Nowotwór
Etiologia i przyczyny

Nowotwory stanowią heterogenną grupę chorób charakteryzujących się niekontrolowanym podziałem komórek, wynikającym z nagromadzenia mutacji genetycznych w protoonkogenach, genach supresorowych oraz genach naprawy DNA. Etiologia nowotworów jest wieloczynnikowa, obejmując zarówno mutacje dziedziczne (5-10% przypadków, np. mutacje BRCA1/2, zespół Lyncha), jak i nabyte pod wpływem czynników środowiskowych takich jak promieniowanie UV, kancerogeny chemiczne (np. azbest, składniki dymu tytoniowego), infekcje wirusowe (HPV, HBV, HCV, EBV) oraz przewlekły stan zapalny. Palenie tytoniu odpowiada za 80-90% przypadków raka płuc i jest istotnym czynnikiem ryzyka wielu innych nowotworów. Wiek jest kluczowym czynnikiem ryzyka, z gwałtownym wzrostem zachorowalności na nowotwory, np. raka jelita grubego, w kolejnych dekadach życia, co wiąże się z kumulacją mutacji i spadkiem efektywności mechanizmów naprawczych DNA.

Etiologia nowotworów

Nowotwór (cancer) to grupa chorób charakteryzujących się niekontrolowanym podziałem i wzrostem komórek, które mogą naciekać okoliczne tkanki i rozprzestrzeniać się do odległych narządów. Nie istnieje jedna, pojedyncza przyczyna nowotworów – rozwój choroby nowotworowej jest wynikiem złożonej interakcji wielu czynników, które mogą być genetyczne, środowiskowe lub związane z indywidualnymi cechami organizmu.123

Podstawową nieprawidłowością prowadzącą do rozwoju nowotworu jest ciągła, nieuregulowana proliferacja komórek nowotworowych. Ta utrata kontroli nad wzrostem jest wynikiem nagromadzenia nieprawidłowości w wielu komórkowych systemach regulacyjnych i odzwierciedla się w kilku aspektach zachowania komórek, które odróżniają komórki nowotworowe od ich prawidłowych odpowiedników.4 Nowotwór ma charakter genetyczny – jest spowodowany mutacjami (zmianami) w DNA, które kontrolują sposób funkcjonowania komórek, szczególnie ich wzrost i podział.56

Mutacje genetyczne jako przyczyna nowotworów

Nowotwory powstają w wyniku mutacji genetycznych, które powodują, że komórki mnożą się w niekontrolowanym tempie. Istnieje wiele czynników powodujących te mutacje – od czynników genetycznych po środowiskowe.7 DNA komórki jest zapakowane w dużą liczbę pojedynczych genów, z których każdy zawiera zestaw instrukcji mówiących komórce, jakie funkcje ma wykonywać oraz jak rosnąć i dzielić się. Błędy w tych instrukcjach mogą spowodować, że komórka przestanie prawidłowo funkcjonować i może stać się komórką nowotworową.8

Mutacje genów mogą wystąpić z kilku powodów, np.:9

  • Większość mutacji genów pojawia się po urodzeniu i nie jest dziedziczona
  • Wiele czynników może powodować mutacje genów, takich jak palenie tytoniu, promieniowanie, wirusy, substancje chemiczne powodujące raka (kancerogeny), otyłość, hormony, przewlekły stan zapalny i brak aktywności fizycznej

10

Mutacje genów, z którymi się rodzimy, oraz te, które nabywamy w ciągu życia, współdziałają ze sobą, prowadząc do rozwoju nowotworu. Nie jest jednak jasne, ile mutacji musi się nagromadzić, aby powstał nowotwór. Prawdopodobnie różni się to w zależności od typu nowotworu.11

Rodzaje genów związanych z nowotworami

Zmiany genetyczne, które przyczyniają się do rozwoju nowotworów, zazwyczaj dotyczą trzech głównych typów genów:12

  • Protoonkogeny – zaangażowane w normalny wzrost i podział komórek. Mutacje w tych genach mogą przekształcić je w onkogeny, które powodują niekontrolowany wzrost komórek i podziały, gdy powinny być w spoczynku
  • Geny supresorowe nowotworów – zaangażowane w kontrolowanie wzrostu i podziału komórek. Mutacje w tych genach eliminują niezbędne „hamulce” wzrostu komórek
  • Geny naprawy DNA – zaangażowane w naprawę uszkodzonego DNA. Komórki z mutacjami w tych genach mają tendencję do rozwijania dodatkowych mutacji w innych genach oraz zmian w chromosomach

1314

Jeśli geny supresorowe nowotworów nie działają prawidłowo, mutacja może nie zostać wykryta i naprawiona, co może prowadzić do rozwoju nowotworu. Podobnie, jeśli geny naprawy DNA nie działają prawidłowo, błędy w DNA mogą być przekazywane nowym komórkom, powodując ich uszkodzenie. Może to prowadzić do mutacji skutkującej rozwojem nowotworu.1516

Czynniki ryzyka rozwoju nowotworów

Czynnik ryzyka to wszystko, co może zwiększyć prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju choroby. Czynnik ryzyka niekoniecznie powoduje chorobę, ale może sprawić, że organizm będzie na nią mniej odporny.1718 W przypadku nowotworów istnieje wiele dobrze udokumentowanych czynników ryzyka:

Czynniki genetyczne i dziedziczne

Historia rodzinna, dziedziczność i genetyka mogą odgrywać ważną rolę w niektórych nowotworach.19 Chociaż tylko 5-10% wszystkich nowotworów jest bezpośrednio spowodowanych dziedziczonymi mutacjami genetycznymi, te typy nowotworów mają tendencję do występowania wcześniej w życiu.2021

Przykłady dziedzicznych nowotworów to:22

2324

Dziedziczone mutacje genetyczne generalnie są rzadkie, ale ważne jest, aby o nich wiedzieć, ponieważ mogą wskazywać, czy dana osoba ma wyższe ryzyko rozwoju nowotworu.25 Należy jednak pamiętać, że posiadanie predyspozycji genetycznej nie oznacza, że nowotwór na pewno się rozwinie – zwiększa jedynie prawdopodobieństwo jego wystąpienia.26

Czynniki środowiskowe

Ekspozycja na czynniki środowiskowe może znacząco zwiększyć ryzyko rozwoju nowotworów. Środowiskowe czynniki rakotwórcze można podzielić na trzy kategorie:27

  • Fizyczne kancerogeny, takie jak promieniowanie ultrafioletowe i jonizujące
  • Chemiczne kancerogeny, takie jak azbest, składniki dymu tytoniowego, alkohol, aflatoksyna (zanieczyszczenie żywności) i arsen (zanieczyszczenie wody pitnej)
  • Biologiczne kancerogeny, takie jak zakażenia wywołane przez niektóre wirusy, bakterie lub pasożyty

28

Promieniowanie i wiele chemicznych kancerogenów działa poprzez uszkadzanie DNA i indukowanie mutacji. Te kancerogeny są ogólnie określane jako czynniki inicjujące, ponieważ uważa się, że indukcja mutacji w kluczowych genach docelowych jest początkowym zdarzeniem prowadzącym do rozwoju nowotworu.29

Niektóre z czynników inicjujących, które przyczyniają się do rozwoju nowotworów u ludzi, obejmują: promieniowanie ultrafioletowe słoneczne, rakotwórcze substancje chemiczne w dymie tytoniowym oraz aflatoksyny.30 Palenie jest niekwestionowaną przyczyną 80-90% przypadków raka płuc, a także jest związane z nowotworami jamy ustnej, gardła, krtani, przełyku i innych lokalizacji.31

Styl życia i nawyki

Szereg czynników związanych ze stylem życia może istotnie wpływać na ryzyko rozwoju nowotworów:32

  • Palenie tytoniu – zawiera co najmniej 69 kancerogenów (czynników rakotwórczych). Znacząco zwiększa ryzyko zachorowania na niektóre nowotwory, takie jak rak płuc i jamy ustnej, a także nowotwory żołądka, nerek i pęcherza moczowego.33 Szacuje się, że palenie jest odpowiedzialne za niemal jedną trzecią wszystkich zgonów z powodu nowotworów.34
  • Alkohol – nadmierne spożycie alkoholu może przyczyniać się do rozwoju różnych nowotworów.35 Światowa Organizacja Zdrowia sklasyfikowała alkohol jako kancerogen grupy 1.36
  • Dieta – dieta bogata w przetworzoną żywność, czerwone mięso, cukier i tłuszcze trans może zwiększać ryzyko rozwoju niektórych typów nowotworów, szczególnie jelita grubego i żołądka.37
  • Brak aktywności fizycznej – chociaż nie powoduje bezpośrednio nowotworów, może przyczyniać się do otyłości, która zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju nowotworów, takich jak rak piersi, jelita grubego i endometrium.38
  • Otyłość – w Stanach Zjednoczonych nadwaga jest związana z rozwojem wielu typów nowotworów i jest czynnikiem w 14-20% wszystkich zgonów z powodu nowotworów.39

Infekcje a nowotwory

Na całym świecie około 18% przypadków nowotworów jest związanych z chorobami zakaźnymi.40 Niektóre przewlekłe infekcje są czynnikami ryzyka nowotworów, co stanowi szczególny problem w krajach o niskich i średnich dochodach. Około 13% nowotworów zdiagnozowanych w 2018 roku na całym świecie przypisano zakażeniom rakotwórczym, w tym:41

  • Helicobacter pylori – związany z rakiem żołądka i chłoniakiem typu MALT
  • Wirus brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV) – związany z rakiem szyjki macicy, odbytu, prącia i niektórymi nowotworami głowy i szyi
  • Wirusy zapalenia wątroby typu B i C – zwiększają ryzyko raka wątroby
  • Wirus Epsteina-Barr – związany ze zwiększonym ryzykiem rozwoju niektórych nowotworów u dzieci
  • HIV – zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju raka szyjki macicy sześciokrotnie i znacznie zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju niektórych innych nowotworów, takich jak mięsak Kaposiego

424344

Długotrwałe zakażenie może prowadzić do stanu zapalnego, który sprzyja rozwojowi nowotworu. Przewlekły stan zapalny został uznany, zarówno eksperymentalnie, jak i epidemiologicznie, za ważny czynnik w rozwoju nowotworów.45

Wiek jako czynnik ryzyka

Wiek jest jednym z najważniejszych czynników ryzyka rozwoju nowotworów. Ryzyko zachorowania na nowotwór wzrasta wraz z wiekiem.46 Częstość występowania raka jelita grubego, na przykład, wzrasta ponad dziesięciokrotnie między 30. a 50. rokiem życia, a następnie kolejne dziesięciokrotnie między 50. a 70. rokiem życia.47

Tak dramatyczny wzrost zachorowalności na nowotwory wraz z wiekiem sugeruje, że większość nowotworów rozwija się w wyniku wielu nieprawidłowości, które gromadzą się przez wiele lat.48 Zachorowalność na nowotwory gwałtownie wzrasta wraz z wiekiem, najprawdopodobniej z powodu nagromadzenia się ryzyka dotyczącego konkretnych nowotworów, które zwiększa się z wiekiem. Ogólne nagromadzenie ryzyka jest połączone z tendencją do mniejszej skuteczności mechanizmów naprawczych komórek wraz ze starzeniem się człowieka.49

Mechanizmy rozwoju nowotworów

Nowotwory powstają w wyniku transformacji normalnych komórek w komórki nowotworowe w wieloetapowym procesie, który ogólnie postępuje od zmiany przedrakowej do nowotworu złośliwego.50 Proces ten jest wynikiem interakcji między genetycznymi czynnikami osoby a trzema kategoriami czynników zewnętrznych, w tym fizycznymi, chemicznymi i biologicznymi kancerogenami.51

Podstawowa przyczyna sporadycznych (występujących przypadkowo) nowotworów to uszkodzenie DNA i niestabilność genomowa.52 W normalnych warunkach komórka z uszkodzonym DNA umiera. Jednak gdy uszkodzone lub nienaprawione komórki nie umierają i stają się komórkami nowotworowymi, dochodzi do niekontrolowanego podziału i wzrostu, tworząc masę komórek nowotworowych.53

Inicjacja i promocja nowotworów

Rozwój nowotworu można podzielić na dwa główne etapy: inicjację i promocję:54

  • Inicjacja – dotyczy uszkodzenia DNA przez kancerogeny, które prowadzi do mutacji w kluczowych genach
  • Promocja – dotyczy stymulacji wzrostu komórek zawierających mutacje

Inne kancerogeny przyczyniają się do rozwoju nowotworów poprzez stymulowanie proliferacji komórek, a nie poprzez indukowanie mutacji. Takie związki są określane jako promotory nowotworów, ponieważ zwiększony podział komórkowy, który indukują, jest wymagany do rozrostu populacji komórek proliferujących we wczesnych stadiach rozwoju guza.55

Hormony, szczególnie estrogeny, są ważnymi promotorami nowotworów w rozwoju niektórych ludzkich nowotworów.56 Niektóre hormony odgrywają rolę w rozwoju nowotworów poprzez promowanie proliferacji komórek.57

Przerzuty

Często komórki nowotworowe mogą oderwać się od pierwotnej masy komórek, przemieszczać się przez krew i układy limfatyczne oraz osadzać się w innych narządach, gdzie ponownie mogą powtarzać cykl niekontrolowanego wzrostu. Ten proces, w którym komórki nowotworowe opuszczają jeden obszar i rozwijają się w innym obszarze ciała, nazywany jest rozprzestrzenianiem się przerzutowym lub przerzutami.58

Komórki nowotworowe mogą oderwać się od pierwotnego guza i przemieszczać się przez krew lub układ limfatyczny do odległych miejsc w organizmie, gdzie wychodzą z naczyń, tworząc dodatkowe guzy.59 Ta zdolność do inwazji i przerzutów jest tym, co czyni nowotwory tak niebezpiecznymi.60

Zapobieganie nowotworom

Od 30% do 50% nowotworów można obecnie zapobiec poprzez unikanie czynników ryzyka i wdrażanie istniejących strategii profilaktycznych opartych na dowodach.61 Około 4 na 10 przypadków nowotworów w Wielkiej Brytanii (2015) można by zapobiec poprzez zdrowe zmiany w stylu życia.62

Kluczowe strategie zapobiegania nowotworom obejmują:63

  • Rzucenie palenia
  • Utrzymanie zdrowej wagi ciała
  • Zdrową, zbilansowaną dietę
  • Ograniczenie spożycia alkoholu
  • Ochronę przed słońcem
  • Utrzymanie aktywności fizycznej
  • Unikanie ekspozycji na szkodliwe chemikalia
  • Szczepienia przeciwko wirusom powodującym nowotwory

64

Nie istnieje pewny sposób zapobiegania nowotworom, ale można pomóc zmniejszyć ryzyko poprzez dokonywanie zdrowych wyborów, takich jak właściwe odżywianie, utrzymanie aktywności i niepalenie.65 Dodatkowo, regularne badania przesiewowe mogą pomóc w wykryciu niektórych nowotworów we wczesnym stadium, gdy są najłatwiejsze do leczenia.66

Podsumowanie przyczyn nowotworów

Nowotwór jest wynikiem złożonej interakcji wielu czynników, które razem prowadzą do niekontrolowanego wzrostu komórek. Podstawową przyczyną są mutacje genetyczne, które mogą być dziedziczone lub nabyte w ciągu życia poprzez ekspozycję na różne czynniki środowiskowe.6768

Główne przyczyny i czynniki ryzyka nowotworów obejmują:69

  • Mutacje genetyczne (zarówno dziedziczne, jak i nabyte)
  • Palenie tytoniu i używanie wyrobów tytoniowych
  • Alkohol
  • Brak aktywności fizycznej
  • Nadwaga lub otyłość
  • Słaba dieta
  • Ekspozycja na słońce
  • Ekspozycja na promieniowanie
  • Infekcje wirusowe i inne infekcje
  • Ekspozycja na substancje rakotwórcze
  • Przewlekły stan zapalny
  • Hormony
  • Immunosupresja
  • Wiek
  • Historia rodzinna i genetyka

70

Zrozumienie przyczyn nowotworów jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii zapobiegania i leczenia. Choć nie można całkowicie wyeliminować ryzyka rozwoju nowotworu, wiele czynników ryzyka można modyfikować poprzez zmiany w stylu życia i unikanie znanych kancerogenów.71 Wczesne wykrycie poprzez regularne badania przesiewowe pozostaje również istotnym elementem kontroli nowotworów, umożliwiając efektywne leczenie we wczesnych stadiach choroby.72

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  1. 13.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

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    https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/cancer/cancer/cancer-causes.html
    There is no one single cause for cancer. Scientists believe that it is the interaction of many factors together that produces cancer. The factors involved may be genetic, environmental, or constitutional characteristics of the individual. […] A sporadic (occurs by chance) cell change or mutation is usually what causes childhood cancer. In adults, the type of cell that becomes cancerous is usually an epithelial cell. Epithelial cells line the body cavity and cover the body surface. Cancer occurs from environmental exposures to these cells over time. Adult cancers are sometimes referred to as acquired for this reason. […] A risk factor is anything that may increase a person’s chance of developing a disease. A risk factor does not necessarily cause the disease, but it may make the body less resistant to it.
  • #2 What Is Cancer? Symptoms, Causes & Types
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12194-cancer
    Cancer happens when normal cells become cancerous cells that multiply and spread. Cancer is the second most common cause of death in the U.S. […] Cancer is a genetic disorder. But that doesn’t necessarily mean it’s inherited. It happens when genes that manage cell activity mutate (change). They create abnormal cells that divide and multiply, eventually disrupting how your body works. […] According to medical researchers, inherited genetic mutations (changes you can’t control) cause about 5% to 10% of all cancers. More often, cancer occurs as an acquired genetic mutation (change). That means it happens over the course of your life. Medical researchers have identified several risk factors that increase your chance of developing cancer. […] There isn’t one single cause for cancer. Rather, certain things can increase your chance of developing it, like family history, smoking, environmental factors, malnutrition, hormone therapy, and radiation exposure.
  • #3 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center
    https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=90&contentid=P02719
    There is no one cause for cancer. Scientists believe that it is the interaction of many factors together that leads to cancer. The factors involved may be genetic or environmental. […] A sporadic (happens by chance) cell change or mutation is often what causes childhood cancer. In adults, the type of cell that becomes cancerous is usually an epithelial cell. Cancer happens from environmental exposures to these cells over time. Adult cancers are sometimes referred to as acquired for this reason. […] A risk factor is anything that may increase a person’s chance of developing a disease. A risk factor does not necessarily cause the disease, but it may make the body less resistant to it. […] Smoking, alcohol, poor nutrition, being inactive, sun exposure, and working with toxic chemicals may be risk factors for some adult cancers.
  • #4 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    The fundamental abnormality resulting in the development of cancer is the continual unregulated proliferation of cancer cells. […] The generalized loss of growth control exhibited by cancer cells is the net result of accumulated abnormalities in multiple cell regulatory systems and is reflected in several aspects of cell behavior that distinguish cancer cells from their normal counterparts. […] Cancer can result from abnormal proliferation of any of the different kinds of cells in the body, so there are more than a hundred distinct types of cancer, which can vary substantially in their behavior and response to treatment. […] A malignant tumor, however, is capable of both invading surrounding normal tissue and spreading throughout the body via the circulatory or lymphatic systems (metastasis).
  • #5 What Is Cancer? – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer
    Cancer is a disease in which some of the bodys cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body. […] Cancer is caused by certain changes to genes, the basic physical units of inheritance. […] Cancer is a genetic disease that is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells function, especially how they grow and divide. […] Genetic changes that cause cancer can happen because of errors that occur as cells divide. […] Genetic changes that cause cancer can be inherited or arise from certain environmental exposures. […] Most often, cancer-causing genetic changes accumulate slowly as a person ages, leading to a higher risk of cancer later in life. […] Cancer cells can break away from the original tumor and travel through the blood or lymph system to distant locations in the body, where they exit the vessels to form additional tumors.
  • #6 Cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20370588
    Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells. The DNA inside a cell is packaged into a large number of individual genes, each of which contains a set of instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as well as how to grow and divide. Errors in the instructions can cause the cell to stop its normal function and may allow a cell to become cancerous. […] Gene mutations can occur for several reasons, for instance: […] Most gene mutations occur after you’re born and aren’t inherited. A number of forces can cause gene mutations, such as smoking, radiation, viruses, cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens), obesity, hormones, chronic inflammation and a lack of exercise. […] The gene mutations you’re born with and those that you acquire throughout your life work together to cause cancer. […] It’s not clear just how many mutations must accumulate for cancer to form. It’s likely that this varies among cancer types.
  • #7 What Causes Cancer? 10 Common Factors – Gateway For Cancer Research
    https://gatewaycr.org/about/in-the-news/cancer-causes/
    Cancer is caused by genetic mutations that make the cells multiply at an uncontrolled rate. There are many factors that cause these mutations, from genetic factors to environmental agitators. […] Cancer is a range of diseases in which genetically damaged cells in your body reproduce abnormally and spread to other parts of the body where they can damage tissues. The gene mutations may be caused by inherited genetic factors, or they can be caused by environmental factors after birth. […] In some cases, the gene mutations that cause cancer may be inherited by ones parents, and increase ones risk of developing the cancer during their lifetime. Breast cancer and colon cancer are types of cancer that can be genetically inherited. […] Most gene mutations occur after birth and are caused by environmental factors, like radiation and carcinogens. These are known as somatic mutations and are the most common causes of cancer.
  • #8 Cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20370588
    Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells. The DNA inside a cell is packaged into a large number of individual genes, each of which contains a set of instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as well as how to grow and divide. Errors in the instructions can cause the cell to stop its normal function and may allow a cell to become cancerous. […] Gene mutations can occur for several reasons, for instance: […] Most gene mutations occur after you’re born and aren’t inherited. A number of forces can cause gene mutations, such as smoking, radiation, viruses, cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens), obesity, hormones, chronic inflammation and a lack of exercise. […] The gene mutations you’re born with and those that you acquire throughout your life work together to cause cancer. […] It’s not clear just how many mutations must accumulate for cancer to form. It’s likely that this varies among cancer types.
  • #9 Cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20370588
    Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells. The DNA inside a cell is packaged into a large number of individual genes, each of which contains a set of instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as well as how to grow and divide. Errors in the instructions can cause the cell to stop its normal function and may allow a cell to become cancerous. […] Gene mutations can occur for several reasons, for instance: […] Most gene mutations occur after you’re born and aren’t inherited. A number of forces can cause gene mutations, such as smoking, radiation, viruses, cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens), obesity, hormones, chronic inflammation and a lack of exercise. […] The gene mutations you’re born with and those that you acquire throughout your life work together to cause cancer. […] It’s not clear just how many mutations must accumulate for cancer to form. It’s likely that this varies among cancer types.
  • #10 Cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20370588
    Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells. The DNA inside a cell is packaged into a large number of individual genes, each of which contains a set of instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as well as how to grow and divide. Errors in the instructions can cause the cell to stop its normal function and may allow a cell to become cancerous. […] Gene mutations can occur for several reasons, for instance: […] Most gene mutations occur after you’re born and aren’t inherited. A number of forces can cause gene mutations, such as smoking, radiation, viruses, cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens), obesity, hormones, chronic inflammation and a lack of exercise. […] The gene mutations you’re born with and those that you acquire throughout your life work together to cause cancer. […] It’s not clear just how many mutations must accumulate for cancer to form. It’s likely that this varies among cancer types.
  • #11 Cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20370588
    Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells. The DNA inside a cell is packaged into a large number of individual genes, each of which contains a set of instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as well as how to grow and divide. Errors in the instructions can cause the cell to stop its normal function and may allow a cell to become cancerous. […] Gene mutations can occur for several reasons, for instance: […] Most gene mutations occur after you’re born and aren’t inherited. A number of forces can cause gene mutations, such as smoking, radiation, viruses, cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens), obesity, hormones, chronic inflammation and a lack of exercise. […] The gene mutations you’re born with and those that you acquire throughout your life work together to cause cancer. […] It’s not clear just how many mutations must accumulate for cancer to form. It’s likely that this varies among cancer types.
  • #12 What Is Cancer? – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer
    The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes: proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes. […] Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. […] Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. […] DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. […] Cells with mutations in these genes tend to develop additional mutations in other genes and changes in their chromosomes, such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts.
  • #13 What Is Cancer? – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer
    The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes: proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes. […] Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. […] Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. […] DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. […] Cells with mutations in these genes tend to develop additional mutations in other genes and changes in their chromosomes, such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts.
  • #14 Cancer – Mutations, Carcinogens, Genetics | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/cancer-disease/Causes-of-cancer
    Mutations that convert proto-oncogenes to oncogenes tend to overstimulate cell growth, keeping the cell active when it should be at rest, whereas mutations in tumor suppressor genes eliminate necessary brakes on cell growth. […] If the cells repair mechanisms are faulty, mutations will accumulate, and genetic damage that has not been repaired will be reproduced and passed to all daughter cells whenever the cell divides. […] In cancer cells the program is rendered inoperative following mutation of a protein known as p53, which occurs in about half of all cancers. […] Significant prolongation of a cells life, whether through defects in apoptosis or telomere shortening, increases the chances that it will accumulate mutations in its DNA that transform the cell. […] The mutations that exert the greatest effect in causing tumor formation are referred to as driver mutations. […] The additional mutations and changes in a tumor cells genetic and epigenetic program are not without consequence.
  • #15 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center
    https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=90&contentid=P02719
    If the tumor suppressor genes are not working right, a mutation may not be detected and fixed. A cancer may start to develop. […] If these genes are not working properly, though, errors in DNA can be sent to new cells. That causes them to be damaged. It could result in a mutation leading to cancer. […] Cancer is a loss of this balance due to genetic changes that „tip the balance” in favor of excessive cancer cell growth.
  • #16 Causes of Cancer
    https://johnshopkinshealthcare.staywellsolutionsonline.com/Conditions/Orthopedics/90,P02719
    These genes help recognize errors when DNA is copied to make a new cell. If the DNA does not „match” perfectly, these genes fix the mismatch and correct the error. If these genes are not working properly, though, errors in DNA can be sent to new cells. That causes them to be damaged. It could result in a mutation leading to cancer. […] Often the number of cells in any of our body tissues is tightly controlled so that new cells are made for normal growth and development. They also replace dying cells. Cancer is a loss of this balance due to genetic changes that „tip the balance” in favor of excessive cancer cell growth. […] Some risk factors for cancer are not in your control, like your family history. But there are things you can do to lower your risk for cancer.
  • #17 What Causes Cancer? | Stanford Health Care
    https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/cancer/cancer/cancer-causes.html
    There is no one single cause for cancer. Scientists believe that it is the interaction of many factors together that produces cancer. The factors involved may be genetic, environmental, or constitutional characteristics of the individual. […] A sporadic (occurs by chance) cell change or mutation is usually what causes childhood cancer. In adults, the type of cell that becomes cancerous is usually an epithelial cell. Epithelial cells line the body cavity and cover the body surface. Cancer occurs from environmental exposures to these cells over time. Adult cancers are sometimes referred to as acquired for this reason. […] A risk factor is anything that may increase a person’s chance of developing a disease. A risk factor does not necessarily cause the disease, but it may make the body less resistant to it.
  • #18 Causes of Cancer
    https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/causes-of-cancer
    There is no one cause for cancer. Scientists believe that it is the interaction of many factors together that leads to cancer. The factors involved may be genetic or environmental. […] A sporadic (happens by chance) cell change or mutation is often what causes childhood cancer. In adults, the type of cell that becomes cancerous is usually an epithelial cell. Cancer happens from environmental exposures to these cells over time. Adult cancers are sometimes referred to as acquired for this reason. […] A risk factor is anything that may increase a person’s chance of developing a disease. A risk factor does not necessarily cause the disease, but it may make the body less resistant to it. […] Smoking, alcohol, poor nutrition, being inactive, sun exposure, and working with toxic chemicals may be risk factors for some adult cancers.
  • #19 What Causes Cancer? | Stanford Health Care
    https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/cancer/cancer/cancer-causes.html
    Family history, inheritance, and genetics may play an important role in some childhood cancers. […] The cause of the defect in the stem cells could be related to an inherited genetic defect or exposure to a virus or toxin. […] Epstein-Barr virus and HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, have been linked to an increased risk of developing certain childhood cancers, such as Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. […] Pesticides, fertilizers, and power lines have been researched for a direct link to childhood cancers. […] In some cases, children who have been exposed to these agents may develop a second malignancy later in life. […] Over 90% of cancers are observed to have some type of genetic alteration. Some of these alterations are inherited, while others are sporadic, which means they occur by chance or occur from environmental exposures (usually over many years). […] Ultimately, cancer is a loss of this balance due to genetic alterations that „tip the balance” in favor of excessive cell growth.
  • #20 Understanding the Causes of Cancer
    https://www.cancerresearch.org/blog/april-2019/what-causes-cancer-risk-factors
    Cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide. In 2023, there were an estimated 19 million new cancer cases and approximately 10 million cancer-related deaths globally. These numbers are projected to rise, with predictions indicating that by 2040, there could be nearly 30 million new cancer cases and 16 million cancer-related deaths annually. […] Understanding the causes of cancer is crucial for prevention and treatment. This article explores the genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors contributing to cancer and offers insights on how to mitigate these risks. […] Cancer can be inherited when certain gene mutations are passed down through families. […] Genes, which are segments of DNA located on chromosomes, can mutate over time due to factors such as diet, lifestyle choices, and environmental exposures. This is known as the genetic cause of cancer. While only 5-10% of all cancers are genetically inherited, these tend to occur earlier in life.
  • #21 Causes of cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_cancer
    Although there are over 50 identifiable hereditary forms of cancer, less than 0.3% of the population are carriers of a cancer-related genetic mutation and these make up less than 310% of all cancer cases. The vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary („sporadic cancers”). Hereditary cancers are primarily caused by an inherited genetic defect. […] Many of the cancer syndrome cases are caused by mutations in tumor suppressor genes that regulate cell growth. Other common mutations alter the function of DNA repair genes, oncogenes and genes involved in the production of blood vessels. […] Particular substances, known as carcinogens, have been linked to specific types of cancer. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, and tobacco smoke. […] Tobacco smoking is associated with many forms of cancer, and causes 80% of lung cancer. Decades of research has demonstrated the link between tobacco use and cancer in the lung, larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney, esophagus and pancreas.
  • #22 What Causes Cancer? 10 Common Factors – Gateway For Cancer Research
    https://gatewaycr.org/about/in-the-news/cancer-causes/
    Gene mutations that cause cancer may be inherited from your parents. Breast cancer, colon cancer, and ovarian cancer are types of cancer that can be passed down through genetics. […] Inherited gene mutations are generally rare, but theyre important to know about because they can tell you whether or not you have a higher risk of developing cancer. […] Tobacco is a major risk factor and may cause lung cancer, throat cancer, and mouth cancer and many more types of cancers. Tobacco contains harmful carcinogens that can damage DNA. […] A diet thats high in processed foods, red meat, sugar, and trans fats may increase your risk of developing certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal and stomach cancer. […] Lack of exercise does not directly cause cancer, but it can contribute to obesity which does increase the risk of developing cancers like breast, colon, and endometrial cancer.
  • #23 What Causes Cancer? 10 Common Factors – Gateway For Cancer Research
    https://gatewaycr.org/about/in-the-news/cancer-causes/
    Gene mutations that cause cancer may be inherited from your parents. Breast cancer, colon cancer, and ovarian cancer are types of cancer that can be passed down through genetics. […] Inherited gene mutations are generally rare, but theyre important to know about because they can tell you whether or not you have a higher risk of developing cancer. […] Tobacco is a major risk factor and may cause lung cancer, throat cancer, and mouth cancer and many more types of cancers. Tobacco contains harmful carcinogens that can damage DNA. […] A diet thats high in processed foods, red meat, sugar, and trans fats may increase your risk of developing certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal and stomach cancer. […] Lack of exercise does not directly cause cancer, but it can contribute to obesity which does increase the risk of developing cancers like breast, colon, and endometrial cancer.
  • #24
    https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ovarian-cancer/causes/
    The risk of developing ovarian cancer increases with age, with more than half of all cases in the UK in women aged 65 and over. […] You may have a higher chance of getting ovarian cancer if you inherited a faulty gene, such as the BRCA genes or those linked to Lynch syndrome. […] It’s still possible to get ovarian cancer even if you’ve had your ovaries removed. This is because ovarian cancer can also affect your fallopian tubes, or the lining inside your tummy (peritoneum).
  • #25 What Causes Cancer? 10 Common Factors – Gateway For Cancer Research
    https://gatewaycr.org/about/in-the-news/cancer-causes/
    Gene mutations that cause cancer may be inherited from your parents. Breast cancer, colon cancer, and ovarian cancer are types of cancer that can be passed down through genetics. […] Inherited gene mutations are generally rare, but theyre important to know about because they can tell you whether or not you have a higher risk of developing cancer. […] Tobacco is a major risk factor and may cause lung cancer, throat cancer, and mouth cancer and many more types of cancers. Tobacco contains harmful carcinogens that can damage DNA. […] A diet thats high in processed foods, red meat, sugar, and trans fats may increase your risk of developing certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal and stomach cancer. […] Lack of exercise does not directly cause cancer, but it can contribute to obesity which does increase the risk of developing cancers like breast, colon, and endometrial cancer.
  • #26 Causes & Risk Factors – Pancreatic Cancer  |  Johns Hopkins Pathology
    https://pathology.jhu.edu/pancreas/causes-risk-factors
    While it is virtually impossible to tell what caused a specific person to develop pancreatic cancer, cancer biology principles and population-based studies can help us understand why pancreatic cancer develops. […] Pancreatic cancer is fundamentally a disease caused by damage (or „mutations”) to the DNA. These DNA mutations can occur in one of three ways: they can be inherited, they can be caused by behaviors such as smoking, or they can occur by chance. […] First, let us look at the inherited mutations. […] Not everyone with an inherited predisposition will get cancer. Rather, since individuals with an inherited cancer syndrome are born with only one good copy of the cancer-associated gene, they are more likely to get cancer. […] Our behavior can damage our DNA. For example, if the carcinogens (cancer-causing chemicals) in cigarette smoke damage a key cancer-associated gene in a cell in the pancreas, then that cell may grow into a cancer.
  • #27
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Cancer arises from the transformation of normal cells into tumour cells in a multi-stage process that generally progresses from a pre-cancerous lesion to a malignant tumour. […] These changes are the result of the interaction between a person’s genetic factors and three categories of external agents, including: physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation; chemical carcinogens, such as asbestos, components of tobacco smoke, alcohol, aflatoxin (a food contaminant), and arsenic (a drinking water contaminant); and biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria, or parasites. […] Some chronic infections are risk factors for cancer; this is a particular issue in low- and middle-income countries. Approximately 13% of cancers diagnosed in 2018 globally were attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter pylori, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus.
  • #28
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Cancer arises from the transformation of normal cells into tumour cells in a multi-stage process that generally progresses from a pre-cancerous lesion to a malignant tumour. […] These changes are the result of the interaction between a person’s genetic factors and three categories of external agents, including: physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation; chemical carcinogens, such as asbestos, components of tobacco smoke, alcohol, aflatoxin (a food contaminant), and arsenic (a drinking water contaminant); and biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria, or parasites. […] Some chronic infections are risk factors for cancer; this is a particular issue in low- and middle-income countries. Approximately 13% of cancers diagnosed in 2018 globally were attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter pylori, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus.
  • #29 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Nonetheless, many agents, including radiation, chemicals, and viruses, have been found to induce cancer in both experimental animals and humans. […] Radiation and many chemical carcinogens act by damaging DNA and inducing mutations. […] These carcinogens are generally referred to as initiating agents, since the induction of mutations in key target genes is thought to be the initial event leading to cancer development. […] Some of the initiating agents that contribute to human cancers include solar ultraviolet radiation, carcinogenic chemicals in tobacco smoke, and aflatoxin. […] Smoking is the undisputed cause of 80 to 90% of lung cancers, as well as being implicated in cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and other sites. […] In total, it is estimated that smoking is responsible for nearly one-third of all cancer deaths.
  • #30 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Nonetheless, many agents, including radiation, chemicals, and viruses, have been found to induce cancer in both experimental animals and humans. […] Radiation and many chemical carcinogens act by damaging DNA and inducing mutations. […] These carcinogens are generally referred to as initiating agents, since the induction of mutations in key target genes is thought to be the initial event leading to cancer development. […] Some of the initiating agents that contribute to human cancers include solar ultraviolet radiation, carcinogenic chemicals in tobacco smoke, and aflatoxin. […] Smoking is the undisputed cause of 80 to 90% of lung cancers, as well as being implicated in cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and other sites. […] In total, it is estimated that smoking is responsible for nearly one-third of all cancer deaths.
  • #31 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Nonetheless, many agents, including radiation, chemicals, and viruses, have been found to induce cancer in both experimental animals and humans. […] Radiation and many chemical carcinogens act by damaging DNA and inducing mutations. […] These carcinogens are generally referred to as initiating agents, since the induction of mutations in key target genes is thought to be the initial event leading to cancer development. […] Some of the initiating agents that contribute to human cancers include solar ultraviolet radiation, carcinogenic chemicals in tobacco smoke, and aflatoxin. […] Smoking is the undisputed cause of 80 to 90% of lung cancers, as well as being implicated in cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and other sites. […] In total, it is estimated that smoking is responsible for nearly one-third of all cancer deaths.
  • #32 Understanding the Causes of Cancer
    https://www.cancerresearch.org/blog/april-2019/what-causes-cancer-risk-factors
    A handful of behavioral factors may lead to genetic mutations and cancer development. […] According to Dr. Harold Varmus, Nobel laureate and former director of the National Institutes of Health, “The prevention of cancer requires us to look not just at genetic predisposition but at how our lifestyle choices and environmental exposures interact with our biology to affect cancer risk.” […] Exposure to environmental factors, such as certain chemicals and radiation can indeed influence your cancer risk. […] Yes, bacterial and viral infections can cause genetic mutations and chronic inflammation that contribute to the development of cancer. […] Some common viruses speculated to increase cancer risk include: Human papillomavirus (HPV): This virus is linked to cervical, anal, penile, and several head and neck cancers. HPV is known to cause mutations in the DNA of infected cells, which can lead to the development of cancerous tumors.
  • #33 What Causes Cancer?
    https://www.singaporecancersociety.org.sg/learn-about-cancer/cancer-basics/what-causes-cancer.html
    There is no single exact cause of cancer. Like many diseases, cancer occurrence is due to a combination of different reasons. Here are some known causes of cancer. […] If a particular type of cancer is common in your family, you may have been born with genetic mutations that put you at a higher risk of developing certain cancers. Some cancers, like breast and colorectal cancer, tend to be hereditary. However, having an inherited genetic mutation doesn’t mean that you will definitely get cancer later in life; approximately 5 to 10 per cent of all cancers are directly caused by inherited genetic mutations. […] Tobacco smoke contains at least 69 carcinogens (cancer-causing agents). Smoking increases your risk of getting certain cancers such as lung and oral cancer, as well as cancers of the stomach, kidney and bladder.
  • #34 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Nonetheless, many agents, including radiation, chemicals, and viruses, have been found to induce cancer in both experimental animals and humans. […] Radiation and many chemical carcinogens act by damaging DNA and inducing mutations. […] These carcinogens are generally referred to as initiating agents, since the induction of mutations in key target genes is thought to be the initial event leading to cancer development. […] Some of the initiating agents that contribute to human cancers include solar ultraviolet radiation, carcinogenic chemicals in tobacco smoke, and aflatoxin. […] Smoking is the undisputed cause of 80 to 90% of lung cancers, as well as being implicated in cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and other sites. […] In total, it is estimated that smoking is responsible for nearly one-third of all cancer deaths.
  • #35 What Causes Cancer? 10 Common Factors – Gateway For Cancer Research
    https://gatewaycr.org/about/in-the-news/cancer-causes/
    Excessive alcohol consumption may contribute to a variety of different cancers. […] Your cells can be damaged by exposure to high levels of radiation. […] Air pollution has been linked with a variety of different cancers, including lung cancer, breast cancer, and liver cancer. […] The risk of cancer may be increased by certain infections. Hepatitis B and C can cause liver cancer, while human papillomavirus (HPV) may cause cervical or vaginal cancer. […] Theres a wide variety of household chemicals that contribute to the development of cancer, such as Benzene, Asbestos, and Arsenic. […] As we get older, our cells are more likely to develop genetic mutations that cause cancer.
  • #36 Causes of cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_cancer
    Many different lifestyle factors contribute to increasing cancer risk. Together, diet and obesity are related to approximately 3035% of cancer deaths. […] Alcohol is an example of a chemical carcinogen. The World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. […] In the United States, excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 1420% of all cancer deaths. […] Some hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. […] Worldwide, approximately 18% of cancer cases are related to infectious diseases. […] Viral infection is a major risk factor for cervical and liver cancer. A virus that can cause cancer is called an oncovirus. […] There is evidence that inflammation itself plays an important role in the development and progression of cancer.
  • #37 What Causes Cancer? 10 Common Factors – Gateway For Cancer Research
    https://gatewaycr.org/about/in-the-news/cancer-causes/
    Gene mutations that cause cancer may be inherited from your parents. Breast cancer, colon cancer, and ovarian cancer are types of cancer that can be passed down through genetics. […] Inherited gene mutations are generally rare, but theyre important to know about because they can tell you whether or not you have a higher risk of developing cancer. […] Tobacco is a major risk factor and may cause lung cancer, throat cancer, and mouth cancer and many more types of cancers. Tobacco contains harmful carcinogens that can damage DNA. […] A diet thats high in processed foods, red meat, sugar, and trans fats may increase your risk of developing certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal and stomach cancer. […] Lack of exercise does not directly cause cancer, but it can contribute to obesity which does increase the risk of developing cancers like breast, colon, and endometrial cancer.
  • #38 What Causes Cancer? 10 Common Factors – Gateway For Cancer Research
    https://gatewaycr.org/about/in-the-news/cancer-causes/
    Gene mutations that cause cancer may be inherited from your parents. Breast cancer, colon cancer, and ovarian cancer are types of cancer that can be passed down through genetics. […] Inherited gene mutations are generally rare, but theyre important to know about because they can tell you whether or not you have a higher risk of developing cancer. […] Tobacco is a major risk factor and may cause lung cancer, throat cancer, and mouth cancer and many more types of cancers. Tobacco contains harmful carcinogens that can damage DNA. […] A diet thats high in processed foods, red meat, sugar, and trans fats may increase your risk of developing certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal and stomach cancer. […] Lack of exercise does not directly cause cancer, but it can contribute to obesity which does increase the risk of developing cancers like breast, colon, and endometrial cancer.
  • #39 Causes of cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_cancer
    Many different lifestyle factors contribute to increasing cancer risk. Together, diet and obesity are related to approximately 3035% of cancer deaths. […] Alcohol is an example of a chemical carcinogen. The World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. […] In the United States, excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 1420% of all cancer deaths. […] Some hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. […] Worldwide, approximately 18% of cancer cases are related to infectious diseases. […] Viral infection is a major risk factor for cervical and liver cancer. A virus that can cause cancer is called an oncovirus. […] There is evidence that inflammation itself plays an important role in the development and progression of cancer.
  • #40 Causes of cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_cancer
    Many different lifestyle factors contribute to increasing cancer risk. Together, diet and obesity are related to approximately 3035% of cancer deaths. […] Alcohol is an example of a chemical carcinogen. The World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. […] In the United States, excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 1420% of all cancer deaths. […] Some hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. […] Worldwide, approximately 18% of cancer cases are related to infectious diseases. […] Viral infection is a major risk factor for cervical and liver cancer. A virus that can cause cancer is called an oncovirus. […] There is evidence that inflammation itself plays an important role in the development and progression of cancer.
  • #41
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Cancer arises from the transformation of normal cells into tumour cells in a multi-stage process that generally progresses from a pre-cancerous lesion to a malignant tumour. […] These changes are the result of the interaction between a person’s genetic factors and three categories of external agents, including: physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation; chemical carcinogens, such as asbestos, components of tobacco smoke, alcohol, aflatoxin (a food contaminant), and arsenic (a drinking water contaminant); and biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria, or parasites. […] Some chronic infections are risk factors for cancer; this is a particular issue in low- and middle-income countries. Approximately 13% of cancers diagnosed in 2018 globally were attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter pylori, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus.
  • #42
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Cancer arises from the transformation of normal cells into tumour cells in a multi-stage process that generally progresses from a pre-cancerous lesion to a malignant tumour. […] These changes are the result of the interaction between a person’s genetic factors and three categories of external agents, including: physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation; chemical carcinogens, such as asbestos, components of tobacco smoke, alcohol, aflatoxin (a food contaminant), and arsenic (a drinking water contaminant); and biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria, or parasites. […] Some chronic infections are risk factors for cancer; this is a particular issue in low- and middle-income countries. Approximately 13% of cancers diagnosed in 2018 globally were attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter pylori, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus.
  • #43
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Hepatitis B and C viruses and some types of HPV increase the risk for liver and cervical cancer, respectively. Infection with HIV increases the risk of developing cervical cancer six-fold and substantially increases the risk of developing select other cancers such as Kaposi sarcoma. […] Tobacco use, alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and air pollution are risk factors for cancer and other noncommunicable diseases. […] Between 30 and 50% of cancers can currently be prevented by avoiding risk factors and implementing existing evidence-based prevention strategies. […] The incidence of cancer rises dramatically with age, most likely due to a build-up of risks for specific cancers that increase with age. The overall risk accumulation is combined with the tendency for cellular repair mechanisms to be less effective as a person grows older.
  • #44 What Causes Cancer? | Stanford Health Care
    https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/cancer/cancer/cancer-causes.html
    Family history, inheritance, and genetics may play an important role in some childhood cancers. […] The cause of the defect in the stem cells could be related to an inherited genetic defect or exposure to a virus or toxin. […] Epstein-Barr virus and HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, have been linked to an increased risk of developing certain childhood cancers, such as Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. […] Pesticides, fertilizers, and power lines have been researched for a direct link to childhood cancers. […] In some cases, children who have been exposed to these agents may develop a second malignancy later in life. […] Over 90% of cancers are observed to have some type of genetic alteration. Some of these alterations are inherited, while others are sporadic, which means they occur by chance or occur from environmental exposures (usually over many years). […] Ultimately, cancer is a loss of this balance due to genetic alterations that „tip the balance” in favor of excessive cell growth.
  • #45 Causes of Cancer | CancerQuest
    https://cancerquest.org/cancer-biology/causes-cancer
    Insulin resistance in particular seems to be important in elevating cancer risk. […] The actions of insulin and related proteins, including its receptors and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), have been associated with increased tumor growth, particularly for colon, breast, and prostate cancer. […] Chronic inflammation has been seen, both experimentally and epidemiologically, to be an important factor in tumor development. […] Chronic inflammation can be caused by viral or bacterial infections, autoimmune diseases and inflammatory conditions of unknown origins. […] It has been shown that mutation of key inflammatory control genes is associated with a higher risk of cancer progression. […] Inflammation seems to lead to the development of cancer because of the activities of leukocytes, including the production of proteins that alter the behavior of target cells (cytokines and chemokines), stimulation of blood vessel growth (angiogenesis) and tissue remodeling.
  • #46 Causes & Risk Factors – Pancreatic Cancer  |  Johns Hopkins Pathology
    https://pathology.jhu.edu/pancreas/causes-risk-factors
    The third way our DNA gets damaged is by chance. […] Occasionally mistakes are made copying DNA. […] if one of these chance mistakes in copying (DNA mutations) damages a key cancer-associated gene in a cell in the pancreas, then that cell may grow into a cancer. […] Cigarette smoking doubles the risk of pancreatic cancer, and the more cigarettes a person smokes during their life, the greater the risk. […] Age is one of the biggest risk factors for pancreatic cancer. The risk of developing pancreatic cancer increases with age. […] Studies in the United States have shown that pancreatic cancer is more common in the Black population than it is in the White population. […] Cancer of the pancreas is more common in men than in women. […] Pancreatic cancer is proportionally more common in Ashkenazi Jews than the rest of the population.
  • #47 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Only malignant tumors are properly referred to as cancers, and it is their ability to invade and metastasize that makes cancer so dangerous. […] The most important issue in cancer pathology is the distinction between benign and malignant tumors. […] The incidence of colon cancer, for example, increases more than tenfold between the ages of 30 and 50, and another tenfold between 50 and 70. […] Such a dramatic increase of cancer incidence with age suggests that most cancers develop as a consequence of multiple abnormalities, which accumulate over periods of many years. […] Substances that cause cancer, called carcinogens, have been identified both by studies in experimental animals and by epidemiological analysis of cancer frequencies in human populations. […] Since the development of malignancy is a complex multistep process, many factors may affect the likelihood that cancer will develop, and it is overly simplistic to speak of single causes of most cancers.
  • #48 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Only malignant tumors are properly referred to as cancers, and it is their ability to invade and metastasize that makes cancer so dangerous. […] The most important issue in cancer pathology is the distinction between benign and malignant tumors. […] The incidence of colon cancer, for example, increases more than tenfold between the ages of 30 and 50, and another tenfold between 50 and 70. […] Such a dramatic increase of cancer incidence with age suggests that most cancers develop as a consequence of multiple abnormalities, which accumulate over periods of many years. […] Substances that cause cancer, called carcinogens, have been identified both by studies in experimental animals and by epidemiological analysis of cancer frequencies in human populations. […] Since the development of malignancy is a complex multistep process, many factors may affect the likelihood that cancer will develop, and it is overly simplistic to speak of single causes of most cancers.
  • #49
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Hepatitis B and C viruses and some types of HPV increase the risk for liver and cervical cancer, respectively. Infection with HIV increases the risk of developing cervical cancer six-fold and substantially increases the risk of developing select other cancers such as Kaposi sarcoma. […] Tobacco use, alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and air pollution are risk factors for cancer and other noncommunicable diseases. […] Between 30 and 50% of cancers can currently be prevented by avoiding risk factors and implementing existing evidence-based prevention strategies. […] The incidence of cancer rises dramatically with age, most likely due to a build-up of risks for specific cancers that increase with age. The overall risk accumulation is combined with the tendency for cellular repair mechanisms to be less effective as a person grows older.
  • #50
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Cancer arises from the transformation of normal cells into tumour cells in a multi-stage process that generally progresses from a pre-cancerous lesion to a malignant tumour. […] These changes are the result of the interaction between a person’s genetic factors and three categories of external agents, including: physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation; chemical carcinogens, such as asbestos, components of tobacco smoke, alcohol, aflatoxin (a food contaminant), and arsenic (a drinking water contaminant); and biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria, or parasites. […] Some chronic infections are risk factors for cancer; this is a particular issue in low- and middle-income countries. Approximately 13% of cancers diagnosed in 2018 globally were attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter pylori, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus.
  • #51
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Cancer arises from the transformation of normal cells into tumour cells in a multi-stage process that generally progresses from a pre-cancerous lesion to a malignant tumour. […] These changes are the result of the interaction between a person’s genetic factors and three categories of external agents, including: physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation; chemical carcinogens, such as asbestos, components of tobacco smoke, alcohol, aflatoxin (a food contaminant), and arsenic (a drinking water contaminant); and biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria, or parasites. […] Some chronic infections are risk factors for cancer; this is a particular issue in low- and middle-income countries. Approximately 13% of cancers diagnosed in 2018 globally were attributed to carcinogenic infections, including Helicobacter pylori, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and Epstein-Barr virus.
  • #52 Causes of cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_cancer
    Cancer is caused by genetic changes leading to uncontrolled cell growth and tumor formation. The basic cause of sporadic (non-familial) cancers is DNA damage and genomic instability. A minority of cancers are due to inherited genetic mutations. Most cancers are related to environmental, lifestyle, or behavioral exposures. […] Over one third of cancer deaths worldwide (and about 7580% in the United States) are potentially avoidable by reducing exposure to known factors. Common environmental factors that contribute to cancer death include exposure to different chemical and physical agents (tobacco use accounts for 2530% of cancer deaths), environmental pollutants, diet and obesity (3035%), infections (1520%), and radiation (both ionizing and non-ionizing, up to 10%). […] Aging has been repeatedly and consistently regarded as an important aspect to consider when evaluating the risk factors for the development of particular cancers. Many molecular and cellular changes involved in the development of cancer accumulate during the aging process and eventually manifest as cancer.
  • #53 Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Stages, Prevention
    https://www.medicinenet.com/cancer/article.htm
    Breast Cancer These abnormal cells are termed cancer cells, malignant cells, or tumor cells. These cells can infiltrate normal body tissues. Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells anywhere in a body. These abnormal cells are termed cancer cells, malignant cells, or tumor cells. These cells can infiltrate normal body tissues. Many cancers and the abnormal cells that compose the cancer tissue are further identified by the name of the tissue that the abnormal cells originated from (for example, breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer). Cancer is not confined to humans; animals and other living organisms can get cancer. When a cell is damaged or altered without repair to its system, the cell usually dies. When damaged or unrepaired cells do not die and become cancer cells, uncontrolled division and growth occurs and a mass of cancer cells develops. Frequently, cancer cells can break away from this original mass of cells, travel through the blood and lymph systems, and lodge in other organs where they can again repeat the uncontrolled growth cycle. This process of cancer cells leaving an area and growing in another body area is termed metastatic spread or metastasis. For example, if breast cancer cells spread to a bone, it means that the individual has metastatic breast cancer to bone. This is not the same as „bone cancer,” which would mean cancer had started in the bone.
  • #54 Cancer – Mutations, Carcinogens, Genetics | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/cancer-disease/Causes-of-cancer
    Discussion of the causes of cancers necessarily involves an examination of the molecular machinery in cells that guides the basic processes of proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. […] In cancer each of those codes ultimately becomes altered regardless of whether the disease originated with an external or internal factor. […] A fundamental characteristic of a tumor cell is that it begets a tumor cell. […] The hereditary nature of cancer at the cellular level explains why alterations have been found in both the genetic and the epigenetic codes in tumor cells. […] Several insults must be inflicted upon the DNA or chromatin of a cell in order for it to become cancerous. […] Initiation and promotion together are required for causing cancer. […] Proto-oncogenes, which encourage cell growth, and tumor suppressor genes, which inhibit it, are frequent targets of agents known to cause cancer, including chemicals, viruses, and radiation.
  • #55 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Other carcinogens contribute to cancer development by stimulating cell proliferation, rather than by inducing mutations. […] Such compounds are referred to as tumor promoters, since the increased cell division they induce is required for the outgrowth of a proliferative cell population during early stages of tumor development. […] Hormones, particularly estrogens, are important as tumor promoters in the development of some human cancers. […] In addition to chemicals and radiation, some viruses induce cancer both in experimental animals and in humans. […] The common human cancers caused by viruses include liver cancer and cervical carcinoma, which together account for 10 to 20% of worldwide cancer incidence.
  • #56 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Other carcinogens contribute to cancer development by stimulating cell proliferation, rather than by inducing mutations. […] Such compounds are referred to as tumor promoters, since the increased cell division they induce is required for the outgrowth of a proliferative cell population during early stages of tumor development. […] Hormones, particularly estrogens, are important as tumor promoters in the development of some human cancers. […] In addition to chemicals and radiation, some viruses induce cancer both in experimental animals and in humans. […] The common human cancers caused by viruses include liver cancer and cervical carcinoma, which together account for 10 to 20% of worldwide cancer incidence.
  • #57 Causes of cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_cancer
    Many different lifestyle factors contribute to increasing cancer risk. Together, diet and obesity are related to approximately 3035% of cancer deaths. […] Alcohol is an example of a chemical carcinogen. The World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. […] In the United States, excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 1420% of all cancer deaths. […] Some hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. […] Worldwide, approximately 18% of cancer cases are related to infectious diseases. […] Viral infection is a major risk factor for cervical and liver cancer. A virus that can cause cancer is called an oncovirus. […] There is evidence that inflammation itself plays an important role in the development and progression of cancer.
  • #58 Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Stages, Prevention
    https://www.medicinenet.com/cancer/article.htm
    Breast Cancer These abnormal cells are termed cancer cells, malignant cells, or tumor cells. These cells can infiltrate normal body tissues. Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells anywhere in a body. These abnormal cells are termed cancer cells, malignant cells, or tumor cells. These cells can infiltrate normal body tissues. Many cancers and the abnormal cells that compose the cancer tissue are further identified by the name of the tissue that the abnormal cells originated from (for example, breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer). Cancer is not confined to humans; animals and other living organisms can get cancer. When a cell is damaged or altered without repair to its system, the cell usually dies. When damaged or unrepaired cells do not die and become cancer cells, uncontrolled division and growth occurs and a mass of cancer cells develops. Frequently, cancer cells can break away from this original mass of cells, travel through the blood and lymph systems, and lodge in other organs where they can again repeat the uncontrolled growth cycle. This process of cancer cells leaving an area and growing in another body area is termed metastatic spread or metastasis. For example, if breast cancer cells spread to a bone, it means that the individual has metastatic breast cancer to bone. This is not the same as „bone cancer,” which would mean cancer had started in the bone.
  • #59 What Is Cancer? – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer
    Cancer is a disease in which some of the bodys cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body. […] Cancer is caused by certain changes to genes, the basic physical units of inheritance. […] Cancer is a genetic disease that is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells function, especially how they grow and divide. […] Genetic changes that cause cancer can happen because of errors that occur as cells divide. […] Genetic changes that cause cancer can be inherited or arise from certain environmental exposures. […] Most often, cancer-causing genetic changes accumulate slowly as a person ages, leading to a higher risk of cancer later in life. […] Cancer cells can break away from the original tumor and travel through the blood or lymph system to distant locations in the body, where they exit the vessels to form additional tumors.
  • #60 The Development and Causes of Cancer – The Cell – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9963/
    Only malignant tumors are properly referred to as cancers, and it is their ability to invade and metastasize that makes cancer so dangerous. […] The most important issue in cancer pathology is the distinction between benign and malignant tumors. […] The incidence of colon cancer, for example, increases more than tenfold between the ages of 30 and 50, and another tenfold between 50 and 70. […] Such a dramatic increase of cancer incidence with age suggests that most cancers develop as a consequence of multiple abnormalities, which accumulate over periods of many years. […] Substances that cause cancer, called carcinogens, have been identified both by studies in experimental animals and by epidemiological analysis of cancer frequencies in human populations. […] Since the development of malignancy is a complex multistep process, many factors may affect the likelihood that cancer will develop, and it is overly simplistic to speak of single causes of most cancers.
  • #61
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer
    Hepatitis B and C viruses and some types of HPV increase the risk for liver and cervical cancer, respectively. Infection with HIV increases the risk of developing cervical cancer six-fold and substantially increases the risk of developing select other cancers such as Kaposi sarcoma. […] Tobacco use, alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and air pollution are risk factors for cancer and other noncommunicable diseases. […] Between 30 and 50% of cancers can currently be prevented by avoiding risk factors and implementing existing evidence-based prevention strategies. […] The incidence of cancer rises dramatically with age, most likely due to a build-up of risks for specific cancers that increase with age. The overall risk accumulation is combined with the tendency for cellular repair mechanisms to be less effective as a person grows older.
  • #62 Causes of cancer | How to reduce the risk of cancer
    https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer
    Around 4 in 10 cancer cases in the UK can be prevented (2015) […] Stopping smoking, keeping a healthy weight and eating a healthy balanced diet can all reduce cancer risk. […] Around 4 in 10 cancer cases in the UK (2015) could be prevented through healthy changes. […] Keeping a healthy weight reduces the risk of 13 different types of cancer. […] Staying safe in the sun and avoiding sunbeds reduces the risk of melanoma skin cancer. […] The less alcohol you drink, the lower your risk of cancer. […] Eating a healthy balanced diet can help reduce your risk of cancer. […] Being more active can help us keep a healthy weight and reduce the risk of cancer. […] Some infections such as HPV can increase your risk. […] Air pollution increases the risk of lung cancer, but in the UK the risk is relatively small. […] Changes in our hormone levels can affect the risk of cancer. […] Some inherited faulty genes can increase your risk of cancer. […] Some jobs can affect peoples risk of cancer. […] Cancer is more common as we age.
  • #63 Understanding the Causes of Cancer
    https://www.cancerresearch.org/blog/april-2019/what-causes-cancer-risk-factors
    Vaccines and treatments to protect against virus-related cancers are crucial in the fight against cancer. […] About 4 in 10 cancer cases can be prevented through healthy living and policies that protect the public. Key steps include: Quitting smoking, Maintaining a healthy weight, Eating a balanced diet, Limiting alcohol intake, Protecting yourself from the sun, Staying physically active, Avoiding exposure to harmful chemicals, Getting vaccinated against cancer-causing viruses.
  • #64 Understanding the Causes of Cancer
    https://www.cancerresearch.org/blog/april-2019/what-causes-cancer-risk-factors
    Vaccines and treatments to protect against virus-related cancers are crucial in the fight against cancer. […] About 4 in 10 cancer cases can be prevented through healthy living and policies that protect the public. Key steps include: Quitting smoking, Maintaining a healthy weight, Eating a balanced diet, Limiting alcohol intake, Protecting yourself from the sun, Staying physically active, Avoiding exposure to harmful chemicals, Getting vaccinated against cancer-causing viruses.
  • #65 Cancer Risk and Prevention | Cancer Causes | Stay Healthy | American Cancer Society
    https://www.cancer.org/cancer/risk-prevention.html
    There’s no sure way to prevent cancer, but you can help reduce your risk by making healthy choices like eating right, staying active, and not smoking. […] Find out what we know about the factors that can affect your cancer risk. […] Some types of cancer run in certain families, but most cancers are not clearly linked to the genes we inherit from our parents. Gene changes that start in a single cell over the course of a person’s life cause most cancers. […] Having excess body weight can have far-reaching health consequences, including raising your risk for certain types of cancer. […] Exposure to radiation can increase the risk of cancer. […] Get the facts about these known, possible, and unlikely environmental causes of cancer. […] In the United States and other developed countries, a small portion of cancers are thought to be linked to infections. […] Some types of tests and treatments may actually increase a person’s risk of developing cancer.
  • #66 Causes of Cancer
    https://johnshopkinshealthcare.staywellsolutionsonline.com/Conditions/Orthopedics/90,P02719
    These genes help recognize errors when DNA is copied to make a new cell. If the DNA does not „match” perfectly, these genes fix the mismatch and correct the error. If these genes are not working properly, though, errors in DNA can be sent to new cells. That causes them to be damaged. It could result in a mutation leading to cancer. […] Often the number of cells in any of our body tissues is tightly controlled so that new cells are made for normal growth and development. They also replace dying cells. Cancer is a loss of this balance due to genetic changes that „tip the balance” in favor of excessive cancer cell growth. […] Some risk factors for cancer are not in your control, like your family history. But there are things you can do to lower your risk for cancer.
  • #67 What Is Cancer? Symptoms, Causes & Types
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12194-cancer
    Cancer happens when normal cells become cancerous cells that multiply and spread. Cancer is the second most common cause of death in the U.S. […] Cancer is a genetic disorder. But that doesn’t necessarily mean it’s inherited. It happens when genes that manage cell activity mutate (change). They create abnormal cells that divide and multiply, eventually disrupting how your body works. […] According to medical researchers, inherited genetic mutations (changes you can’t control) cause about 5% to 10% of all cancers. More often, cancer occurs as an acquired genetic mutation (change). That means it happens over the course of your life. Medical researchers have identified several risk factors that increase your chance of developing cancer. […] There isn’t one single cause for cancer. Rather, certain things can increase your chance of developing it, like family history, smoking, environmental factors, malnutrition, hormone therapy, and radiation exposure.
  • #68 Cancer: Types, Causes, Treatment, and Prevention
    https://www.healthline.com/health/cancer
    Cancer occurs when genetic mutations in abnormal cells cause them to divide rapidly. You can inherit mutations or develop them due to environmental factors. […] The main cause of cancer is mutations, or changes to the DNA in your cells. Genetic mutations can be inherited. They can also occur after birth as a result of environmental forces. […] According to the WHO, about 33 percent of cancer deaths may be caused by tobacco, alcohol, high body mass index (BMI), low fruit and vegetable consumption, and not getting enough physical activity. […] Certain risk factors may increase your chance of developing cancer. […] Some existing health conditions that cause inflammation may also increase your risk of cancer. An example is ulcerative colitis, a chronic inflammatory bowel disease. […] Cancer is a group of serious diseases that are caused by genetic changes in your cells. Abnormal cancer cells may divide rapidly and form tumors. […] Risk factors like smoking, drinking alcohol, a lack of physical activity, an unhealthy diet, having a high BMI, and catching certain viruses and bacteria may contribute to developing cancer.
  • #69 Cancer: Causes and Risk Factors
    https://www.verywellhealth.com/cancer-causes-513773
    Cancer develops when there are changes to the DNA (mutations) within a cell that allow it to grow out of control. […] Radiation, cancer-causing substances, infections, and your genetic makeup can raise your risk of mutations that result in cancer. […] Learning what causes cancer and what the risk factors are is the first step in cancer prevention. […] According to the American Cancer Society and the National Cancer Institute, the most common causes and risk factors of cancer are: Smoking and tobacco use, Alcohol, Lack of physical activity, Being overweight or having obesity, Poor diet, Sun exposure, Radiation exposure, Virus infections and other infections, Exposure to cancer-causing substances, Chronic inflammation, Hormones, Immunosuppression, Age, Family history and genetics. […] Your surroundings can raise your risk of developing cancer.
  • #70 Cancer: Causes and Risk Factors
    https://www.verywellhealth.com/cancer-causes-513773
    Cancer develops when there are changes to the DNA (mutations) within a cell that allow it to grow out of control. […] Radiation, cancer-causing substances, infections, and your genetic makeup can raise your risk of mutations that result in cancer. […] Learning what causes cancer and what the risk factors are is the first step in cancer prevention. […] According to the American Cancer Society and the National Cancer Institute, the most common causes and risk factors of cancer are: Smoking and tobacco use, Alcohol, Lack of physical activity, Being overweight or having obesity, Poor diet, Sun exposure, Radiation exposure, Virus infections and other infections, Exposure to cancer-causing substances, Chronic inflammation, Hormones, Immunosuppression, Age, Family history and genetics. […] Your surroundings can raise your risk of developing cancer.
  • #71 Pathology of Cancer: Causes, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Preventi
    https://www.longdom.org/open-access/pathology-of-cancer-causes-pathophysiology-diagnosis-prevention-and-treatment-102140.html
    Cancer is a group of diseases that can affect almost any part of the body. It is caused by uncontrolled cell growth and division, leading to the formation of a mass of abnormal cells, known as a tumor. […] Cancer is caused by mutations in the genes that control cell growth and division. These mutations can be inherited or acquired during a person’s lifetime due to exposure to environmental factors such as tobacco smoke, radiation, and certain chemicals. Some cancers, such as breast cancer, may also be related to hormonal imbalances. […] Cancer involves an abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. […] Understanding the pathology of cancer is crucial for effective diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of the disease. […] Prevention of cancer involves several strategies, including maintaining a healthy lifestyle, avoiding exposure to carcinogens, getting vaccinated against cancer-causing viruses such as HPV, and undergoing regular cancer screenings.
  • #72 Cancers | Special Issue : Cancer Causes and Control
    https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cancers/special_issues/6E1L90691B
    Early detection detects (or diagnoses) the disease at an early stage, when it has a high potential for cure (e.g., cervical or breast cancer). Interventions are available which permit the early detection and effective treatment of around one third of cases. […] Treatment aims to cure disease, prolong life, and improve the quality of remaining life after the diagnosis of cancer is confirmed by the appropriate available procedures. The most effective and efficient treatment is linked to early detection programmes and follows evidence-based standards of care. […] Palliative care meets the needs of all patients requiring relief from symptoms, and the needs of patients and their families for psychosocial and supportive care. This is particularly true when patients are in advanced stages and have a very low chance of being cured, or when they are facing the terminal phase of the disease.