Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding: Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21549-postmenopausal-bleeding

  Postmenopausal bleeding is vaginal bleeding that occurs a year or more after your last menstrual period. It can be a symptom of vaginal dryness, polyps (noncancerous growths) or other changes in your reproductive system. In about 10% of women, bleeding after menopause is a sign of uterine cancer. […] In most cases, postmenopausal bleeding is due to benign (noncancerous) conditions and isnt a cause for worry. But for about 10% of women, bleeding after menopause is an early sign of uterine cancer (cancer in the lining of your uterus). […] The most common causes of bleeding or spotting after menopause include: Vaginal atrophy (the lining of your vagina becomes thin and dry, which means it bleeds more easily). Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) (changing or stopping HRT can cause bleeding). Uterine cancer (about 90% of people with uterine cancer experienced vaginal bleeding before their diagnosis). Endometrial hyperplasia (the lining of your uterus gets too thick and may contain abnormal cells). Uterine polyps (benign growths in your uterus).

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding: Causes and Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/menopause/postmenopausal-bleeding

  Vaginal atrophy (thinning of vaginal tissue): Estrogen helps to keep this tissue healthy. After menopause, low estrogen levels can cause your vaginal walls to become thin, dry, and inflamed. That often leads to bleeding after sex. […] Cancer: Bleeding is the most common symptom of endometrial or uterine cancer after menopause. It can also signal vaginal or cervical cancer. […] Sexually transmitted diseases: Some, like chlamydia and gonorrhea, may cause spotting and bleeding after sex. Herpes sores can also bleed. […] Medications: Bleeding is often a side effect of certain drugs, like hormone therapy, tamoxifen, and blood thinners.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562188/

  The etiology of PMB may also be nongynecologic (eg, the urethra, bladder, or GI tract) and mistaken for vaginal bleeding. […] Some common underlying causes of postmenopausal bleeding include: Vaginal or endometrial atrophy, Urogenital infections (eg, endometrial tuberculosis, vaginitis, cystitis, or cervicitis), Medications (eg, estrogen, tamoxifen, and anticoagulants), Uterine leiomyomas, Genital tract malignancies, Vaginal foreign bodies, Endometrial polyps, Genitourinary atrophy, Endometrial hyperplasia with or without atypia. […] The most common etiology for postmenopausal bleeding is an atrophic endometrium. […] Chronic endometritis secondary to atrophy can present with vaginal spotting or light bleeding. […] Unopposed estrogen exposure often develops premalignant or malignant endometrial conditions.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK562188/

  The etiology of PMB may also be nongynecologic (eg, the urethra, bladder, or GI tract) and mistaken for vaginal bleeding. […] Some common underlying causes of postmenopausal bleeding include: Vaginal or endometrial atrophy, Urogenital infections (eg, endometrial tuberculosis, vaginitis, cystitis, or cervicitis), Medications (eg, estrogen, tamoxifen, and anticoagulants), Uterine leiomyomas, Genital tract malignancies, Vaginal foreign bodies, Endometrial polyps, Genitourinary atrophy, Endometrial hyperplasia with or without atypia. […] The most common etiology for postmenopausal bleeding is an atrophic endometrium. […] Chronic endometritis secondary to atrophy can present with vaginal spotting or light bleeding. […] Conversely, unopposed estrogen exposure often develops premalignant or malignant endometrial conditions.

• #1 WHO EMRO | Histological findings in women with postmenopausal bleeding: Jordanian figures | Volume 17, issue 7 | EMHJ volume 17, 2011

  https://www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-17/volume-17-issue-7/article5.html

  Postmenopausal bleeding represents one of the most common reasons for referral to gynaecological services. […] A retrospective review was made of the hospital records of 482 women presenting with postmenopausal bleeding to a referral hospital in Amman, Jordan. […] Adenocarcinoma was responsible for 9% of cases, and hyperplasia for 11%. […] Atrophy of the endometrium was the most common finding (52% of women), followed by hyperplasia (with and without atypia) (11%) and carcinoma (9%). […] The risk of cancer increased with increasing age while the incidence of bleeding decreased with age. […] Endometrial atrophy is the most common endometrial finding in women with postmenopausal bleeding, accounting for 60%80% of such bleeding. […] Endometrial hyperplasia occurs in 5%10% of patients with postmenopausal uterine bleeding.

• #1 Postmenopausal bleeding – O&G Magazine

  https://www.ogmagazine.org.au/16/3-16/postmenopausal-bleeding/

  The remaining causes are attributed to endometrial or cervical polyps (two to 12 per cent); exogenous oestrogen (15-25 per cent); cervical cancer (one per cent) and factors such as vaginal trauma, anticoagulants and bleeding from non-gynaecological sites. […] Endometrial hyperplasia is defined as proliferation of endometrial glands and consequentially an increased gland to stroma ratio. Endometrial hyperplasia can be sub-classified into simple or complex with or without atypia. The importance of endometrial hyperplasia is each sub-category has a corresponding risk of progression to endometrial cancer for simple or complex hyperplasia with or without atypia the risks are one, three, eight and 29 per cent, respectively.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding: Causes and Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/menopause/postmenopausal-bleeding

  If you have any bleeding — even if it’s only spotting — you should see a doctor. They’ll want to rule out serious causes, like cancer. […] A number of conditions may lead to postmenopausal bleeding: […] Polyps: These tissue growths show up inside your uterus or cervical canal, or on your cervix. They’re usually not cancer, but they can cause spotting, heavy bleeding, or bleeding after sex. […] Endometrial atrophy (thinning of the uterine lining): The endometrium is the tissue that lines your uterus. It responds to hormones like estrogen and progesterone. Low hormone levels after menopause can cause it to get too thin. This may trigger bleeding. […] Endometrial hyperplasia (thickening of the uterine lining): After menopause, you may have too much estrogen and too little progesterone. As a result, the endometrium gets thicker and can bleed. Sometimes cells in the endometrium can become abnormal. This could lead to cancer, so get it treated as soon as possible.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding: Causes in Women Over 50

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/postmenopausal-bleeding-8406586

  Bleeding sometimes, but not always, suggests endometrial cancer. […] While postmenopausal bleeding often stems from benign (noncancerous) conditions, it can be the first sign of endometrial (uterine) cancer. […] Common causes include: Polyps are outgrowths of the inner lining of the uterus. They are usually benign; however, in postmenopausal people, there is a higher risk for cancerous uterine polyps compared to premenopausal people. […] The most serious cause of postmenopausal bleeding is endometrial cancer, the fourth most common cancer in females in the United States. […] With endometrial cancer, cells within the inner lining of the uterus grow abnormally and uncontrollably. […] Vaginal bleeding occurs in around 90% of people with endometrial cancer, although non-bloody vaginal discharge can also be a sign.

• #1 When To Be Concerned About Postmenopausal Bleeding

  https://totalpointer.com/should-you-be-concerned-about-postmenopausal-bleeding/

  You should always be concerned about postmenopausal bleeding. Menopause marks the end of menstruation, so experiencing uterine bleeding after menopause is not normal. […] Bleeding after menopause can be a sign of a serious condition like fibroids, vaginal atrophy, or even endometrial cancer. […] Bleeding after menopause is usually a sign that a serious issue needs to be addressed. […] Common Causes of Postmenopausal Bleeding […] Vaginal atrophy is the thinning and inflammation of the uterine wall tissues and is highly prevalent among postmenopausal women. […] Endometrial polyps are abnormal uterine lesions (growths in the inner lining of the uterus) and their exact cause is unknown. […] Fibroids are common, non-cancerous growths that can occur in the uterus. […] After menopause, fibroids typically shrink due to decreased estrogen levels.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding: Causes in Women Over 50

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/postmenopausal-bleeding-8406586

  Other possible causes of postmenopausal bleeding include: Endometrial hyperplasia: Thickening of the uterine lining that may or may not be associated with abnormal, precancerous cells. […] Factors that increase the risk for endometrial cancer include: Early menarche (first menstrual cycle), Late menopause, Unopposed estrogen therapy (not taking progestin with estrogen if a person has a uterus), Use of tamoxifen (a hormone therapy drug used to treat breast cancer), Increasing age, Specific health problems, namely obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). […] Vaginal bleeding after menopause is never considered normal. Failing to get it checked out may result in worsening symptoms and serious complications like anemia or a cancer that has progressed.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/postmenopausal-bleeding

  A woman no longer experiences menstrual periods once she enters menopause the term for the natural decline in reproductive hormones a woman experiences in her 40s and 50s. After a year has passed without menstrual periods, any vaginal bleeding that that occurs is known as postmenopausal bleeding, and it is considered abnormal. […] There are several possible causes of postmenopausal bleeding, most of which are not worrisome. However, between 10% and 15% women who experience postmenopausal bleeding may have endometrial cancer. […] Postmenopausal bleeding refers to any vaginal bleeding that occurs in a menopausal woman. Because all postmenopausal bleeding is considered abnormal, its important to contact your provider if this occurs. […] There are several causes of postmenopausal bleeding, including: Polyps, or growths that are usually benign (non-cancerous) on the cervix or uterine lining, Fibroids (non-cancerous uterine growths), Atrophy, or thinning, of the vaginal and/or uterine lining, Excessive thickening of the uterine lining, Certain infections of the cervix or uterus, Vaginal intercourse, Sexual trauma, Endometrial cancer, Cervical cancer, Ovarian cancer.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding (PMB) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/postmenopausal-bleeding

  Postmenopausal bleeding (PMB) is defined for practical purposes as vaginal bleeding occurring after twelve months of amenorrhoea, in a woman of the age where the menopause can be expected. […] Although PMB usually has a benign cause, the priority is to exclude malignancy. […] PMB is a common problem representing 5% of all gynaecology outpatient attendances. These are most commonly to eliminate endometrial cancer as the cause of the bleed. […] Causes of PMB (aetiology) include vaginal atrophy, use of HRT, endometrial hyperplasia; simple, complex, and atypical, endometrial cancer, endometrial polyps or cervical polyps, cervical cancer, uterine sarcoma (rare), ovarian cancer, especially oestrogen-secreting (theca cell) ovarian tumours, vaginal cancer (very uncommon), vulval cancer may bleed, but the lesion should be obvious, and non-gynaecological causes including trauma or a bleeding disorder. […] Most women with PMB will not have significant pathology but the dictum remains that postmenopausal bleeding is cancer until proved otherwise. […] Women with breast cancer who take tamoxifen on a long-term basis are at increased risk of endometrial cancer.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK562188/

  One of the most concerning etiologies of postmenopausal bleeding is endometrial cancer, which is typically subclassified into type I or II based on histologic morphology, grade, and hormone receptors. […] The primary complication of PMB is secondary anemia, which occurs in approximately 10% of postmenopausal women.

• #1 Postmenopausal Bleeding – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562188/

  One of the most concerning etiologies of postmenopausal bleeding is endometrial cancer, which is typically subclassified into type I or II based on histologic morphology, grade, and hormone receptors. […] The primary complication of PMB is secondary anemia, which occurs in approximately 10% of postmenopausal women.

• #1 Closer Look at Postmenopausal Bleeding and Endometrial Cancer – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2018/endometrial-cancer-bleeding-common-symptom

  Overall, the analysis showed that, consistent with what had been seen in earlier studies, 90% of women diagnosed with endometrial cancer had experienced postmenopausal bleeding. […] The number of women with postmenopausal bleeding who were diagnosed with endometrial cancer varied around the globe. While the rate was 9% overall, it ranged from 5% in North America to 13% in Western Europe. […] Among the studies included in the analysis, the risk of endometrial cancer in women with postmenopausal bleeding was lower in studies that included women using hormone replacement therapy. […] It’s only if there’s persistent bleeding after the initial 6 months of [hormone replacement] that it may be more concerning and should trigger testing for endometrial cancer. […] The findings confirm that „postmenopausal women with [vaginal] bleeding have a low risk of endometrial cancer, but the vast majority of women with endometrial cancer present with bleeding. […] women should know that getting tested if they have postmenopausal bleeding „gives us an opportunity to [potentially] detect endometrial cancer early, which provides a high likelihood of cure.

• #1 Postmenopausal Vaginal Bleeding

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/postmenopausal-vaginal-bleeding

  Although relatively common, vaginal bleeding is considered abnormal when reported in a woman who has passed the onset of menopause. In approximately 20% to 30% of cases of postmenopausal vaginal bleeding, the cause may be attributed to endometrial cancer or atypical endometrial hyperplasia. Additional causes include estrogen or progesterone therapy (i.e., hormone replacement therapy [HRT]) and genital atrophy due to low estrogen levels. […] Although postmenopausal vaginal bleeding remains a cardinal symptom of endometrial cancer, case reports have shown it may be an unusual presenting sign of other diseases as well, including non-Hodgkin lymphoma and pancreatic adenocarcinoma. […] When unexplained vaginal bleeding occurs, malignancy should be ruled out; persistent postmenopausal vaginal bleeding should be investigated aggressively.

• #1 Postmenopausal bleeding – O&G Magazine

  https://www.ogmagazine.org.au/16/3-16/postmenopausal-bleeding/

  Postmenopausal bleeding (PMB) accounts for five per cent of office gynaecology presentations. Its definition is self-explanatory, as any bleeding from the genital tract occurring in the postmenopausal period, arising after 12 months of amenorrhoea in a women of menopausal age. Generally, four to 11 per cent of postmenopausal women will experience bleeding. The chance of this occurring reduces as time since menopause increases. […] While the most common cause for PMB is atrophy, the diagnostic algorithm for PMB is designed to detect cancer, particularly endometrial cancer. Vaginal, endometrial and urogenital atrophy is par for the course with postmenopausal hypoestrogenism. Atrophy accounts for 60-80 per cent of all causes of PMB, while endometrial hyperplasia and cancer each account for ten per cent of cases.

• #1 Postmenopausal bleeding

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/post-menopausal-bleeding/

  Menopause is usually diagnosed in women over 45 who have not had a period for more than a year. Any bleeding from the vagina after this time needs to be checked by a GP. […] Postmenopausal bleeding is not usually serious, but can be a sign of cancer. Cancer may be easier to treat if it’s found early. […] There can be several causes of postmenopausal bleeding. […] The most common causes are: inflammation and thinning of the vaginal lining (atrophic vaginitis) or womb lining (endometrial atrophy) caused by lower oestrogen levels; cervical or womb polyps growths that are usually non-cancerous; a thickened womb lining (endometrial hyperplasia) this can be caused by hormone replacement therapy (HRT), high levels of oestrogen or being overweight, and can lead to womb cancer. […] Less commonly, postmenopausal bleeding is caused by cancer, such as ovarian cancer and womb cancer.

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562188/

  Menopause is characterized by the complete absence of menstrual cycles, which occurs when a female has no ovarian follicles left in reserve and is clinically diagnosed when a woman has had amenorrhea for 1 year. […] Bleeding after menopause has been established, termed postmenopausal bleeding, is considered abnormal and is the reason for approximately two-thirds of all gynecologic office visits in postmenopausal women. […] The differential diagnoses associated with postmenopausal bleeding (PMB) include several conditions. Though the most common cause of PMB is atrophy of the lower reproductive tract, 90% of postmenopausal women diagnosed with endometrial cancer presented with vaginal bleeding. […] The most common cause of postmenopausal bleeding is genitourinary atrophy, accounting for 60%.

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding—Causes, treatment and Diagnosis

  https://myskyn.co.uk/blog/postmenopausal-bleeding/

  During menopause, when your vagina and uterus walls thin as a result of a decrease in oestrogen hormone, they become fragile. This causes dryness, irritation, and discomfort down there, especially during sex. You may notice spots after sex, or sometimes without sex, when the atrophy gets severe. […] Any infection in your reproductive or urinary systems can cause postmenopausal bleeding. Infections like tuberculosis of the uterus wall, vaginal or cervix swelling, and bladder infections can hurt and irritate the tissues that lead to bleeding. […] Endometrial hyperplasia is the abnormal growth of cells that make up your uterus wall. The uterus wall gets thicker and causes bleeding from the vagina. It is not considered cancer, but if not treated promptly, it may lead to cancer. This abnormal growth may result from hormonal imbalances like oestrogen and progesterone.

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK562188/

  The etiology of PMB may also be nongynecologic (eg, the urethra, bladder, or GI tract) and mistaken for vaginal bleeding. […] Some common underlying causes of postmenopausal bleeding include: Vaginal or endometrial atrophy, Urogenital infections (eg, endometrial tuberculosis, vaginitis, cystitis, or cervicitis), Medications (eg, estrogen, tamoxifen, and anticoagulants), Uterine leiomyomas, Genital tract malignancies, Vaginal foreign bodies, Endometrial polyps, Genitourinary atrophy, Endometrial hyperplasia with or without atypia. […] The most common etiology for postmenopausal bleeding is an atrophic endometrium. […] Chronic endometritis secondary to atrophy can present with vaginal spotting or light bleeding. […] Conversely, unopposed estrogen exposure often develops premalignant or malignant endometrial conditions.

• #2 Postmenopausal bleeding

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/post-menopausal-bleeding/

  Menopause is usually diagnosed in women over 45 who have not had a period for more than a year. Any bleeding from the vagina after this time needs to be checked by a GP. […] Postmenopausal bleeding is not usually serious, but can be a sign of cancer. Cancer may be easier to treat if it’s found early. […] There can be several causes of postmenopausal bleeding. […] The most common causes are: inflammation and thinning of the vaginal lining (atrophic vaginitis) or womb lining (endometrial atrophy) caused by lower oestrogen levels; cervical or womb polyps growths that are usually non-cancerous; a thickened womb lining (endometrial hyperplasia) this can be caused by hormone replacement therapy (HRT), high levels of oestrogen or being overweight, and can lead to womb cancer. […] Less commonly, postmenopausal bleeding is caused by cancer, such as ovarian cancer and womb cancer.

• #2 Postmenopausal bleeding – O&G Magazine

  https://www.ogmagazine.org.au/16/3-16/postmenopausal-bleeding/

  The remaining causes are attributed to endometrial or cervical polyps (two to 12 per cent); exogenous oestrogen (15-25 per cent); cervical cancer (one per cent) and factors such as vaginal trauma, anticoagulants and bleeding from non-gynaecological sites. […] Endometrial hyperplasia is defined as proliferation of endometrial glands and consequentially an increased gland to stroma ratio. Endometrial hyperplasia can be sub-classified into simple or complex with or without atypia. The importance of endometrial hyperplasia is each sub-category has a corresponding risk of progression to endometrial cancer for simple or complex hyperplasia with or without atypia the risks are one, three, eight and 29 per cent, respectively.

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment | MyloFamily

  https://www.mylofamily.com/article/postmenopausal-bleeding-symptoms-causes-treatment-215240?internal_source=organic_article&internal_medium=29427&srsltid=AfmBOopsml8Y8f8T7Y6a4HwJ4ADXeF4EOnrY-5odAutBOh5JiFZHKQ98

  Postmenopausal bleeding is when a woman has vaginal bleeding for a year or more after her last period. […] After menopause, bleeding can indicate uterine cancer in roughly 10% of women. […] Most women who experience bleeding after menopause do so because of benign (noncancerous) gynecological disorders such as endometrial polyps. […] The most common causes of postmenopausal bleeding are: Hormone Replacement Therapy, Endometrial or Uterine Cancer, Vaginal or Endometrial Atrophy, Uterine Polyps, Endometrial Hyperplasia. […] Furthermore, there are other possible causes, such as cancer of the cervix, often known as cervical cancer, and an infection or inflammation of the cervix or endometrium. […] Bleeding after menopause could be caused by something minor, such as an enlarged uterus, or something more serious, like malignancy. […] The causes of postmenopausal bleeding are the factors that decide its treatment.

• #2 Bleeding After Menopause Could Be a Problem. Here’s What to Know. | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/experts-and-stories/the-latest/bleeding-after-menopause-could-be-a-problem-heres-what-to-know

  My patient Rosa has come to my office for an appointment, but its not for her annual visit. Instead, shes here for vaginal bleeding that has taken her by surprise. Rosa is a woman in her mid-60s whos well past menopause. […] Most women who experience bleeding after menopause are understandably concerned. After all, they thought they were done with it. (Menopause is officially confirmed if it has been 1 year since your last menstrual period.) […] Postmenopausal bleeding can range from light spotting that is pinkish-gray or brown, all the way to a heavy flow, like a regular period. […] One reason for postmenopausal bleeding could be that the tissue of your vagina and vulva has gotten thinner. This can happen during menopause due to hormone changes. […] Polyps also can cause vaginal bleeding. If your ob-gyn discovers these benign (noncancerous) growths in your uterus or on your cervix, you might need surgery to remove them.

• #2 When To Be Concerned About Postmenopausal Bleeding

  https://totalpointer.com/should-you-be-concerned-about-postmenopausal-bleeding/

  However, they can still cause symptoms like abnormal bleeding, pain during sex, pressure on the bladder or bowels, and lower back pain. […] One way endometrial cancer is caught early is through early detection screenings, or through women reporting symptoms like vaginal bleeding. […] Postmenopausal women experiencing bleeding are typically referred for further testing to rule out the possibility of endometrial cancer.

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562188/

  One of the most concerning etiologies of postmenopausal bleeding is endometrial cancer, which is typically subclassified into type I or II based on histologic morphology, grade, and hormone receptors. […] The primary complication of PMB is secondary anemia, which occurs in approximately 10% of postmenopausal women.

• #2 Closer Look at Postmenopausal Bleeding and Endometrial Cancer – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2018/endometrial-cancer-bleeding-common-symptom

  Women experiencing abnormal vaginal bleeding may undergo a transvaginal ultrasound, biopsy, or both, to determine if an endometrial tumor is the cause. […] In the largest analysis to date looking at the extent to which vaginal bleeding is associated with endometrial cancer in women who have gone through menopause, 90% of women diagnosed with endometrial cancer reported bleeding before their cancer diagnosis. Approximately 9% of postmenopausal women who saw a doctor for bleeding later received a diagnosis of endometrial cancer. […] Typically, postmenopausal women who experience bleeding are referred for further testing to either rule out or diagnose endometrial cancer. While vaginal bleeding has been known to be a symptom of endometrial cancer, this large study confirms the practice of referring women for further testing.

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding: Causes in Women Over 50

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/light-spotting-after-menopause-causes-and-risk-factors-5182467

  Bleeding sometimes, but not always, suggests endometrial cancer […] While postmenopausal bleeding often stems from benign (noncancerous) conditions, it can be the first sign of endometrial (uterine) cancer. […] The most serious cause of postmenopausal bleeding is endometrial cancer, the fourth most common cancer in females in the United States. […] With endometrial cancer, cells within the inner lining of the uterus grow abnormally and uncontrollably. […] Vaginal bleeding occurs in around 90% of people with endometrial cancer, although non-bloody vaginal discharge can also be a sign. […] Other possible causes of postmenopausal bleeding include: Endometrial hyperplasia: Thickening of the uterine lining that may or may not be associated with abnormal, precancerous cells […] Factors that increase the risk for endometrial cancer include: Early menarche (first menstrual cycle), Late menopause, Unopposed estrogen therapy (not taking progestin with estrogen if a person has a uterus), Use of tamoxifen (a hormone therapy drug used to treat breast cancer), Increasing age, Specific health problems, namely obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), Certain hereditary conditions, namely Lynch syndrome and Cowden syndrome. […] The treatment of postmenopausal bleeding depends on the underlying cause. For example, surgery may be needed to remove noncancerous growths, such as fibroids or polyps. […] Treating endometrial cancer most often requires an operation called a total hysterectomy bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy).

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding—Causes, treatment and Diagnosis

  https://myskyn.co.uk/blog/postmenopausal-bleeding/

  Cancer can develop as a result of abnormal cell growth in the uterine lining or walls. According to the National Cancer Institute, 90% of the women who have endometrial cancer complain about postmenopausal bleeding. […] The presence of cancerous cells anywhere in the female reproductive system, such as the vagina, vulva, uterus, cervix, and ovaries, can also cause vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain, and discomfort after menopause. […] Polyps are abnormal non-cancerous tissue growths. The presence of any polyps in the uterus or cervix (part of the vagina) can cause postmenopausal bleeding. […] Postmenopausal bleeding could be a side effect of medicines like oestrogen, blood thinners, and tamoxifen. Moreover, hormone replacement therapy, which supplements oestrogen and other important hormones to ease the bothersome symptoms of menopause transitions, can also cause this bleeding.

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/postmenopausal-bleeding

  Additionally, certain medications may cause postmenopausal bleeding, including hormone therapy and tamoxifen for breast cancer. […] Treatment of postmenopausal bleeding is based on its cause. […] If a woman is diagnosed with endometrial cancer, surgical removal of the uterus (hysterectomy), often along with the ovaries and fallopian tubes, may be needed. […] Women who experience postmenopausal bleeding usually have positive outcomes. Medication and other treatment options should help to stop bleeding among women whose symptoms are due to non-cancerous causes. […] If a woman experiences postmenopausal bleeding because of endometrial cancer, early detection and treatment will help to improve the outcome.

• #2 Bleeding – perimenopausal, postmenopausal and breakthrough bleeding on MHT/HRT – Australasian Menopause Society

  https://menopause.org.au/hp/information-sheets/postmenopausal-bleeding-including-breakthrough-on-mht-hrt

  The primary goal of investigation is to exclude malignancy, and secondarily to elucidate a treatable non-malignant cause. […] Tamoxifen therapy is associated with stimulation of the endometrium and an increased risk of endometrial cancer. Tamoxifen therapy invariably produces a thickened appearance to the endometrium which is not always indicative of neoplasia. […] Endometrial biopsy should be performed in women who meet the following criteria: Endometrial thickness 4mm, Not easy display of the endometrium eg. fibroids, Persistent PMB, Suspicion of polyp or mass on transvaginal ultrasound, Endometrial thickness 3mm with fluid in the endometrial cavity. […] Surgical management is appropriate for neoplastic and local lesions causing bleeding. However, women who have heavy or unmanageable breakthrough bleeding in the absence of pathology, may prefer to have a hysterectomy, after which they need take only oestrogen as MHT.

• #2 Postmenopausal Bleeding – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562188/

  The etiology of PMB may also be nongynecologic (eg, the urethra, bladder, or GI tract) and mistaken for vaginal bleeding. […] Some common underlying causes of postmenopausal bleeding include: Vaginal or endometrial atrophy, Urogenital infections (eg, endometrial tuberculosis, vaginitis, cystitis, or cervicitis), Medications (eg, estrogen, tamoxifen, and anticoagulants), Uterine leiomyomas, Genital tract malignancies, Vaginal foreign bodies, Endometrial polyps, Genitourinary atrophy, Endometrial hyperplasia with or without atypia. […] The most common etiology for postmenopausal bleeding is an atrophic endometrium. […] Chronic endometritis secondary to atrophy can present with vaginal spotting or light bleeding. […] Unopposed estrogen exposure often develops premalignant or malignant endometrial conditions.

• #2 Causes and Risk Factors of Light Spotting After Menopause – News – Global Maternity Academic Association

  http://www.globalmaternityaa.org/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=19&id=45

  The most common sign of hyperplasia is abnormal uterine bleeding. […] The most common symptom of endometrial cancer is abnormal uterine bleeding, either irregular periods, bleeding between periods, or bleeding a year or more after you’ve gone through menopause. […] Other potential causes of postmenopausal bleeding include: Infection of the uterine lining, known as endometritis, Injury to the vagina from the insertion of foreign objects or sexual trauma, Some medications, such as tamoxifen for breast cancer or blood-thinning medications, Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, and herpes can cause postmenopausal bleeding. […] Risk factors for postmenopausal bleeding often depend upon the underlying cause associated with the bleeding. […] Factors affecting the risk of developing endometrial cancer include: Age, Levels of hormones, Being overweight, Total number of menstrual cycles, Pregnancy, Diabetes, Family history. […] While it is not uncommon to experience some irregular bleeding before you go through menopause, irregular bleeding before menopause and bleeding after menopause is something that should be investigated.

• #2 Bleeding after menopause: It’s not normal | Cancer | UT Southwestern Medical Center

  https://utswmed.org/medblog/postmenopausal-bleeding/

  Too often I see women with advanced endometrial cancer (uterine cancer) who tell me they experienced postmenopausal bleeding for years but didnt think anything of it. […] Women need to know postmenopausal bleeding is never normal, and it may be an early symptom of endometrial cancer. […] For 10 percent of women, however, the cause is endometrial cancer. […] A variety of conditions can cause postmenopausal bleeding, including hormone therapy, infection, or the use of medications such as blood thinners. […] Postmenopausal bleeding is a common symptom of endometrial cancer, but it also can be caused by cervical and vulvar cancer. […] Sometimes the lining of the uterus becomes thick, usually because of too much estrogen and too little progesterone. This is considered a precursor to endometrial cancer.

• #2 Causes and Concerns of Postmenopausal Bleeding (PDF)

  https://gynqi.com/postmenopausal-bleeding-general-information/

  Postmenopausal bleeding can happen for many reasons, ranging from harmless conditions to more serious health concerns. Its important to get checked by a doctor to find out what might be causing the bleeding. […] Cervical causes of postmenopausal bleeding can range from benign conditions to more serious issues, making it essential to evaluate any unusual bleeding after menopause to determine the underlying cause. […] Endometrial causes of postmenopausal bleeding encompasses a range of conditions affecting the uterine lining, which includes: Endometrial hyperplasia (precancer) or cancer, Endometrial polyps, Endometrial thickening and shedding. […] Postmenopausal bleeding can also be caused by uterine fibroids, which are noncancerous growths that can lead to unusual bleeding, cancers of the ovaries or fallopian tubes, and blood disorders affecting clotting. Its important to see a doctor for a thorough evaluation to determine the best course of action. […] Potential causes range from benign conditions, such as cervical polyps and uterine fibroids, to more serious concerns like cancers and blood disorders.

• #3 Postmenopausal Bleeding > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/postmenopausal-bleeding

  A woman no longer experiences menstrual periods once she enters menopause the term for the natural decline in reproductive hormones a woman experiences in her 40s and 50s. After a year has passed without menstrual periods, any vaginal bleeding that that occurs is known as postmenopausal bleeding, and it is considered abnormal. […] There are several possible causes of postmenopausal bleeding, most of which are not worrisome. However, between 10% and 15% women who experience postmenopausal bleeding may have endometrial cancer. […] Postmenopausal bleeding refers to any vaginal bleeding that occurs in a menopausal woman. Because all postmenopausal bleeding is considered abnormal, its important to contact your provider if this occurs. […] There are several causes of postmenopausal bleeding, including: Polyps, or growths that are usually benign (non-cancerous) on the cervix or uterine lining, Fibroids (non-cancerous uterine growths), Atrophy, or thinning, of the vaginal and/or uterine lining, Excessive thickening of the uterine lining, Certain infections of the cervix or uterus, Vaginal intercourse, Sexual trauma, Endometrial cancer, Cervical cancer, Ovarian cancer.

Zobacz więcej