to chronic pancreatitis.

• #21 Chronic pancreatitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis is a risk factor for the development of pancreatic cancer. […] Among the causes of chronic pancreatitis are the following: Alcohol, Autoimmune disorders, Intraductal obstruction, Idiopathic pancreatitis, Tumors, Ischemia, Calcific stones. […] Chronic alcohol misuse and smoking are well-established risk factors for the development of chronic pancreatitis, and the two are thought to have a synergistic effect with regard to disease development. […] Genetic mutations are thought to be responsible for 10% of cases. This includes mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 (SPINK1), and the chymotrypsin C (CTRC) proteins. […] 28% of cases of chronic pancreatitis are idiopathic (of an unknown cause).

• #22 Etiology of chronic pancreatitis: Has it changed in the last decade?

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v15/i38/4737.htm

  The evidence from recent surveys on chronic pancreatitis carried out around the world shows that alcohol remains the main factor associated with chronic pancreatitis, even if at a frequency lower than that reported previously. […] It has further confirmed that heavy alcohol consumption and smoking are independent risk factors for chronic pancreatitis. […] Autoimmune pancreatitis accounts for 2%-4% of all forms of chronic pancreatitis, but this frequency will probably increase over the next few years. […] The rise in idiopathic chronic pancreatitis, especially in India, represents a black hole in recently published surveys. […] Despite the progress made so far regarding the possibility of establishing the hereditary forms of chronic pancreatitis and the recognition of autoimmune pancreatitis, it is possible that we are more inaccurate today than in the past in identifying the factors associated with chronic pancreatitis in our patients.

• #23 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Diagnosis

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/pancreatitis/guide/chronic/

  Chronic pancreatitis, on the other hand, is a lasting illness that can cause serious and life-threatening problems. […] Long-term, heavy alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis. Some estimates suggest chronic alcohol use accounts for up to 70 percent of chronic pancreatitis cases in adults, according to a study. […] Other potential causes and risk factors of chronic pancreatitis are outlined in this TIGAR-O classification system mnemonic: Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic (unknown causes), Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, Obstructive. […] Toxic-metabolic causes and risk factors of chronic pancreatitis include: Alcohol, Tobacco (smoking is a risk factor for chronic pancreatitis), Chronic kidney failure, Hyperlipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia (elevated levels of lipids or fat in the blood), Hypercalcemia (elevated blood calcium levels), Toxins, Various types of medication, such as statins, steroids, valproic acid, oral contraceptives, and interferon.

• #24 Chronic Pancreatitis – Pancreatic Diseases – Gastroenterology – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.5.2.

  Other less common factors contributing to the etiology include tobacco smoking, hypercalcemia (hyperparathyroidism, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 [MEN 1] or MEN 2a), fasting triglyceride levels 300 mg/dL or incidental levels 500 mg/dL, drugs (100 drugs may contribute to acute and/or recurrent pancreatitis, including azathioprine, methylprednisolone, fenofibrate, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, statins, estrogens, and valproic acid), toxins (other than alcohol and nicotine; oxidative stressassociated causes [related to radiotherapy or chemotherapy] or causing damage to pancreatic cells [eg, in stage 5 chronic kidney disease]), metabolic etiology (other than hypertriglyceridemia; related to diabetes, diet, or obesity). […] 2) Idiopathic.

• #25 Chronic pancreatitis – Guts UK

  https://gutscharity.org.uk/advice-and-information/conditions/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a long-standing inflammation of the pancreas. The causes of chronic pancreatitis vary greatly. In most people with chronic pancreatitis there is probably a combination of family (genetic) and environmental factors. The most frequent cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking too much alcohol (about 7 in 10 people with chronic pancreatitis). Smoking tobacco is recognised as harmful to the pancreas as well. High levels of fats (triglycerides) or calcium in the blood are also known to cause chronic pancreatitis. Some prescribed medications can cause chronic pancreatitis. Some people who have specific genes are prone to develop chronic pancreatitis. The most common is the cystic fibrosis gene. Autoimmune pancreatitis occurs when the body’s own immune system attacks the pancreas. Pancreas divisum happens in 1 in 10 people. Bile duct obstructions caused by tumours, stones or scarring from trauma/injury can also cause chronic pancreatitis. There is an association with gallstones. Unfortunately, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause cannot be identified, despite thorough investigation. This is known as “idiopathic” chronic pancreatitis.

• #26 Chronic pancreatitis: Symptoms, causes, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/160459

  Autoimmunity: Autoimmune diseases occur when the body’s immune system attacks healthy tissues, which can include the pancreas. […] Certain medications: Chemotherapy can contribute to chronic pancreatitis, and other drugs may also raise the risk. […] Hypercalcemia: This is when a person has high levels of calcium in their blood. This can lead to gallstones. […] Hyperlipidemia: This is when a person has high levels of lipids or fats in the blood. […] Genetics: People who inherit conditions such as cystic fibrosis or hereditary forms of pancreatitis are more likely to develop chronic pancreatitis. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are idiopathic, which means the cause of chronic pancreatitis is unknown. This is more common in countries outside of the West, such as India.

• #27 Causes of Chronic Pancreatitis | Stanford Health Care

  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/digestion-and-metabolic-health/chronic-pancreatitis/causes.html

  The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is many years of heavy alcohol use. The chronic form of pancreatitis can be triggered by one acute attack that damages the pancreatic duct. The damaged duct causes the pancreas to become inflamed. Scar tissue develops and the pancreas is slowly destroyed. […] Less common causes of chronic pancreatitis include: […] Hereditary disorders of the pancreas […] Cystic fibrosis (most common inherited disorder leading to chronic pancreatitis) […] Hypercalcemia (high levels of calcium in the blood) […] Hyperlipidemia or hypertriglyceridemia (high levels of blood fats) […] Some medicines […] Certain autoimmune conditions […] Unknown causes.

• #28 Chronic Pancreatitis: Causes, Symptoms, & Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/chronic-pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis can occur due to autoimmune disease, long-term alcohol misuse, and other health conditions. […] There are numerous different causes of chronic pancreatitis. The most common cause is long-term alcohol abuse. Approximately 70 percent of cases are linked to alcohol consumption. […] Autoimmune disease occurs when your body mistakenly attacks your healthy cells and tissues. Inflammatory bowel syndrome, which is inflammation of the digestive tract, and primary biliary cholangitis, which is a chronic liver disease associated with chronic pancreatitis. […] Other causes include: autoimmune disease, which occurs when your body mistakenly attacks your healthy cells and tissues; a narrow pancreatic duct, which is the tube that carries enzymes from the pancreas to the small intestine; a blockage of the pancreatic duct by either gallstones or pancreatic stones; cystic fibrosis, which is a hereditary disease that causes mucus to build up in your lungs; genetics; high blood levels of calcium, which is called hypercalcemia; a high level of triglyceride fats in your blood, which is called hypertriglyceridemia.

• #29 Chronic Pancreatitis

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/GI/Pancreas/ChrncPncrts.htm

  Chronic Alcoholism (most common U.S. cause, up to 70% of cases) […] Idiopathic (25% of cases) […] Autoimmune Pancreatitis (5-6% of cases) […] Hypertriglyceridemia […] Hyperparathyroidism or Hypercalcemia […] Hemochromatosis […] Hereditary Pancreatitis (most common in children) […] Occult neoplasm or other causes of pancreatic obstruction […] Chronic Renal Failure […] Medications […] Severe, recurrent Pancreatitis […] Anatomic abnormalities.

• #30 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Diagnosis

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/pancreatitis/guide/chronic/

  Chronic pancreatitis, on the other hand, is a lasting illness that can cause serious and life-threatening problems. […] Long-term, heavy alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis. Some estimates suggest chronic alcohol use accounts for up to 70 percent of chronic pancreatitis cases in adults, according to a study. […] Other potential causes and risk factors of chronic pancreatitis are outlined in this TIGAR-O classification system mnemonic: Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic (unknown causes), Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, Obstructive. […] Toxic-metabolic causes and risk factors of chronic pancreatitis include: Alcohol, Tobacco (smoking is a risk factor for chronic pancreatitis), Chronic kidney failure, Hyperlipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia (elevated levels of lipids or fat in the blood), Hypercalcemia (elevated blood calcium levels), Toxins, Various types of medication, such as statins, steroids, valproic acid, oral contraceptives, and interferon.

• #31 Chronic pancreatitis: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000221.htm

  Pancreatitis is swelling of the pancreas. Chronic pancreatitis is present when this problem does not heal or recurs and does not improve, gets worse over time, and leads to permanent damage. […] The condition is most often caused by alcohol abuse over many years. Repeated episodes of acute pancreatitis can lead to chronic pancreatitis. Genetics may be a factor in some cases. Sometimes, the cause is not known or caused by gall stones. […] Other conditions that have been linked to chronic pancreatitis: Problems when the immune system attacks the body, Blockage of the tubes (ducts) that drain enzymes from the pancreas, Cystic fibrosis, High levels of a fat, called triglycerides, in the blood, Overactive parathyroid gland, Use of certain medicines (especially sulfonamides, thiazides, and azathioprine), Pancreatitis that is passed down in families (hereditary). […] Finding the cause of acute pancreatitis and treating it quickly may help prevent chronic pancreatitis. Limit the amount of alcohol you drink to reduce your risk of developing this condition.

• #32 Chronic Pancreatitis – Pancreatic Diseases – Gastroenterology – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.5.2.

  Other less common factors contributing to the etiology include tobacco smoking, hypercalcemia (hyperparathyroidism, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 [MEN 1] or MEN 2a), fasting triglyceride levels 300 mg/dL or incidental levels 500 mg/dL, drugs (100 drugs may contribute to acute and/or recurrent pancreatitis, including azathioprine, methylprednisolone, fenofibrate, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, statins, estrogens, and valproic acid), toxins (other than alcohol and nicotine; oxidative stressassociated causes [related to radiotherapy or chemotherapy] or causing damage to pancreatic cells [eg, in stage 5 chronic kidney disease]), metabolic etiology (other than hypertriglyceridemia; related to diabetes, diet, or obesity). […] 2) Idiopathic.

• #33 Chronic Pancreatitis – Pancreatic Diseases – Gastroenterology – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.5.2.

  Other less common factors contributing to the etiology include tobacco smoking, hypercalcemia (hyperparathyroidism, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 [MEN 1] or MEN 2a), fasting triglyceride levels 300 mg/dL or incidental levels 500 mg/dL, drugs (100 drugs may contribute to acute and/or recurrent pancreatitis, including azathioprine, methylprednisolone, fenofibrate, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, statins, estrogens, and valproic acid), toxins (other than alcohol and nicotine; oxidative stressassociated causes [related to radiotherapy or chemotherapy] or causing damage to pancreatic cells [eg, in stage 5 chronic kidney disease]), metabolic etiology (other than hypertriglyceridemia; related to diabetes, diet, or obesity). […] 2) Idiopathic.

• #34 Chronic pancreatitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis is a risk factor for the development of pancreatic cancer. […] Among the causes of chronic pancreatitis are the following: Alcohol, Autoimmune disorders, Intraductal obstruction, Idiopathic pancreatitis, Tumors, Ischemia, Calcific stones. […] Chronic alcohol misuse and smoking are well-established risk factors for the development of chronic pancreatitis, and the two are thought to have a synergistic effect with regard to disease development. […] Genetic mutations are thought to be responsible for 10% of cases. This includes mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 (SPINK1), and the chymotrypsin C (CTRC) proteins. […] 28% of cases of chronic pancreatitis are idiopathic (of an unknown cause).

• #35 Chronic Pancreatitis – Pancreatic Diseases – Gastroenterology – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.5.2.

  3) Genetic: Gene mutations: PRSS1 (cationic trypsinogen), CFTR (cystic fibrosis), SPINK1 (serine protease inhibitors), or alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. […] 4) Autoimmune (see Autoimmune Pancreatitis). […] 5) Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis: Prior acute pancreatitis, recurrent acute pancreatitis. […] 6) Obstructive: Pancreas divisum, ampulla of Vater stenosis, main pancreatic duct stones, widespread pancreatic calcifications, stricture of the main pancreatic duct, or tumor causing duct obstruction.

• #36 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Diagnosis

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/pancreatitis/guide/chronic/

  Genetic causes of chronic pancreatitis are related to mutations in several genes. They include: PRSS1 (hereditary pancreatitis), CFTR (present in those with cystic fibrosis), SPINK1. […] Autoimmune causes of chronic pancreatitis are associated with autoimmune diseases, such as: Inflammatory bowel disease, Sjgrens syndrome, Primary biliary cirrhosis, Type 1 diabetes. […] Obstructive causes of chronic pancreatitis include conditions that block the pancreatic duct, such as tumors; divisum, a birth defect in which a pancreatic duct doesn’t form; and disorders involving the sphincter of Oddi, a muscle that controls the flow of digestive juices through ducts from the liver and pancreas into the small intestine. […] What are the causes of chronic pancreatitis? The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is long-term, heavy alcohol consumption. Other causes include toxic-metabolic factors (smoking, chronic kidney failure, elevated levels of lipids or fat in the blood, elevated blood calcium levels, and various types of medication), genetic mutations, autoimmune diseases, and obstructions in the pancreatic duct.

• #37 Chronic Pancreatitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/chronic-pancreatitis.html

  Your pancreas is an organ with many important functions. It makes enzymes that help you digest food. It also makes insulin to keep your blood sugar levels under control. […] If you have chronic pancreatitis, the digestive enzymes that would normally travel by tubes inside your pancreas and empty into your upper intestine, become trapped inside your pancreas. This causes pain and scarring. The trapped enzymes slowly cause severe damage to your pancreas. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking a lot of alcohol over a long period of time. Other causes include: An attack of acute pancreatitis that damages your pancreatic ducts, a blockage of the main pancreatic duct caused by cancer, certain autoimmune disorders, cystic fibrosis, hereditary diseases of the pancreas, smoking, and unknown cause in some cases.

• #38 Chronic Pancreatitis – National Pancreas Foundation

  https://pancreasfoundation.org/pancreas-disease/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a progressive disorder associated with the destruction of the pancreas. The disease is more common in men and usually develops in persons between 30 and 40 years of age. Initially, chronic pancreatitis may be confused with acute pancreatitis because the symptoms are similar. […] Several factors have been identified to cause chronic pancreatitis: hereditary pancreatitis – caused by mutations in the trypsinogen gene (PRSS1), cystic fibrosis (CF) – caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), atypical CF – caused by mild mutations in CFTR that may only affect the pancreas, autoimmune pancreatitis – caused by the immune system attacking the pancreas, severe acute pancreatitis – caused by the destruction of the pancreas in a severe attack with pancreatic necrosis.

• #39 Chronic pancreatitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_pancreatitis

  In a small group of patients, chronic pancreatitis has been shown to be hereditary. Hereditary pancreatitis, which causes 1% of chronic pancreatitis, involves a mutation of the Trypsin 1 gene that is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. […] Obstruction of the pancreatic duct because of either a benign or malignant process may result in chronic pancreatitis.

• #40 Etiology of Pancreatitis and Risk Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/47453

  The annual incidence of CP in industrialized countries has been estimated at 5-12 per 100,000, with a prevalence of about 50 per 100,000 persons. […] Alcohol intake is the single most common cause of CP, and the second after gallstones for AP being responsible for about 30-35% of cases of acute attacks. […] The risk of acute alcohol-induced pancreatitis increases in a dose-dependent manner, with a threshold for CP of approximately 4-5 drinks/day. […] Chronic alcoholic patients eventually develop CP after 10 to 20 years of continuous alcohol abuse. […] It has been found that abdominal adiposity increases the risk and severity of AP. […] Some studies found that type 2 diabetes mellitus increases the risk of AP by 1.5 to 3-fold, particularly in younger diabetic patients. […] This type of hyperlipidemia induces AP in about 1-4% of cases, and this is an uncommon etiology of CP. […] Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetrance rates up to 80%. […] This disorder is associated with mutations in the trypsinogen gen PRSS1 that promotes the premature conversion of trypsinogen to active trypsin, resulting in pancreatic autodigestion.

• #41 Chronic pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Long-term alcohol misuse is responsible for around 7 out of every 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis. This is because heavy drinking over a number of years can repeatedly damage the pancreas. […] Most cases of chronic pancreatitis are associated with drinking excessive amounts of alcohol over a long period of time. […] However, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause can’t be identified known as idiopathic chronic pancreatitis. […] Rare cases of chronic pancreatitis are the result of a problem with the immune system, which causes it to attack the pancreas. This is known as autoimmune pancreatitis and it’s not clear exactly why it happens. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are inherited. This is thought to be caused by mutations (alterations) in a number of genes, including genes called PRSS1 and SPINK-1. These mutations disrupt the normal working of the pancreas. […] Several other rare causes of chronic pancreatitis have also been identified, including injury to the pancreas, blocked or narrowed openings (ducts) of the pancreas, smoking, and radiotherapy to the abdomen.

• #42 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Treatment, and More

  https://www.health.com/chronic-pancreatitis-8661285

  Recurrent acute pancreatitis: About 36% of people with a history of recurrent acute pancreatitis repeated bouts of sudden inflammation of the pancreas develop chronic pancreatitis. […] Genetic variants: Inherited changes in the trypsinogen (PRSS1) gene can cause changes in how the pancreas produces certain enzymes, leading to hereditary pancreatitis that may develop into chronic pancreatitis. Cystic fibrosis, a genetic condition that affects the pancreas and other organs, can also cause chronic pancreatitis. […] Immune system dysfunction: Chronic pancreatitis can develop when the immune system mistakenly attacks the pancreas, leading to long-term inflammation. It may occur on its own or in combination with other autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and Sjogren’s syndrome. […] Blocked pancreatic duct: Gallstones or tumors that block one or more pancreatic ducts can lead to chronic inflammation and pancreatitis.

• #43 Chronic pancreatitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis is a risk factor for the development of pancreatic cancer. […] Among the causes of chronic pancreatitis are the following: Alcohol, Autoimmune disorders, Intraductal obstruction, Idiopathic pancreatitis, Tumors, Ischemia, Calcific stones. […] Chronic alcohol misuse and smoking are well-established risk factors for the development of chronic pancreatitis, and the two are thought to have a synergistic effect with regard to disease development. […] Genetic mutations are thought to be responsible for 10% of cases. This includes mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 (SPINK1), and the chymotrypsin C (CTRC) proteins. […] 28% of cases of chronic pancreatitis are idiopathic (of an unknown cause).

• #44 Introduction to Pancreatic Disease: Chronic Pancreatitis | Pancreapedia

  https://pancreapedia.org/reviews/introduction-to-pancreatic-disease-chronic-pancreatitis

  In the recent years, there has been more research that has found new genes that may be associated with the development of chronic pancreatitis. These genes include PRSS1, CFTR, SPINK1, and CTRC. A gain of function (which occurs in PRSS1) or a loss of function (which occurs in SPINK1, CTRC, and CFTR) leads to either the premature activation of the enzymes that digest the pancreas (trypsin) or prevents it breakdown. […] Other causes of chronic pancreatitis in adults and children include autoimmune pancreatitis and fibrocalcific pancreatitis, also known as tropical pancreatitis, which is more common in India.

• #45 Chronic Pancreatitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482325/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a progressive fibroinflammatory disease characterized by irreversible damage to the pancreatic tissue, resulting in exocrine and endocrine dysfunction. […] The TIGAR-O classification system (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, and Obstructive) categorizes the causes of chronic pancreatitis using the acronym TIGAR. […] In adults, alcohol consumption is the most common cause of chronic pancreatitis, whereas in children, genetic conditions, especially cystic fibrosis, and anatomic variants are the primary causes. […] Alcohol increases protein secretion from acinar cells, producing more viscous pancreatic fluid. This hyperviscosity leads to ductal obstruction, acinar fibrosis, and atrophy. However, fewer than 10% of individuals with alcohol use disorder develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that other factors, such as smoking, may also contribute to its development.

• #46 Chronic Pancreatitis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2007/1201/p1679.html

  Chronic pancreatitis is the progressive and permanent destruction of the pancreas resulting in exocrine and endocrine insufficiency and, often, chronic disabling pain. The etiology is multifactorial. Alcoholism plays a significant role in adults, whereas genetic and structural defects predominate in children. […] Chronic alcohol use accounts for 70 percent of the cases of chronic pancreatitis in adults, and most patients have consumed more than 150 g of alcohol per day over six to 12 years. […] Genetic diseases (e.g., cystic fibrosis) and anatomic defects predominate in children. […] The TIGAR-O (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, Obstructive) classification system is based on risk factors for chronic pancreatitis.

• #47 Etiology of chronic pancreatitis: Has it changed in the last decade?

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v15/i38/4737.htm

  The evidence from recent surveys on chronic pancreatitis carried out around the world shows that alcohol remains the main factor associated with chronic pancreatitis, even if at a frequency lower than that reported previously. […] It has further confirmed that heavy alcohol consumption and smoking are independent risk factors for chronic pancreatitis. […] Autoimmune pancreatitis accounts for 2%-4% of all forms of chronic pancreatitis, but this frequency will probably increase over the next few years. […] The rise in idiopathic chronic pancreatitis, especially in India, represents a black hole in recently published surveys. […] Despite the progress made so far regarding the possibility of establishing the hereditary forms of chronic pancreatitis and the recognition of autoimmune pancreatitis, it is possible that we are more inaccurate today than in the past in identifying the factors associated with chronic pancreatitis in our patients.

• #48 Chronic Pancreatitis

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/GI/Pancreas/ChrncPncrts.htm

  Chronic Alcoholism (most common U.S. cause, up to 70% of cases) […] Idiopathic (25% of cases) […] Autoimmune Pancreatitis (5-6% of cases) […] Hypertriglyceridemia […] Hyperparathyroidism or Hypercalcemia […] Hemochromatosis […] Hereditary Pancreatitis (most common in children) […] Occult neoplasm or other causes of pancreatic obstruction […] Chronic Renal Failure […] Medications […] Severe, recurrent Pancreatitis […] Anatomic abnormalities.

• #49 Chronic pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Long-term alcohol misuse is responsible for around 7 out of every 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis. This is because heavy drinking over a number of years can repeatedly damage the pancreas. […] Most cases of chronic pancreatitis are associated with drinking excessive amounts of alcohol over a long period of time. […] However, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause can’t be identified known as idiopathic chronic pancreatitis. […] Rare cases of chronic pancreatitis are the result of a problem with the immune system, which causes it to attack the pancreas. This is known as autoimmune pancreatitis and it’s not clear exactly why it happens. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are inherited. This is thought to be caused by mutations (alterations) in a number of genes, including genes called PRSS1 and SPINK-1. These mutations disrupt the normal working of the pancreas. […] Several other rare causes of chronic pancreatitis have also been identified, including injury to the pancreas, blocked or narrowed openings (ducts) of the pancreas, smoking, and radiotherapy to the abdomen.

• #50 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Diagnosis

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/pancreatitis/guide/chronic/

  Genetic causes of chronic pancreatitis are related to mutations in several genes. They include: PRSS1 (hereditary pancreatitis), CFTR (present in those with cystic fibrosis), SPINK1. […] Autoimmune causes of chronic pancreatitis are associated with autoimmune diseases, such as: Inflammatory bowel disease, Sjgrens syndrome, Primary biliary cirrhosis, Type 1 diabetes. […] Obstructive causes of chronic pancreatitis include conditions that block the pancreatic duct, such as tumors; divisum, a birth defect in which a pancreatic duct doesn’t form; and disorders involving the sphincter of Oddi, a muscle that controls the flow of digestive juices through ducts from the liver and pancreas into the small intestine. […] What are the causes of chronic pancreatitis? The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is long-term, heavy alcohol consumption. Other causes include toxic-metabolic factors (smoking, chronic kidney failure, elevated levels of lipids or fat in the blood, elevated blood calcium levels, and various types of medication), genetic mutations, autoimmune diseases, and obstructions in the pancreatic duct.

• #51 Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8103-pancreatitis

  Most of the time, pancreatitis is acute and temporary. But causes that are chronic and don’t go away, such as inherited disorders, can cause chronic pancreatitis. Repeat episodes of acute pancreatitis can also lead to chronic pancreatitis. If your pancreas becomes inflamed too many times from repeated stress and injury, your body may learn to keep it constantly inflamed, even after the injury has stopped.

• #52 Chronic pancreatitis: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/chronic-pancreatitis-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis-in-adults

  Chronic pancreatitis can result from episodes of acute pancreatitis of any cause, most commonly in those with multiple relapsing episodes of acute pancreatitis. […] The syndrome of chronic pancreatitis results from exposure to risk factors (genetic and environmental) and is characterized by derangements in pancreatic function (digestive function or insulin secretion), and structural changes in the pancreas visible on imaging or endoscopic studies. […] The etiology, pathogenesis, complications, and treatment of chronic pancreatitis are discussed separately.

• #53 Chronic pancreatitis: review and update of etiology, risk factors, and management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958317/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a syndrome involving inflammation, fibrosis, and loss of acinar and islet cells which can manifest in unrelenting abdominal pain, malnutrition, and exocrine and endocrine insufficiency. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Recent evidence supports the notion that, in most patients, more than one etiology is present. […] The development of this classification system was based on the principle that an individuals risk of developing CP is decided by one or more risk factors. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Data indicate that AP progresses to RAP then to CP in a disease continuum. However, not all AP becomes recurrent, and not all RAP progresses to CP. Whether AP proceeds to RAP and to CP is determined by a multitude of risk factors, including exposure to alcohol, smoking, hereditary mutations, ductal obstruction, and autoimmune factors.

• #54 Chronic pancreatitis: review and update of etiology, risk factors, and management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958317/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a syndrome involving inflammation, fibrosis, and loss of acinar and islet cells which can manifest in unrelenting abdominal pain, malnutrition, and exocrine and endocrine insufficiency. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Recent evidence supports the notion that, in most patients, more than one etiology is present. […] The development of this classification system was based on the principle that an individuals risk of developing CP is decided by one or more risk factors. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Data indicate that AP progresses to RAP then to CP in a disease continuum. However, not all AP becomes recurrent, and not all RAP progresses to CP. Whether AP proceeds to RAP and to CP is determined by a multitude of risk factors, including exposure to alcohol, smoking, hereditary mutations, ductal obstruction, and autoimmune factors.

• #55 Chronic Pancreatitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/chronic-pancreatitis.html

  Your pancreas is an organ with many important functions. It makes enzymes that help you digest food. It also makes insulin to keep your blood sugar levels under control. […] If you have chronic pancreatitis, the digestive enzymes that would normally travel by tubes inside your pancreas and empty into your upper intestine, become trapped inside your pancreas. This causes pain and scarring. The trapped enzymes slowly cause severe damage to your pancreas. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking a lot of alcohol over a long period of time. Other causes include: An attack of acute pancreatitis that damages your pancreatic ducts, a blockage of the main pancreatic duct caused by cancer, certain autoimmune disorders, cystic fibrosis, hereditary diseases of the pancreas, smoking, and unknown cause in some cases.

• #56 Chronic Pancreatitis | UCSF Department of Surgery

  https://surgicaloncology.ucsf.edu/condition/chronic-pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas that does not heal or improve-it gets worse over time and leads to permanent damage. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is many years of heavy alcohol use. […] The chronic form of pancreatitis can be triggered by one acute attack that damages the pancreatic duct. […] Other causes of chronic pancreatitis are hereditary disorders of the pancreas, cystic fibrosis-the most common inherited disorder leading to chronic pancreatitis, hypercalcemia-high levels of calcium in the blood, hyperlipidemia or hypertriglyceridemia-high levels of blood fats, some medicines, certain autoimmune conditions, and unknown causes. […] A diagnosis of hereditary pancreatitis is likely if the person has two or more family members with pancreatitis in more than one generation.

• #57 Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8103-pancreatitis

  Most of the time, pancreatitis is acute and temporary. But causes that are chronic and don’t go away, such as inherited disorders, can cause chronic pancreatitis. Repeat episodes of acute pancreatitis can also lead to chronic pancreatitis. If your pancreas becomes inflamed too many times from repeated stress and injury, your body may learn to keep it constantly inflamed, even after the injury has stopped.

• #58 Chronic Pancreatitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/181554-overview

  This form of chronic pancreatitis accounts for approximately 30% of cases. It has been arbitrarily divided into early onset and late-onset forms. […] Congenital abnormalities, such as pancreas divisum and annular pancreas, are uncommon (even rare) causes of chronic pancreatitis and usually require an additional factor to induce chronic pancreatitis. […] Other causes of chronic pancreatitis include the following: Hyperlipidemia (usually type I and type V) – However, hyperlipidemia usually presents with repeated attacks of acute pancreatitis […] Obstruction of the flow of pancreatic juice can cause chronic pancreatitis. Obstructive forms account for less than 10% of cases and may be congenital or acquired.

• #59 Chronic Pancreatitis – Pancreatic Diseases – Gastroenterology – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.5.2.

  3) Genetic: Gene mutations: PRSS1 (cationic trypsinogen), CFTR (cystic fibrosis), SPINK1 (serine protease inhibitors), or alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. […] 4) Autoimmune (see Autoimmune Pancreatitis). […] 5) Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis: Prior acute pancreatitis, recurrent acute pancreatitis. […] 6) Obstructive: Pancreas divisum, ampulla of Vater stenosis, main pancreatic duct stones, widespread pancreatic calcifications, stricture of the main pancreatic duct, or tumor causing duct obstruction.

• #60 Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8103-pancreatitis

  Gallstones blocking the pancreatic duct can cause pancreatitis. Gallstones that block the pancreatic duct are one of the most common causes of pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis is a long-term, progressive condition. It doesn’t go away and gets worse over time. It happens when the injury or damage to your pancreas never stops. Chronic pancreatitis will eventually do lasting damage to your pancreas, although it may take many years. Constant inflammation causes scarring of your pancreas tissues (fibrosis), which stops them from making enzymes and hormones. […] The top two causes of pancreatitis are: Gallstones. Heavy drinking. These causes together represent about 80% of pancreatitis cases. […] Heavy alcohol use is another clear cause of pancreatitis, though scientists aren’t sure why. It may be that the toxic byproducts of alcohol in your blood cause an inflammatory response in your pancreas, or they somehow chemically activate the digestive enzymes inside your pancreas. Scientists estimate that heavy alcohol use accounts for around half of both acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis cases.

• #61 Chronic pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Long-term alcohol misuse is responsible for around 7 out of every 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis. This is because heavy drinking over a number of years can repeatedly damage the pancreas. […] Most cases of chronic pancreatitis are associated with drinking excessive amounts of alcohol over a long period of time. […] However, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause can’t be identified known as idiopathic chronic pancreatitis. […] Rare cases of chronic pancreatitis are the result of a problem with the immune system, which causes it to attack the pancreas. This is known as autoimmune pancreatitis and it’s not clear exactly why it happens. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are inherited. This is thought to be caused by mutations (alterations) in a number of genes, including genes called PRSS1 and SPINK-1. These mutations disrupt the normal working of the pancreas. […] Several other rare causes of chronic pancreatitis have also been identified, including injury to the pancreas, blocked or narrowed openings (ducts) of the pancreas, smoking, and radiotherapy to the abdomen.

• #62 Chronic Pancreatitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/chronic-pancreatitis.html

  Your pancreas is an organ with many important functions. It makes enzymes that help you digest food. It also makes insulin to keep your blood sugar levels under control. […] If you have chronic pancreatitis, the digestive enzymes that would normally travel by tubes inside your pancreas and empty into your upper intestine, become trapped inside your pancreas. This causes pain and scarring. The trapped enzymes slowly cause severe damage to your pancreas. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking a lot of alcohol over a long period of time. Other causes include: An attack of acute pancreatitis that damages your pancreatic ducts, a blockage of the main pancreatic duct caused by cancer, certain autoimmune disorders, cystic fibrosis, hereditary diseases of the pancreas, smoking, and unknown cause in some cases.

• #63 Causes of Pancreatitis | Columbia Surgery

  https://columbiasurgery.org/pancreas/causes-pancreatitis

  In more than half of patients, chronic pancreatitis is caused by long-term abuse of alcohol, which leads to damage and scarring of the pancreas. […] Other people may develop chronic pancreatitis as a result of hereditary causes, gallstones (which block the pancreatic duct outlet), autoimmune disease such as lupus, or high triglyceride levels. […] The cause of chronic pancreatitis cannot be identified in about 25 -30% of patients. […] Evidence suggests that some cases of unidentified chronic pancreatitis may be associated with atypical mutations of cystic fibrosis genes.

• #64 Chronic pancreatitis: Symptoms, causes, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/160459

  Chronic pancreatitis is a long-term and progressive inflammatory disease of the pancreas. Alcohol use, chemotherapy, and some autoimmune conditions can cause it. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is long-term alcohol use, which causes around 40-70% of all cases. Autoimmune conditions, blockages, chemotherapy, and genetics may also contribute to chronic pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis can be a complication of recurring episodes of acute pancreatitis. Factors that may lead to this include: Alcohol use: Consuming alcohol can cause a process that triggers the activation of trypsin inside the pancreas. This is also known as alcohol-related chronic pancreatitis, and it is the most common cause for the condition. […] Obstruction: The pancreas has ducts that release enzymes. If they become blocked, this can lead to pancreatitis. Causes of duct obstruction can include gallstones, injury, or cancer.

• #65 Chronic pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Long-term alcohol misuse is responsible for around 7 out of every 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis. This is because heavy drinking over a number of years can repeatedly damage the pancreas. […] Most cases of chronic pancreatitis are associated with drinking excessive amounts of alcohol over a long period of time. […] However, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause can’t be identified known as idiopathic chronic pancreatitis. […] Rare cases of chronic pancreatitis are the result of a problem with the immune system, which causes it to attack the pancreas. This is known as autoimmune pancreatitis and it’s not clear exactly why it happens. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are inherited. This is thought to be caused by mutations (alterations) in a number of genes, including genes called PRSS1 and SPINK-1. These mutations disrupt the normal working of the pancreas. […] Several other rare causes of chronic pancreatitis have also been identified, including injury to the pancreas, blocked or narrowed openings (ducts) of the pancreas, smoking, and radiotherapy to the abdomen.

• #66 Chronic Pancreatitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/181554-overview

  This form of chronic pancreatitis accounts for approximately 30% of cases. It has been arbitrarily divided into early onset and late-onset forms. […] Congenital abnormalities, such as pancreas divisum and annular pancreas, are uncommon (even rare) causes of chronic pancreatitis and usually require an additional factor to induce chronic pancreatitis. […] Other causes of chronic pancreatitis include the following: Hyperlipidemia (usually type I and type V) – However, hyperlipidemia usually presents with repeated attacks of acute pancreatitis […] Obstruction of the flow of pancreatic juice can cause chronic pancreatitis. Obstructive forms account for less than 10% of cases and may be congenital or acquired.

• #67 Chronic pancreatitis – Guts UK

  https://gutscharity.org.uk/advice-and-information/conditions/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a long-standing inflammation of the pancreas. The causes of chronic pancreatitis vary greatly. In most people with chronic pancreatitis there is probably a combination of family (genetic) and environmental factors. The most frequent cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking too much alcohol (about 7 in 10 people with chronic pancreatitis). Smoking tobacco is recognised as harmful to the pancreas as well. High levels of fats (triglycerides) or calcium in the blood are also known to cause chronic pancreatitis. Some prescribed medications can cause chronic pancreatitis. Some people who have specific genes are prone to develop chronic pancreatitis. The most common is the cystic fibrosis gene. Autoimmune pancreatitis occurs when the body’s own immune system attacks the pancreas. Pancreas divisum happens in 1 in 10 people. Bile duct obstructions caused by tumours, stones or scarring from trauma/injury can also cause chronic pancreatitis. There is an association with gallstones. Unfortunately, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause cannot be identified, despite thorough investigation. This is known as “idiopathic” chronic pancreatitis.

• #68 Chronic Pancreatitis – Pancreatic Diseases – Gastroenterology – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.5.2.

  3) Genetic: Gene mutations: PRSS1 (cationic trypsinogen), CFTR (cystic fibrosis), SPINK1 (serine protease inhibitors), or alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency. […] 4) Autoimmune (see Autoimmune Pancreatitis). […] 5) Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis: Prior acute pancreatitis, recurrent acute pancreatitis. […] 6) Obstructive: Pancreas divisum, ampulla of Vater stenosis, main pancreatic duct stones, widespread pancreatic calcifications, stricture of the main pancreatic duct, or tumor causing duct obstruction.

• #69 Chronic pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Long-term alcohol misuse is responsible for around 7 out of every 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis. This is because heavy drinking over a number of years can repeatedly damage the pancreas. […] Most cases of chronic pancreatitis are associated with drinking excessive amounts of alcohol over a long period of time. […] However, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause can’t be identified known as idiopathic chronic pancreatitis. […] Rare cases of chronic pancreatitis are the result of a problem with the immune system, which causes it to attack the pancreas. This is known as autoimmune pancreatitis and it’s not clear exactly why it happens. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are inherited. This is thought to be caused by mutations (alterations) in a number of genes, including genes called PRSS1 and SPINK-1. These mutations disrupt the normal working of the pancreas. […] Several other rare causes of chronic pancreatitis have also been identified, including injury to the pancreas, blocked or narrowed openings (ducts) of the pancreas, smoking, and radiotherapy to the abdomen.

• #70 Chronic Pancreatitis: Common Causes & Risk Factors

  https://www.healixhospitals.com/blogs/why-chronic-pancreatitis-occurs:-common-causes

  Certain medications, such as diuretics and antiretroviral drugs, have indeed been associated with a higher risk of chronic pancreatitis. […] Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder leading to thick mucus production. This can block the pancreatic ducts, causing inflammation. […] Infections, trauma, and surgery in the abdominal area can all lead to pancreas inflammation. […] Some individuals inherit gene mutations that make them more susceptible to chronic pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis is a complex disease with various underlying causes and risk factors. […] Preventative measures are also essential, and lifestyle changes like quitting smoking, reducing alcohol consumption, and maintaining healthy triglyceride levels can significantly reduce the risk of developing pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis can be caused by various factors, including alcohol abuse, genetics, autoimmune issues, gallstones, medications, cystic fibrosis, inflammation sources, and hereditary factors.

• #71 Etiology and pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/etiology-and-pathogenesis-of-chronic-pancreatitis-in-adults

  Etiology and pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis in adults […] Chronic pancreatitis has a variety of etiologies with genetic and environmental risk factors for both initiation and disease progression, variable clinical and imaging features, and complications. […] Alcohol is associated with approximately one-half of all cases of chronic pancreatitis in the United States. […] Idiopathic chronic pancreatitis accounts for approximately 10 to 30 percent of all cases. […] In females, idiopathic causes predominate (32 percent), followed by alcohol (30 percent), genetic (13 percent) and obstructive (12 percent). […] In males, alcohol- and tobacco-associated chronic pancreatitis are more common (58 percent).

• #72 Chronic pancreatitis – Guts UK

  https://gutscharity.org.uk/advice-and-information/conditions/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a long-standing inflammation of the pancreas. The causes of chronic pancreatitis vary greatly. In most people with chronic pancreatitis there is probably a combination of family (genetic) and environmental factors. The most frequent cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking too much alcohol (about 7 in 10 people with chronic pancreatitis). Smoking tobacco is recognised as harmful to the pancreas as well. High levels of fats (triglycerides) or calcium in the blood are also known to cause chronic pancreatitis. Some prescribed medications can cause chronic pancreatitis. Some people who have specific genes are prone to develop chronic pancreatitis. The most common is the cystic fibrosis gene. Autoimmune pancreatitis occurs when the body’s own immune system attacks the pancreas. Pancreas divisum happens in 1 in 10 people. Bile duct obstructions caused by tumours, stones or scarring from trauma/injury can also cause chronic pancreatitis. There is an association with gallstones. Unfortunately, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause cannot be identified, despite thorough investigation. This is known as “idiopathic” chronic pancreatitis.

• #73 Chronic pancreatitis: Symptoms, causes, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/160459

  Autoimmunity: Autoimmune diseases occur when the body’s immune system attacks healthy tissues, which can include the pancreas. […] Certain medications: Chemotherapy can contribute to chronic pancreatitis, and other drugs may also raise the risk. […] Hypercalcemia: This is when a person has high levels of calcium in their blood. This can lead to gallstones. […] Hyperlipidemia: This is when a person has high levels of lipids or fats in the blood. […] Genetics: People who inherit conditions such as cystic fibrosis or hereditary forms of pancreatitis are more likely to develop chronic pancreatitis. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are idiopathic, which means the cause of chronic pancreatitis is unknown. This is more common in countries outside of the West, such as India.

• #74 Etiology of chronic pancreatitis: Has it changed in the last decade?

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v15/i38/4737.htm

  The evidence from recent surveys on chronic pancreatitis carried out around the world shows that alcohol remains the main factor associated with chronic pancreatitis, even if at a frequency lower than that reported previously. […] It has further confirmed that heavy alcohol consumption and smoking are independent risk factors for chronic pancreatitis. […] Autoimmune pancreatitis accounts for 2%-4% of all forms of chronic pancreatitis, but this frequency will probably increase over the next few years. […] The rise in idiopathic chronic pancreatitis, especially in India, represents a black hole in recently published surveys. […] Despite the progress made so far regarding the possibility of establishing the hereditary forms of chronic pancreatitis and the recognition of autoimmune pancreatitis, it is possible that we are more inaccurate today than in the past in identifying the factors associated with chronic pancreatitis in our patients.

• #75 Etiology and pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/etiology-and-pathogenesis-of-chronic-pancreatitis-in-adults

  Etiology and pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis in adults […] Chronic pancreatitis has a variety of etiologies with genetic and environmental risk factors for both initiation and disease progression, variable clinical and imaging features, and complications. […] Alcohol is associated with approximately one-half of all cases of chronic pancreatitis in the United States. […] Idiopathic chronic pancreatitis accounts for approximately 10 to 30 percent of all cases. […] In females, idiopathic causes predominate (32 percent), followed by alcohol (30 percent), genetic (13 percent) and obstructive (12 percent). […] In males, alcohol- and tobacco-associated chronic pancreatitis are more common (58 percent).

• #76 Chronic Pancreatitis – Gastrointestinal Disorders – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/pancreatitis/chronic-pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis can cause calcification of the pancreatic parenchyma, formation of intraductal stones, or both as well as pancreatic atrophy. […] In the United States, about 50% of cases of chronic pancreatitis result from heavy alcohol consumption, and chronic pancreatitis is more common among men than women. However, only a minority of people with sustained alcohol exposure ultimately develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that there are other cofactors required to trigger overt disease. Cigarette smoking is an independent, dose-dependent risk factor for developing chronic pancreatitis. […] Less common causes of chronic pancreatitis include genetic disorders, systemic diseases, and ductal obstruction caused by stenosis, stones, or cancer. […] Tropical pancreatitis is an idiopathic form of chronic pancreatitis that occurs in children and young adults in tropical regions such as India, Indonesia, and Nigeria. Tropical pancreatitis is characterized by an early age of onset, large ductal calculi, an accelerated course of the disease, and an increased risk of pancreatic cancer.

• #77 Chronic Pancreatitis – Digestive Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/digestive-disorders/pancreatitis/chronic-pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis is long-standing inflammation of the pancreas that results in irreversible deterioration of the structure and function of the pancreas. […] Heavy alcohol use and cigarette smoking are 2 major causes of chronic pancreatitis. […] In the United States, about half of the cases of chronic pancreatitis are due to heavy alcohol consumption. People who smoke cigarettes also are at increased risk of developing chronic pancreatitis. […] Less common causes of chronic pancreatitis include genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, hereditary pancreatitis, or autoimmune pancreatitis. Rarely, an attack of severe acute pancreatitis causes permanent scarring (fibrosis) of the pancreas that leads to chronic pancreatitis. In some people, chronic pancreatitis develops when the pancreatic duct is blocked (obstructed) by stones or a tumor. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis have no clear cause (are idiopathic). In tropical countries (for example, India, Indonesia, and Nigeria), chronic pancreatitis of unknown cause occurs among children and young adults (called tropical pancreatitis).

• #78 Chronic Pancreatitis – Gastrointestinal Disorders – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/pancreatitis/chronic-pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis can cause calcification of the pancreatic parenchyma, formation of intraductal stones, or both as well as pancreatic atrophy. […] In the United States, about 50% of cases of chronic pancreatitis result from heavy alcohol consumption, and chronic pancreatitis is more common among men than women. However, only a minority of people with sustained alcohol exposure ultimately develop chronic pancreatitis, suggesting that there are other cofactors required to trigger overt disease. Cigarette smoking is an independent, dose-dependent risk factor for developing chronic pancreatitis. […] Less common causes of chronic pancreatitis include genetic disorders, systemic diseases, and ductal obstruction caused by stenosis, stones, or cancer. […] Tropical pancreatitis is an idiopathic form of chronic pancreatitis that occurs in children and young adults in tropical regions such as India, Indonesia, and Nigeria. Tropical pancreatitis is characterized by an early age of onset, large ductal calculi, an accelerated course of the disease, and an increased risk of pancreatic cancer.

• #79 Chronic pancreatitis: review and update of etiology, risk factors, and management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958317/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a syndrome involving inflammation, fibrosis, and loss of acinar and islet cells which can manifest in unrelenting abdominal pain, malnutrition, and exocrine and endocrine insufficiency. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Recent evidence supports the notion that, in most patients, more than one etiology is present. […] The development of this classification system was based on the principle that an individuals risk of developing CP is decided by one or more risk factors. […] The etiology of CP has traditionally been classified as alcohol, hereditary, obstructive, hyperlipidemia, and idiopathic. Data indicate that AP progresses to RAP then to CP in a disease continuum. However, not all AP becomes recurrent, and not all RAP progresses to CP. Whether AP proceeds to RAP and to CP is determined by a multitude of risk factors, including exposure to alcohol, smoking, hereditary mutations, ductal obstruction, and autoimmune factors.

• #80 Etiology of Pancreatitis and Risk Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/47453

  The annual incidence of CP in industrialized countries has been estimated at 5-12 per 100,000, with a prevalence of about 50 per 100,000 persons. […] Alcohol intake is the single most common cause of CP, and the second after gallstones for AP being responsible for about 30-35% of cases of acute attacks. […] The risk of acute alcohol-induced pancreatitis increases in a dose-dependent manner, with a threshold for CP of approximately 4-5 drinks/day. […] Chronic alcoholic patients eventually develop CP after 10 to 20 years of continuous alcohol abuse. […] It has been found that abdominal adiposity increases the risk and severity of AP. […] Some studies found that type 2 diabetes mellitus increases the risk of AP by 1.5 to 3-fold, particularly in younger diabetic patients. […] This type of hyperlipidemia induces AP in about 1-4% of cases, and this is an uncommon etiology of CP. […] Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetrance rates up to 80%. […] This disorder is associated with mutations in the trypsinogen gen PRSS1 that promotes the premature conversion of trypsinogen to active trypsin, resulting in pancreatic autodigestion.

• #81 Chronic Pancreatitis | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2007/1201/p1679.html

  Chronic pancreatitis is the progressive and permanent destruction of the pancreas resulting in exocrine and endocrine insufficiency and, often, chronic disabling pain. The etiology is multifactorial. Alcoholism plays a significant role in adults, whereas genetic and structural defects predominate in children. […] Chronic alcohol use accounts for 70 percent of the cases of chronic pancreatitis in adults, and most patients have consumed more than 150 g of alcohol per day over six to 12 years. […] Genetic diseases (e.g., cystic fibrosis) and anatomic defects predominate in children. […] The TIGAR-O (Toxic-metabolic, Idiopathic, Genetic, Autoimmune, Recurrent and severe acute pancreatitis, Obstructive) classification system is based on risk factors for chronic pancreatitis.

• #82 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, And Management

  https://drniveditapandey.com/pancreatitis/understanding-chronic-pancreatitis-symptoms-causes-and-long-term-management/

  Chronic pancreatitis often comes from two main reasons: too much alcohol and gallstones. Drinking a lot over time can hurt your pancreas. This damage can cause pain and swelling in the pancreas. Also, gallstones can block the way that digestive juices flow toward your intestine. This blockage might eventually cause chronic pancreatitis. […] Having four or five drinks every day makes pancreatitis more likely. Heavy drinking is the top cause, affecting about 70% of people with chronic pancreatitis. If you smoke as well as drink, your chances of getting it rise. In fact, smokers are three times more likely to suffer from this condition than those who don’t smoke. […] Gallstones and blocked bile ducts are big risk factors for chronic pancreatitis. They can stop digestive juices from flowing correctly. This blockage leads to harm and swelling in the pancreas. These issues make up about 20-30% of chronic pancreatitis cases.

• #83 Chronic Pancreatitis – National Pancreas Foundation

  https://pancreasfoundation.org/pancreas-disease/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Alcohol and smoking. These behaviours appear to be risk factors and usually do not cause chronic pancreatitis. However, if there is an injury to the pancreas from another cause, alcohol consumption and smoking may cause rapid destruction of the pancreas – with the combined effect being much more potent than either one alone. […] In many cases, doctors can’t find the cause of pancreatitis. This is called idiopathic pancreatitis. […] The most common causes of both acute and chronic pancreatitis are: gallstones, heavy alcohol use, genetic disorders of your pancreas, some medicines. Other causes include: infections, such as viruses or parasites, injury to your abdomen, pancreatic cancer, having a procedure called endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) to treat another condition, pancreas divisum.

• #84 Etiology of Pancreatitis and Risk Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/47453

  The annual incidence of CP in industrialized countries has been estimated at 5-12 per 100,000, with a prevalence of about 50 per 100,000 persons. […] Alcohol intake is the single most common cause of CP, and the second after gallstones for AP being responsible for about 30-35% of cases of acute attacks. […] The risk of acute alcohol-induced pancreatitis increases in a dose-dependent manner, with a threshold for CP of approximately 4-5 drinks/day. […] Chronic alcoholic patients eventually develop CP after 10 to 20 years of continuous alcohol abuse. […] It has been found that abdominal adiposity increases the risk and severity of AP. […] Some studies found that type 2 diabetes mellitus increases the risk of AP by 1.5 to 3-fold, particularly in younger diabetic patients. […] This type of hyperlipidemia induces AP in about 1-4% of cases, and this is an uncommon etiology of CP. […] Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetrance rates up to 80%. […] This disorder is associated with mutations in the trypsinogen gen PRSS1 that promotes the premature conversion of trypsinogen to active trypsin, resulting in pancreatic autodigestion.

• #85 Etiology of Pancreatitis and Risk Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/47453

  The annual incidence of CP in industrialized countries has been estimated at 5-12 per 100,000, with a prevalence of about 50 per 100,000 persons. […] Alcohol intake is the single most common cause of CP, and the second after gallstones for AP being responsible for about 30-35% of cases of acute attacks. […] The risk of acute alcohol-induced pancreatitis increases in a dose-dependent manner, with a threshold for CP of approximately 4-5 drinks/day. […] Chronic alcoholic patients eventually develop CP after 10 to 20 years of continuous alcohol abuse. […] It has been found that abdominal adiposity increases the risk and severity of AP. […] Some studies found that type 2 diabetes mellitus increases the risk of AP by 1.5 to 3-fold, particularly in younger diabetic patients. […] This type of hyperlipidemia induces AP in about 1-4% of cases, and this is an uncommon etiology of CP. […] Hereditary pancreatitis is an autosomal dominant disorder with high penetrance rates up to 80%. […] This disorder is associated with mutations in the trypsinogen gen PRSS1 that promotes the premature conversion of trypsinogen to active trypsin, resulting in pancreatic autodigestion.

• #86 Chronic Pancreatitis: Causes, Symptoms, & Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/chronic-pancreatitis

  Abusing alcohol increases your risk of developing chronic pancreatitis. […] The development of diabetes is another possible complication. Pancreatitis damages the cells that produce insulin and glucagon, which are the hormones that control the amount of sugar in your blood. This can lead to an increase in blood sugar levels. About 45 percent of people with chronic pancreatitis will get diabetes.

• #87 Chronic pancreatitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/chronic-pancreatitis/

  Long-term alcohol misuse is responsible for around 7 out of every 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis. This is because heavy drinking over a number of years can repeatedly damage the pancreas. […] Most cases of chronic pancreatitis are associated with drinking excessive amounts of alcohol over a long period of time. […] However, in up to 3 out of 10 people with the condition, the cause can’t be identified known as idiopathic chronic pancreatitis. […] Rare cases of chronic pancreatitis are the result of a problem with the immune system, which causes it to attack the pancreas. This is known as autoimmune pancreatitis and it’s not clear exactly why it happens. […] Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are inherited. This is thought to be caused by mutations (alterations) in a number of genes, including genes called PRSS1 and SPINK-1. These mutations disrupt the normal working of the pancreas. […] Several other rare causes of chronic pancreatitis have also been identified, including injury to the pancreas, blocked or narrowed openings (ducts) of the pancreas, smoking, and radiotherapy to the abdomen.

• #88 Pancreatitis, chronic – Causes of chronic pancreatitis

  https://www.ibdrelief.com/learn/complications-of-ibd/pancreatitis-chronic-causes-of-chronic-pancreatitis

  This is thought to be caused by mutations (alterations) in a number of genes, including genes called PRSS1 and SPINK-1. […] Genetic mutations may also have a role in the effect of alcohol on your pancreas. […] Certain mutations of the CFTR gene, responsible for cystic fibrosis, are also thought to cause chronic pancreatitis in a small amount of cases. […] Several other rare causes of chronic pancreatitis have also been identified, including: injury to the pancreas, blocked or narrowed openings (ducts) of the pancreas, smoking, radiotherapy to the abdomen (tummy).

• #89 Long-term view for chronic pancreatitis | I.M. Matters from ACP

  https://immattersacp.org/archives/2014/01/pancreatitis.htm

  An example of this was recently demonstrated in a genome-wide association study published in December 2012 in Nature Genetics where patients with alcoholic chronic pancreatitis were more likely to have mutation in the Claudin-2 gene. […] Several studies indicate that roughly one-third of cases are idiopathic. […] Patients who have had prior, recurrent acute pancreatitis are at increased risk for chronic pancreatitis. […] Dr. Tenner noted that patients with established type 2 diabetes have increased risk for chronic pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis can result from taking medications, but Dr. Tenner pointed out that drug-induced pancreatitis is a complicated subject. […] The risk of pancreatic cancer in these patients is usually about 5- to 10-fold that of people without chronic pancreatitis, especially in patients who have had chronic pancreatitis for more than 10 years, Dr. Gress said. […] Patients with chronic pancreatitis are also at increased risk for diabetes due to destruction of islet cells in the pancreas, said Dr. Yadav.

• #90 Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8103-pancreatitis

  Gallstones blocking the pancreatic duct can cause pancreatitis. Gallstones that block the pancreatic duct are one of the most common causes of pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis is a long-term, progressive condition. It doesn’t go away and gets worse over time. It happens when the injury or damage to your pancreas never stops. Chronic pancreatitis will eventually do lasting damage to your pancreas, although it may take many years. Constant inflammation causes scarring of your pancreas tissues (fibrosis), which stops them from making enzymes and hormones. […] The top two causes of pancreatitis are: Gallstones. Heavy drinking. These causes together represent about 80% of pancreatitis cases. […] Heavy alcohol use is another clear cause of pancreatitis, though scientists aren’t sure why. It may be that the toxic byproducts of alcohol in your blood cause an inflammatory response in your pancreas, or they somehow chemically activate the digestive enzymes inside your pancreas. Scientists estimate that heavy alcohol use accounts for around half of both acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis cases.

• #91 Chronic Pancreatitis: Symptoms, Causes, And Management

  https://drniveditapandey.com/pancreatitis/understanding-chronic-pancreatitis-symptoms-causes-and-long-term-management/

  Chronic pancreatitis often comes from two main reasons: too much alcohol and gallstones. Drinking a lot over time can hurt your pancreas. This damage can cause pain and swelling in the pancreas. Also, gallstones can block the way that digestive juices flow toward your intestine. This blockage might eventually cause chronic pancreatitis. […] Having four or five drinks every day makes pancreatitis more likely. Heavy drinking is the top cause, affecting about 70% of people with chronic pancreatitis. If you smoke as well as drink, your chances of getting it rise. In fact, smokers are three times more likely to suffer from this condition than those who don’t smoke. […] Gallstones and blocked bile ducts are big risk factors for chronic pancreatitis. They can stop digestive juices from flowing correctly. This blockage leads to harm and swelling in the pancreas. These issues make up about 20-30% of chronic pancreatitis cases.

• #92 Chronic Pancreatitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/chronic-pancreatitis.html

  Chronic pancreatitis causes severe damage to your pancreas. This means that your body won’t be able to make needed enzymes and hormones. This can result in malnutrition, because you won’t be able to digest foods. Chronic pancreatitis can also cause diabetes. This happens because your pancreas can’t make insulin. Insulin controls blood sugar. […] Chronic pancreatitis damages the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. This may cause these complications: diabetes. […] The best way to prevent chronic pancreatitis is to drink only in moderation or not at all. Moderate alcohol drinking is considered to be no more than 1 drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men. Quitting smoking is also very helpful. It eases pain and swelling.

• #93 Pancreatitis – What causes pancreatitis? | familydoctor.org

  https://familydoctor.org/condition/pancreatitis/

  Pancreatitis – What causes pancreatitis? […] There are a number of factors that can cause pancreatitis. The most common causes are: […] Other causes include: […] In some cases, doctors don’t know what causes pancreatitis.

• #94 Chronic Pancreatitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/chronic-pancreatitis.html

  Chronic pancreatitis causes severe damage to your pancreas. This means that your body won’t be able to make needed enzymes and hormones. This can result in malnutrition, because you won’t be able to digest foods. Chronic pancreatitis can also cause diabetes. This happens because your pancreas can’t make insulin. Insulin controls blood sugar. […] Chronic pancreatitis damages the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. This may cause these complications: diabetes. […] The best way to prevent chronic pancreatitis is to drink only in moderation or not at all. Moderate alcohol drinking is considered to be no more than 1 drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men. Quitting smoking is also very helpful. It eases pain and swelling.

• #95 Chronic Pancreatitis

  http://library.oumedicine.com/Search/134,192

  If you have chronic pancreatitis, the digestive enzymes that would normally travel by tubes inside your pancreas and empty into your upper intestine, become trapped inside your pancreas. This causes pain and scarring. The trapped enzymes slowly cause severe damage to your pancreas. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking a lot of alcohol over a long period of time. Other causes include: […] An attack of acute pancreatitis that damages your pancreatic ducts […] A blockage of the main pancreatic duct caused by cancer […] Certain autoimmune disorders […] Cystic fibrosis […] Hereditary diseases of the pancreas […] Smoking […] Unknown cause in some cases […] Chronic pancreatitis causes severe damage to your pancreas. This means that your body won’t be able to make needed enzymes and hormones. This can result in malnutrition, because you won’t be able to digest foods. Chronic pancreatitis can also cause diabetes. This happens because your pancreas can’t make insulin. […] Chronic pancreatitis damages the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. This may cause these complications: […] Diabetes.

• #96 Chronic Pancreatitis: Causes, Symptoms, & Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/chronic-pancreatitis

  Abusing alcohol increases your risk of developing chronic pancreatitis. […] The development of diabetes is another possible complication. Pancreatitis damages the cells that produce insulin and glucagon, which are the hormones that control the amount of sugar in your blood. This can lead to an increase in blood sugar levels. About 45 percent of people with chronic pancreatitis will get diabetes.

• #97 Chronic Pancreatitis

  http://library.oumedicine.com/Search/134,192

  If you have chronic pancreatitis, the digestive enzymes that would normally travel by tubes inside your pancreas and empty into your upper intestine, become trapped inside your pancreas. This causes pain and scarring. The trapped enzymes slowly cause severe damage to your pancreas. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking a lot of alcohol over a long period of time. Other causes include: […] An attack of acute pancreatitis that damages your pancreatic ducts […] A blockage of the main pancreatic duct caused by cancer […] Certain autoimmune disorders […] Cystic fibrosis […] Hereditary diseases of the pancreas […] Smoking […] Unknown cause in some cases […] Chronic pancreatitis causes severe damage to your pancreas. This means that your body won’t be able to make needed enzymes and hormones. This can result in malnutrition, because you won’t be able to digest foods. Chronic pancreatitis can also cause diabetes. This happens because your pancreas can’t make insulin. […] Chronic pancreatitis damages the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. This may cause these complications: […] Diabetes.

• #98 Chronic pancreatitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_pancreatitis

  Chronic pancreatitis is a risk factor for the development of pancreatic cancer. […] Among the causes of chronic pancreatitis are the following: Alcohol, Autoimmune disorders, Intraductal obstruction, Idiopathic pancreatitis, Tumors, Ischemia, Calcific stones. […] Chronic alcohol misuse and smoking are well-established risk factors for the development of chronic pancreatitis, and the two are thought to have a synergistic effect with regard to disease development. […] Genetic mutations are thought to be responsible for 10% of cases. This includes mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 (SPINK1), and the chymotrypsin C (CTRC) proteins. […] 28% of cases of chronic pancreatitis are idiopathic (of an unknown cause).

• #99 Long-term view for chronic pancreatitis | I.M. Matters from ACP

  https://immattersacp.org/archives/2014/01/pancreatitis.htm

  An example of this was recently demonstrated in a genome-wide association study published in December 2012 in Nature Genetics where patients with alcoholic chronic pancreatitis were more likely to have mutation in the Claudin-2 gene. […] Several studies indicate that roughly one-third of cases are idiopathic. […] Patients who have had prior, recurrent acute pancreatitis are at increased risk for chronic pancreatitis. […] Dr. Tenner noted that patients with established type 2 diabetes have increased risk for chronic pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis can result from taking medications, but Dr. Tenner pointed out that drug-induced pancreatitis is a complicated subject. […] The risk of pancreatic cancer in these patients is usually about 5- to 10-fold that of people without chronic pancreatitis, especially in patients who have had chronic pancreatitis for more than 10 years, Dr. Gress said. […] Patients with chronic pancreatitis are also at increased risk for diabetes due to destruction of islet cells in the pancreas, said Dr. Yadav.

• #100 Chronic pancreatitis | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/chronic-pancreatitis-2?lang=us

  Chronic pancreatitis represents the end result of a continuous, prolonged, inflammatory, and fibrosing process that affects the pancreas. This results in irreversible morphologic changes and permanent endocrine and exocrine pancreatic dysfunction. […] The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis in adults is excessive alcohol consumption in developed countries. It was formerly thought that malnutrition in developing countries was a cause of chronic pancreatitis, but this myth has since been dispelled. […] The major risk factors for the development of chronic pancreatitis may be categorized according to the TIGAR-O system: T: toxic-metabolic (e.g. alcohol), I: idiopathic, G: genetic, A: autoimmune, R: recurrent, O: obstructive (e.g. choledocholithiasis, pancreatic head tumor). […] After 20 years of chronic pancreatitis, there is a 6% cumulative risk of developing pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

• #101 Chronic pancreatitis: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000221.htm

  Pancreatitis is swelling of the pancreas. Chronic pancreatitis is present when this problem does not heal or recurs and does not improve, gets worse over time, and leads to permanent damage. […] The condition is most often caused by alcohol abuse over many years. Repeated episodes of acute pancreatitis can lead to chronic pancreatitis. Genetics may be a factor in some cases. Sometimes, the cause is not known or caused by gall stones. […] Other conditions that have been linked to chronic pancreatitis: Problems when the immune system attacks the body, Blockage of the tubes (ducts) that drain enzymes from the pancreas, Cystic fibrosis, High levels of a fat, called triglycerides, in the blood, Overactive parathyroid gland, Use of certain medicines (especially sulfonamides, thiazides, and azathioprine), Pancreatitis that is passed down in families (hereditary). […] Finding the cause of acute pancreatitis and treating it quickly may help prevent chronic pancreatitis. Limit the amount of alcohol you drink to reduce your risk of developing this condition.

• #102 Can Acute Pancreatitis Become Chronic? | Birmingham HPB Clinic

  https://birminghamhpbclinic.co.uk/can-acute-pancreatitis-become-chronic/

  Chronic pancreatitis is a persistent inflammation that causes long-term damage to the pancreas. […] Several factors increase the likelihood of acute pancreatitis progressing to its chronic form. Chronic alcohol abuse is a significant risk factor, as excessive alcohol consumption over time damages the pancreas. […] Alcohol abuse is a leading cause of chronic pancreatitis. Continuous alcohol intake can trigger recurring bouts of acute pancreatitis, gradually damaging the pancreas and leading to its chronic inflammation. […] Early diagnosis and intervention play a vital role in preventing acute pancreatitis from becoming chronic. […] While most cases of acute pancreatitis resolve without long-term consequences, it is crucial to be aware of the possibility of transition to chronic pancreatitis.

• #103 Chronic Pancreatitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/chronic-pancreatitis.html

  Chronic pancreatitis causes severe damage to your pancreas. This means that your body won’t be able to make needed enzymes and hormones. This can result in malnutrition, because you won’t be able to digest foods. Chronic pancreatitis can also cause diabetes. This happens because your pancreas can’t make insulin. Insulin controls blood sugar. […] Chronic pancreatitis damages the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. This may cause these complications: diabetes. […] The best way to prevent chronic pancreatitis is to drink only in moderation or not at all. Moderate alcohol drinking is considered to be no more than 1 drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men. Quitting smoking is also very helpful. It eases pain and swelling.

• #104 Chronic Pancreatitis | University Hospitals

  https://www.uhhospitals.org/health-information/health-and-wellness-library/article/Diseases-and-Conditions/chronic-pancreatitis

  The most common cause of chronic pancreatitis is drinking a lot of alcohol over a long period of time. […] Other causes include: An attack of acute pancreatitis that damages your pancreatic ducts, a blockage of the main pancreatic duct caused by cancer, certain autoimmune disorders, cystic fibrosis, hereditary diseases of the pancreas, smoking, and unknown cause in some cases. […] Chronic pancreatitis causes severe damage to your pancreas. […] Chronic pancreatitis damages the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. […] The best way to prevent chronic pancreatitis is to drink only in moderation or not at all.

• #105 Chronic Pancreatitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/chronic-pancreatitis.html

  Chronic pancreatitis causes severe damage to your pancreas. This means that your body won’t be able to make needed enzymes and hormones. This can result in malnutrition, because you won’t be able to digest foods. Chronic pancreatitis can also cause diabetes. This happens because your pancreas can’t make insulin. Insulin controls blood sugar. […] Chronic pancreatitis damages the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. This may cause these complications: diabetes. […] The best way to prevent chronic pancreatitis is to drink only in moderation or not at all. Moderate alcohol drinking is considered to be no more than 1 drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men. Quitting smoking is also very helpful. It eases pain and swelling.

• #106 Chronic Pancreatitis: Common Causes & Risk Factors

  https://www.healixhospitals.com/blogs/why-chronic-pancreatitis-occurs:-common-causes

  Certain medications, such as diuretics and antiretroviral drugs, have indeed been associated with a higher risk of chronic pancreatitis. […] Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder leading to thick mucus production. This can block the pancreatic ducts, causing inflammation. […] Infections, trauma, and surgery in the abdominal area can all lead to pancreas inflammation. […] Some individuals inherit gene mutations that make them more susceptible to chronic pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis is a complex disease with various underlying causes and risk factors. […] Preventative measures are also essential, and lifestyle changes like quitting smoking, reducing alcohol consumption, and maintaining healthy triglyceride levels can significantly reduce the risk of developing pancreatitis. […] Chronic pancreatitis can be caused by various factors, including alcohol abuse, genetics, autoimmune issues, gallstones, medications, cystic fibrosis, inflammation sources, and hereditary factors.

• #107 Acute and chronic pancreatitis – Mayo Clinic Health System

  https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/breaking-down-pancreatitis

  Pancreatitis that occurs over many years can damage your pancreas and lead to chronic pancreatitis. It causes permanent damage and scarring of the pancreas. Chronic pancreatitis can lead to weight loss, pain, diabetes and pancreatic cancer. […] Consuming several alcoholic drinks a day over many years can cause pancreatitis. If this is the cause of your pancreatitis, your health care team may recommend you enter a treatment program to help you stop. Continuing to drink alcohol may worsen your pancreatitis and lead to serious complications including chronic pancreatitis. […] Some factors increase your risk of developing pancreatitis: Excessive alcohol use, Cigarette smoking, Obesity, Diabetes, Family history of pancreatitis.

• #108 Causes and Symptoms of Chronic Pancreatitis – Mission: Cure

  https://mission-cure.org/chronic-pancreatitis/causes-and-symptoms-of-chronic-pancreatitis/

  Chronic pancreatitis can be caused by many factors, including genetic abnormality, physical injury to the pancreas, gallstones or other blockages, and medications. Alcohol use and smoking can contribute to chronic pancreatitis. For many patients, the cause is unknown (idiopathic pancreatitis). […] Causes of chronic pancreatitis include: Genetics, Autoimmune disorders, Hypercalcemia (high levels of calcium in the blood), Chronic renal failure (decrease in the kidneys ability to filter waste and fluid from blood), Physical injury to the pancreas, Obstructions (gallstones, other blockages), Certain medications, Diabetes/Glucose Intolerance, Acute/Recurrent Acute Pancreatitis, Cystic Fibrosis, Smoking, Heavy alcohol consumption may contribute, Idiopathic (unknown cause), High Triglycerides. […] There is usually not just one factor causing chronic pancreatitis. Rather, research suggests that chronic pancreatitis is caused by a combination of lifestyle, environmental, and genetic factors.

• #109 Chronic pancreatitis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201760

  Chronic pancreatitis is defined as a pathological fibro-inflammatory syndrome of the pancreas in individuals with genetic, environmental and/or other risk factors who develop persistent pathological responses to parenchymal injury or stress. Potential causes can include toxic factors (such as alcohol or smoking), metabolic abnormalities, idiopathic mechanisms, genetics, autoimmune responses and obstructive mechanisms. […] The pathophysiology of chronic pancreatitis is fairly complex and includes acinar cell injury, acinar stress responses, duct dysfunction, persistent or altered inflammation, and/or neuro-immune crosstalk, but these mechanisms are not completely understood. […] Chronic pancreatitis is characterized by ongoing inflammation of the pancreas that results in progressive loss of the endocrine and exocrine compartment owing to atrophy and/or replacement with fibrotic tissue. […] This Primer highlights the major progress that has been made in understanding the pathophysiology, presentation, prevalence and management of chronic pancreatitis and its complications.

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