Materiały źródłowe

• #1 What’s Causing Your Cervical Dystonia?: Memphis Neurology: Neurology Specialists

  https://www.memphisneurology.com/blog/whats-causing-your-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia, also known as spasmodic torticollis, is the most common form, affecting about 1% of the population, mostly middle-aged women and men. […] In most cases, cervical dystonia is idiopathic that means theres no identifiable cause. However, researchers believe it may be in some way related to a problem in the basal ganglia, the area of the brain that initiates muscle contractions. The fault may lie in the way the nerve cells communicate or fail to communicate appropriately. […] Dystonia may be acquired, when basal ganglia damage occurs due to events such as: Brain trauma, Oxygen deprivation, Stroke, Tumor, Infection, Medication or illicit drug reactions, Poisoning from lead or carbon monoxide. […] Dystonia may also be congenital, with its origin genetic. In some 10-25% of cases, theres evidence of a family history. However, the symptoms among affected family members may vary widely, while those who are just carriers of the disorder may never develop dystonia themselves.

• #2 Cervical Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25228-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a type of focal dystonia. This is a group of conditions that cause muscle spasms in one part of your body. […] Healthcare providers dont know the exact cause of all cases of cervical dystonia. Research suggests your basal ganglia, or the part of your brain that regulates muscle movements, isnt working as it should. […] Secondary dystonia may be the result of: complications of psychiatric medication use, traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, genetic change (mutation) of GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1 or ANO3 genes. […] You may be more at risk of developing cervical dystonia if you have biological family members who have the condition, take dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, or experienced a brain injury.

• #3 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms and Causes Explained

  https://lonestarneurology.net/blog/cervical-dystonia/

  Tightening in the neck can affect anyone. But certain factors can increase the risk of developing this condition. Such risk factors include: spastic torticollis is most common in adults between 40 and 60. Women are more likely than men to develop spastic torticollis. Having someone in your family with spastic torticollis increases risks. People who work in certain occupations may be at increased risk. Examples of such occupations are hairdressers or conveyor belt workers. It is in these professions that people have repetitive neck movements.

• #4 Cervical dystonia pathophysiology and treatment options – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11708764/

  Dystonia is a syndrome of sustained involuntary muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal posturing. Cervical dystonia (CD) is a form of dystonia that involves neck muscles. […] Patients with CD are classified according to aetiology into two groups: primary CD (idiopathic–may be genetic or sporadic) or secondary CD (symptomatic). Patients with primary CD have no evidence by history, physical examination or laboratory studies (except primary dystonia gene) of any secondary cause for the dystonic symptoms. […] Secondary or symptomatic CD may be caused by central or peripheral trauma, exposure to dopamine receptor antagonists (tardive), neurodegenerative disease, and other conditions associated with abnormal functioning of the basal ganglia. In the majority of patients with CD, the aetiology is not identifiable and the disorder is often classified as primary.

• #5 What’s Causing Your Cervical Dystonia?: Memphis Neurology: Neurology Specialists

  https://www.memphisneurology.com/blog/whats-causing-your-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia, also known as spasmodic torticollis, is the most common form, affecting about 1% of the population, mostly middle-aged women and men. […] In most cases, cervical dystonia is idiopathic that means theres no identifiable cause. However, researchers believe it may be in some way related to a problem in the basal ganglia, the area of the brain that initiates muscle contractions. The fault may lie in the way the nerve cells communicate or fail to communicate appropriately. […] Dystonia may be acquired, when basal ganglia damage occurs due to events such as: Brain trauma, Oxygen deprivation, Stroke, Tumor, Infection, Medication or illicit drug reactions, Poisoning from lead or carbon monoxide. […] Dystonia may also be congenital, with its origin genetic. In some 10-25% of cases, theres evidence of a family history. However, the symptoms among affected family members may vary widely, while those who are just carriers of the disorder may never develop dystonia themselves.

• #6 Dystonia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448144/

  Dystonia is a heterogeneous entity with diverse etiology and clinical presentation. One of the most useful classifications of dystonia is by etiology: primary and secondary dystonia. […] In primary dystonia (familial or sporadic, also called idiopathic torsion dystonia), dystonia is the sole neurologic sign (with exception of the tremor) and other causes of dystonia such as acquired or neurodegenerative processes have been ruled out. […] Primary dystonia is thought to have a greater genetic contribution, even in the absence of a family history of dystonia. The precise cause of primary dystonia is unknown. There is some genetic susceptibility in conjunction with environmental factors. […] As far as adult-onset dystonia usually involves either cervical, cranial, or brachial muscles, or remains focal or segmental. Worth mentioning that cervical dystonia is the most common form and at the same time is more common than early-onset primary dystonia.

• #7 Dystonia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448144/

  Dystonia is a heterogeneous entity with diverse etiology and clinical presentation. One of the most useful classifications of dystonia is by etiology: primary and secondary dystonia. […] In primary dystonia (familial or sporadic, also called idiopathic torsion dystonia), dystonia is the sole neurologic sign (with exception of the tremor) and other causes of dystonia such as acquired or neurodegenerative processes have been ruled out. […] Primary dystonia is thought to have a greater genetic contribution, even in the absence of a family history of dystonia. The precise cause of primary dystonia is unknown. There is some genetic susceptibility in conjunction with environmental factors. […] As far as adult-onset dystonia usually involves either cervical, cranial, or brachial muscles, or remains focal or segmental. Worth mentioning that cervical dystonia is the most common form and at the same time is more common than early-onset primary dystonia.

• #8 Cervical dystonia pathophysiology and treatment options – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11708764/

  Dystonia is a syndrome of sustained involuntary muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal posturing. Cervical dystonia (CD) is a form of dystonia that involves neck muscles. […] Patients with CD are classified according to aetiology into two groups: primary CD (idiopathic–may be genetic or sporadic) or secondary CD (symptomatic). Patients with primary CD have no evidence by history, physical examination or laboratory studies (except primary dystonia gene) of any secondary cause for the dystonic symptoms. […] Secondary or symptomatic CD may be caused by central or peripheral trauma, exposure to dopamine receptor antagonists (tardive), neurodegenerative disease, and other conditions associated with abnormal functioning of the basal ganglia. In the majority of patients with CD, the aetiology is not identifiable and the disorder is often classified as primary.

• #9 Spasmodic torticollis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasmodic_torticollis

  It has also been suggested that the functional imbalance is due to an imbalance of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, acetylcholine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid. […] When other conditions lead to spasmodic torticollis, it is said that the spasmodic torticollis is secondary. A variety of conditions can cause brain injury, from external factors to diseases. […] Secondary spasmodic torticollis is diagnosed when any of the following are present: history of exogenous insult or exposure, neurological abnormalities other than dystonia, abnormalities on brain imaging, particularly in the basal ganglia. […] Primary spasmodic torticollis is defined as having no other abnormality other than dystonic movement and occasional tremor in the neck. […] Studies have shown that the DYT7 locus on chromosome 18p in a German family and the DYT13 locus on chromosome 1p36 in an Italian family is associated with spasmodic torticollis. The inheritance for both loci is autosomal dominant.

• #10 What’s Causing Your Cervical Dystonia?: Memphis Neurology: Neurology Specialists

  https://www.memphisneurology.com/blog/whats-causing-your-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia, also known as spasmodic torticollis, is the most common form, affecting about 1% of the population, mostly middle-aged women and men. […] In most cases, cervical dystonia is idiopathic that means theres no identifiable cause. However, researchers believe it may be in some way related to a problem in the basal ganglia, the area of the brain that initiates muscle contractions. The fault may lie in the way the nerve cells communicate or fail to communicate appropriately. […] Dystonia may be acquired, when basal ganglia damage occurs due to events such as: Brain trauma, Oxygen deprivation, Stroke, Tumor, Infection, Medication or illicit drug reactions, Poisoning from lead or carbon monoxide. […] Dystonia may also be congenital, with its origin genetic. In some 10-25% of cases, theres evidence of a family history. However, the symptoms among affected family members may vary widely, while those who are just carriers of the disorder may never develop dystonia themselves.

• #11

  https://www.dystonia.org.uk/pages/faqs/category/neck-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a neurological movement disorder characterised by continuous or intermittent muscle contractions which cause abnormal, often painful, repetitive movements of the neck and head. […] Dystonia is caused by incorrect signals from the brain to the affected body part but the causes for this are not yet fully understood. […] The cause of dystonia is not yet fully understood, in some cases at least it can be attributed to a chemical imbalance in the part of the brain called the basal ganglia, a part which helps to control movement.

• #12 Cervical Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25228-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a type of focal dystonia. This is a group of conditions that cause muscle spasms in one part of your body. […] Healthcare providers dont know the exact cause of all cases of cervical dystonia. Research suggests your basal ganglia, or the part of your brain that regulates muscle movements, isnt working as it should. […] Secondary dystonia may be the result of: complications of psychiatric medication use, traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, genetic change (mutation) of GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1 or ANO3 genes. […] You may be more at risk of developing cervical dystonia if you have biological family members who have the condition, take dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, or experienced a brain injury.

• #13 Cervical Dystonia: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/dr/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a rare condition in which your neck muscles involuntarily contract into abnormal positions. […] The specific cause isnt known. […] In most cases, the cause of cervical dystonia isnt known. Possible causes identified in some cases include: […] a genetic mutation, as 10 to 25 percent of people with cervical dystonia may have a family history of the disease. […] In some cases, cervical dystonia is present at birth. Environmental factors also may be involved.

• #14 Cervical Dystonia: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/dr/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a rare condition in which your neck muscles involuntarily contract into abnormal positions. […] The specific cause isnt known. […] In most cases, the cause of cervical dystonia isnt known. Possible causes identified in some cases include: […] a genetic mutation, as 10 to 25 percent of people with cervical dystonia may have a family history of the disease. […] In some cases, cervical dystonia is present at birth. Environmental factors also may be involved.

• #15 Understanding Cervical Dystonia: Memphis Neurology: Neurology Specialists

  https://www.memphisneurology.com/blog/understanding-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is the most common form. This painful condition affects the neck muscles, causing your head to twist or turn to one side or to tilt forward or backward; the most common form is when the chin twists toward the shoulder. […] In most cases, cervical dystonia is idiopathic theres no identifiable cause. However, researchers believe it may be connected in some way to a problem in the basal ganglia, the area of the brain that initiates muscle contractions. The problem may be in the way the nerve cells communicate or fail to communicate correctly. […] Sometimes, the cause may be genetic. A positive family history exists in some 10-25% of cases. Dystonia may also be acquired, when damage occurs to the basal ganglia from events such as: Brain trauma, Oxygen deprivation, Stroke, Tumor, Infection, Medication or illicit drug reactions, Poisoning from lead or carbon monoxide.

• #16 What’s Causing Your Cervical Dystonia?: Memphis Neurology: Neurology Specialists

  https://www.memphisneurology.com/blog/whats-causing-your-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia, also known as spasmodic torticollis, is the most common form, affecting about 1% of the population, mostly middle-aged women and men. […] In most cases, cervical dystonia is idiopathic that means theres no identifiable cause. However, researchers believe it may be in some way related to a problem in the basal ganglia, the area of the brain that initiates muscle contractions. The fault may lie in the way the nerve cells communicate or fail to communicate appropriately. […] Dystonia may be acquired, when basal ganglia damage occurs due to events such as: Brain trauma, Oxygen deprivation, Stroke, Tumor, Infection, Medication or illicit drug reactions, Poisoning from lead or carbon monoxide. […] Dystonia may also be congenital, with its origin genetic. In some 10-25% of cases, theres evidence of a family history. However, the symptoms among affected family members may vary widely, while those who are just carriers of the disorder may never develop dystonia themselves.

• #17 Cervical Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25228-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a type of focal dystonia. This is a group of conditions that cause muscle spasms in one part of your body. […] Healthcare providers dont know the exact cause of all cases of cervical dystonia. Research suggests your basal ganglia, or the part of your brain that regulates muscle movements, isnt working as it should. […] Secondary dystonia may be the result of: complications of psychiatric medication use, traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, genetic change (mutation) of GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1 or ANO3 genes. […] You may be more at risk of developing cervical dystonia if you have biological family members who have the condition, take dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, or experienced a brain injury.

• #18 Cervical Dystonia

  https://www.aapmr.org/about-physiatry/conditions-treatments/pain-neuromuscular-medicine-rehabilitation/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical Dystonia (CD) is a condition affecting head or neck muscles caused by localized abnormal muscle activity. […] The most frequent cause of CD is idiopathic adult-onset focal dystonia (idiopathic, meaning, no specific cause for dystonia is found). […] While there are many theories as to what causes idiopathic focal dystonia (including CD), one commonly accepted theory is that it is due, at least in part, to alterations in the brain pathways that regulate sensory-motor control. […] Certain genetic variants have shown increased risk for primary Cervical Dystonia including (GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, ANO3) and inherited causes like DYT23. […] There are other conditions that can lead to secondary or acquired cervical dystonia including: viral encephalitis, Wilsons disease, Parkinsons, anticholinergic and neuroleptic medications, trauma from cervical injuries. […] This list is not all encompassing and other conditions can lead to the development of Cervical Dystonia.

• #19 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.carehospitals.com/diseases-conditions/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia causes a range of involuntary movements that affect the neck and head. The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown for most people. Doctors have not yet identified a specific trigger for all cases. However, research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain responsible for regulating muscle movements, may not function correctly in individuals with this condition. […] In some instances, cervical dystonia has a genetic component (gene mutations in the GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 genes). […] Certain factors may increase the risk of developing cervical dystonia: Having biological family members with the condition, experiencing a brain injury, Parkinson’s disease, and in some cases, head, neck, or shoulder injuries. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown in most cases. Research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain controlling muscle movements, may not function properly. Some instances have genetic links, with mutations in genes like GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 identified. Secondary causes can include complications from psychiatric medications, traumatic brain injury, or Parkinson’s disease.

• #20 Cervical Dystonia – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/movement-and-cerebellar-disorders/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is characterized by involuntary tonic contractions or intermittent spasms of neck muscles. The cause is usually unknown. […] Spasmodic adult-onset torticollis is the most common form of cervical dystonia. It is usually idiopathic. A few patients have a family history, and in some of them (eg, those with dystonia-6 [DYT6; associated with THAP-1], dystonia-4 [DYT4; associated with TUBB4A], or dystonia-25 [DYT25; associated with the GNAL gene]), a genetic cause has been identified. […] Cervical dystonia can be congenital (idiopathic or hereditary) […] Secondary to other conditions such as lesions of the brain stem or basal ganglia or use of dopamine-blocking medications (eg, haloperidol). […] Rarely, dystonia has a psychogenic cause. In this type of dystonia, pathophysiology is not well-understood; however, changes in brain function have been detected by functional neuroimaging.

• #21 Cervical Dystonia

  https://www.aapmr.org/about-physiatry/conditions-treatments/pain-neuromuscular-medicine-rehabilitation/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical Dystonia (CD) is a condition affecting head or neck muscles caused by localized abnormal muscle activity. […] The most frequent cause of CD is idiopathic adult-onset focal dystonia (idiopathic, meaning, no specific cause for dystonia is found). […] While there are many theories as to what causes idiopathic focal dystonia (including CD), one commonly accepted theory is that it is due, at least in part, to alterations in the brain pathways that regulate sensory-motor control. […] Certain genetic variants have shown increased risk for primary Cervical Dystonia including (GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, ANO3) and inherited causes like DYT23. […] There are other conditions that can lead to secondary or acquired cervical dystonia including: viral encephalitis, Wilsons disease, Parkinsons, anticholinergic and neuroleptic medications, trauma from cervical injuries. […] This list is not all encompassing and other conditions can lead to the development of Cervical Dystonia.

• #22 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.carehospitals.com/diseases-conditions/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia causes a range of involuntary movements that affect the neck and head. The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown for most people. Doctors have not yet identified a specific trigger for all cases. However, research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain responsible for regulating muscle movements, may not function correctly in individuals with this condition. […] In some instances, cervical dystonia has a genetic component (gene mutations in the GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 genes). […] Certain factors may increase the risk of developing cervical dystonia: Having biological family members with the condition, experiencing a brain injury, Parkinson’s disease, and in some cases, head, neck, or shoulder injuries. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown in most cases. Research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain controlling muscle movements, may not function properly. Some instances have genetic links, with mutations in genes like GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 identified. Secondary causes can include complications from psychiatric medications, traumatic brain injury, or Parkinson’s disease.

• #23 Cervical Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25228-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a type of focal dystonia. This is a group of conditions that cause muscle spasms in one part of your body. […] Healthcare providers dont know the exact cause of all cases of cervical dystonia. Research suggests your basal ganglia, or the part of your brain that regulates muscle movements, isnt working as it should. […] Secondary dystonia may be the result of: complications of psychiatric medication use, traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, genetic change (mutation) of GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1 or ANO3 genes. […] You may be more at risk of developing cervical dystonia if you have biological family members who have the condition, take dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, or experienced a brain injury.

• #24 Cervical Dystonia

  https://www.aapmr.org/about-physiatry/conditions-treatments/pain-neuromuscular-medicine-rehabilitation/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical Dystonia (CD) is a condition affecting head or neck muscles caused by localized abnormal muscle activity. […] The most frequent cause of CD is idiopathic adult-onset focal dystonia (idiopathic, meaning, no specific cause for dystonia is found). […] While there are many theories as to what causes idiopathic focal dystonia (including CD), one commonly accepted theory is that it is due, at least in part, to alterations in the brain pathways that regulate sensory-motor control. […] Certain genetic variants have shown increased risk for primary Cervical Dystonia including (GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, ANO3) and inherited causes like DYT23. […] There are other conditions that can lead to secondary or acquired cervical dystonia including: viral encephalitis, Wilsons disease, Parkinsons, anticholinergic and neuroleptic medications, trauma from cervical injuries. […] This list is not all encompassing and other conditions can lead to the development of Cervical Dystonia.

• #25 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.carehospitals.com/diseases-conditions/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia causes a range of involuntary movements that affect the neck and head. The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown for most people. Doctors have not yet identified a specific trigger for all cases. However, research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain responsible for regulating muscle movements, may not function correctly in individuals with this condition. […] In some instances, cervical dystonia has a genetic component (gene mutations in the GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 genes). […] Certain factors may increase the risk of developing cervical dystonia: Having biological family members with the condition, experiencing a brain injury, Parkinson’s disease, and in some cases, head, neck, or shoulder injuries. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown in most cases. Research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain controlling muscle movements, may not function properly. Some instances have genetic links, with mutations in genes like GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 identified. Secondary causes can include complications from psychiatric medications, traumatic brain injury, or Parkinson’s disease.

• #26 Cervical Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25228-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a type of focal dystonia. This is a group of conditions that cause muscle spasms in one part of your body. […] Healthcare providers dont know the exact cause of all cases of cervical dystonia. Research suggests your basal ganglia, or the part of your brain that regulates muscle movements, isnt working as it should. […] Secondary dystonia may be the result of: complications of psychiatric medication use, traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, genetic change (mutation) of GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1 or ANO3 genes. […] You may be more at risk of developing cervical dystonia if you have biological family members who have the condition, take dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, or experienced a brain injury.

• #27 Cervical Dystonia

  https://www.aapmr.org/about-physiatry/conditions-treatments/pain-neuromuscular-medicine-rehabilitation/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical Dystonia (CD) is a condition affecting head or neck muscles caused by localized abnormal muscle activity. […] The most frequent cause of CD is idiopathic adult-onset focal dystonia (idiopathic, meaning, no specific cause for dystonia is found). […] While there are many theories as to what causes idiopathic focal dystonia (including CD), one commonly accepted theory is that it is due, at least in part, to alterations in the brain pathways that regulate sensory-motor control. […] Certain genetic variants have shown increased risk for primary Cervical Dystonia including (GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, ANO3) and inherited causes like DYT23. […] There are other conditions that can lead to secondary or acquired cervical dystonia including: viral encephalitis, Wilsons disease, Parkinsons, anticholinergic and neuroleptic medications, trauma from cervical injuries. […] This list is not all encompassing and other conditions can lead to the development of Cervical Dystonia.

• #28 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.carehospitals.com/diseases-conditions/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia causes a range of involuntary movements that affect the neck and head. The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown for most people. Doctors have not yet identified a specific trigger for all cases. However, research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain responsible for regulating muscle movements, may not function correctly in individuals with this condition. […] In some instances, cervical dystonia has a genetic component (gene mutations in the GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 genes). […] Certain factors may increase the risk of developing cervical dystonia: Having biological family members with the condition, experiencing a brain injury, Parkinson’s disease, and in some cases, head, neck, or shoulder injuries. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown in most cases. Research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain controlling muscle movements, may not function properly. Some instances have genetic links, with mutations in genes like GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 identified. Secondary causes can include complications from psychiatric medications, traumatic brain injury, or Parkinson’s disease.

• #29 Cervical Dystonia – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/movement-and-cerebellar-disorders/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is characterized by involuntary tonic contractions or intermittent spasms of neck muscles. The cause is usually unknown. […] Spasmodic adult-onset torticollis is the most common form of cervical dystonia. It is usually idiopathic. A few patients have a family history, and in some of them (eg, those with dystonia-6 [DYT6; associated with THAP-1], dystonia-4 [DYT4; associated with TUBB4A], or dystonia-25 [DYT25; associated with the GNAL gene]), a genetic cause has been identified. […] Cervical dystonia can be congenital (idiopathic or hereditary) […] Secondary to other conditions such as lesions of the brain stem or basal ganglia or use of dopamine-blocking medications (eg, haloperidol). […] Rarely, dystonia has a psychogenic cause. In this type of dystonia, pathophysiology is not well-understood; however, changes in brain function have been detected by functional neuroimaging.

• #30 Spasmodic torticollis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasmodic_torticollis

  It has also been suggested that the functional imbalance is due to an imbalance of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, acetylcholine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid. […] When other conditions lead to spasmodic torticollis, it is said that the spasmodic torticollis is secondary. A variety of conditions can cause brain injury, from external factors to diseases. […] Secondary spasmodic torticollis is diagnosed when any of the following are present: history of exogenous insult or exposure, neurological abnormalities other than dystonia, abnormalities on brain imaging, particularly in the basal ganglia. […] Primary spasmodic torticollis is defined as having no other abnormality other than dystonic movement and occasional tremor in the neck. […] Studies have shown that the DYT7 locus on chromosome 18p in a German family and the DYT13 locus on chromosome 1p36 in an Italian family is associated with spasmodic torticollis. The inheritance for both loci is autosomal dominant.

• #31 What causes focal dystonia? – Dystonia Ireland

  https://www.dystonia.ie/forms-of-dystonia/focal-forms/causes-focal-dystonia/

  Adult-onset Focal Dystonia (for example Cervical dystonia) is a genetic disorder with markedly reduced penetrance. […] we consider that all patients with cervical dystonia have a genetic disorder. […] In cervical dystonia genetic penetrance is very markedly reduced to about 10-15%. […] The penetrance of the gene (the development of dystonia) depends upon many other factors including sex (women are more susceptible), age and environmental exposures. […] Environmental factors affect penetrance (development of dystonia) and influence the nature of the dystonia which develops (expression of the particular type dystonia). […] Summary: Environmental factors appear to increase the likelihood of developing a focal dystonia (car accidents and cervical dystonia; sun exposure and blepharospasm; hours of writing and focal hand dystonia). We hypothesise that adult onset dystonia is a genetic disorder, but the gene is poorly penetrant.

• #32 Dystonia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448144/

  Secondary dystonias are caused by the environmental insult and are brought in by some identified causes, such as head injury, drug side effects (e.g., tardive dyskinesia) or neurological disease (e.g., Wilson disease). […] An intermediary category is termed dystonia plus syndromes, and consists of disorders in which there is no acquired etiology or neurodegeneration, but in which there are neurologic symptoms other than dystonia. This category includes dopa-responsive dystonia (DRD/DYT5), myoclonus dystonia (MD/DYT11) and rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism (RDP/DYT12).

• #33 What Is Cervical Dystonia? – Cervical Dystonia Treatment | familydoctor.org

  https://familydoctor.org/condition/cervical-dystonia/

  Cervical dystonia is a neurological disorder that causes the muscles in your neck to contract involuntarily. […] In many instances, doctors don’t know what causes cervical dystonia. In some cases, people who have a neck injury may develop it. When the cause isn’t known, it’s called primary dystonia. […] Secondary dystonia can be caused by disease or injury, such as a stroke, traumatic brain injury, or Parkinson’s disease. You may develop it if there’s a problem with your basal ganglia. This is the part of your brain that sends messages to start muscle movement. Nerve damage from certain medicines is another possible cause. […] Both primary and secondary cervical dystonia can be genetic, meaning it runs in families.

• #34 Cervical Dystonia |

  https://sydneynorthneurology.com.au/cervical-dystonia/

  Some 5 to 21% of people with CD experienced trauma or injury to the neck or head before they experienced CD. However, this does not mean that these people contracted the condition as a result of the trauma. It is still largely unknown whether traumatic events cause the dystonia or act as a trigger for a dormant pre-existing condition. […] CD can be a secondary symptom associated with Parkinsons disease and associated Parkinsonian disorders; […] CD can be a secondary symptom of Wilsons disease; […] Exposure to toxins; or […] Use of older neuroleptics, anti-nausea medication or anti-vertigo medication.

• #35 Pediatric Dystonia – Causes of Cervical Dystonia in Children

  https://www.childbirthinjuries.com/birth-injury/cervical-dystonia/

  Cervical dystonia is a movement disorder caused by physical trauma to a baby’s head and neck during birth. […] Cervical dystonia is a neurological condition, which means it starts in the brain. The brain sends abnormal signals to the body’s muscles, which can cause problems with muscle control. It is not yet fully understood what causes the brain to send these abnormal signals. […] Cervical dystonia can also be caused by physical trauma to the baby’s head and neck. This can happen if a medically negligent doctor pulls a baby from the birth canal with excessive force, causing harm.

• #36 Cervical Dystonia | Birth Injury Lawyers

  https://www.nationalbirthinjurylaw.com/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a neurological disorder that causes the brain to send abnormal signals to the muscles in the body. The exact cause of cervical dystonia is not fully understood. However, certain injuries at birth or medication errors may increase a newborn’s risk of developing this disorder. […] One of the leading causes of cervical dystonia is dyskinetic cerebral palsy. […] Given that cervical dystonia typically arises during middle age, if it occurs in infancy, „secondary causes” such as a birth injury may be to blame. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia is often unknown, and treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms rather than addressing underlying issues. However, while some uncertainty exists regarding its development, some research suggests that injury to the part of the brain that regulates muscle movements (basal ganglia) may be a contributing factor.

• #37 Cervical dystonia and spasmodic torticollis treatment –

  https://caringmedical.com/prolotherapy-news/getting-help-cervical-dystonia-spastic-torticollis/

  We believe, in some cases, the condition is generally caused by a rotatory subluxation of C1-C2. […] The condition causes stiffness in the neck with muscle spasms, which develop into a dystonic or torticollis reaction. […] While most of the movement disorder cases we see in our offices are thought to be idiopathic or of “no known cause,” it really means that the possibility of cervical ligament injury as the root cause has not been explored. […] Cervical dystonia is being caused by cervical spine instability brought on by weakened or damaged cervical ligaments. […] More than 30 years later we still see damaged cervical ligaments from a post-traumatic injury such as whiplash or the degenerative wear and tear of a lifetime can no longer hold the bones of the neck in place. […] Something, of typically unknown origin, is causing cervical muscle spasm and involuntary neck posturing, twisting (the word torticollis itself is translated from Latin meaning “twisted neck) and movement.

• #38 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms and Causes Explained

  https://lonestarneurology.net/blog/cervical-dystonia/

  Cervical dystonia is also called spasmodic torticollis. It is a condition in which the muscles in the neck involuntarily contract, causing the head to turn to one side. The exact cause of cervical dystonia is unknown. Presumably, it is triggered by an impairment in the brain’s ability to control the muscles. Possible causes include: […] Physical trauma, such as whiplash, can cause spastic torticollis in some cases. Infections, such as an ear infection or meningitis, can cause spastic torticollis in some people. You can get spastic torticollis hereditarily. So there may be genetic factors you can find here as well. Some neurologic disorders may increase the risk of developing spastic torticollis. It can be Parkinson’s disease. Some medications are rarely associated with spastic torticollis.

• #39 Pediatric Dystonia – Causes of Cervical Dystonia in Children

  https://www.childbirthinjuries.com/birth-injury/cervical-dystonia/

  Cervical dystonia is a movement disorder caused by physical trauma to a baby’s head and neck during birth. […] Cervical dystonia is a neurological condition, which means it starts in the brain. The brain sends abnormal signals to the body’s muscles, which can cause problems with muscle control. It is not yet fully understood what causes the brain to send these abnormal signals. […] Cervical dystonia can also be caused by physical trauma to the baby’s head and neck. This can happen if a medically negligent doctor pulls a baby from the birth canal with excessive force, causing harm.

• #40 Cervical Dystonia | Birth Injury Lawyers

  https://www.nationalbirthinjurylaw.com/cervical-dystonia

  Additionally, researchers have identified specific gene mutations associated with the disorder, suggesting that some individuals with cervical dystonia may have a genetic predisposition to the condition. Cervical dystonia can also stem from various other factors, including congenital spine abnormalities, injuries to the brain, exposure to certain environmental toxins, brain lesions or abnormal growths, and infections affecting the spine or brain. […] Injury to the basal ganglia may result in dyskinetic cerebral palsy or other movement disorders. Such injuries can occur when a child’s oxygen supply is restricted during pregnancy, delivery, or soon after birth. Infant cervical dystonia can also be caused by a doctor who applies excessive force on the baby’s head during delivery. […] While various factors can contribute to infant cervical dystonia, medical negligence during childbirth is a common culprit. When healthcare providers fail to adhere to established standards of care, and it results in harm to a mother or her newborn, the consequences can be devastating. […] Understanding the specific ways in which medical malpractice can lead to this condition is essential for ensuring that affected families can seek justice and compensation for their losses.

• #41 Cervical dystonia (spasmodic torticollis) | Dystonia Medical Research Foundation Canada

  https://dystoniacanada.org/about-dystonia/focal-dystonias/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia may be isolated (primary) or acquired (secondary). In isolated dystonia, there is no evidence of any identifiable cause for the dystonic symptoms. Isolated cervical dystonia may be genetic and typically affects adults. […] Acquired dystonias are caused by specific structural or metabolic causes and are usually associated with additional neurological symptoms. The most common causes of acquired cervical dystonia are physical trauma (about 10% of reported cases) and drug reaction (less than 10% of reported cases). Drug-induced cervical dystonia is most commonly attributed to neuroleptic medications. […] Scientists believe dystonia symptoms result from improper signals in the nervous system that cause muscles to contract involuntarily. Researchers and doctors do not yet fully understand the neurological mechanisms that cause this abnormal muscle contraction.

• #42 Torticollis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1152543-overview

  In adults, acute wryneck is the most prevalent type of torticollis and develops overnight without provocation. It is self-limited, and symptoms resolve in 1-2 weeks. […] Any abnormality or trauma of the cervical spine can present with torticollis. Trauma, including minor trauma (sprains/strains), fractures, dislocations, and subluxations, often result in spasms of cervical musculature. Other causes may involve infection, spondylosis, tumor, scar tissue, or ligamentous laxity in the atlantoaxial region. […] Torticollis is also often seen as a compensatory mechanism for another disease or symptoms. Patients present with a head tilt to compensate for an essential head tremor or for diplopia secondary to an ocular muscle or nerve palsy. […] Torticollis often presents as a dystonic reaction secondary to medications including phenothiazines, metoclopramide, haloperidol, carbamazepine, phenytoin, and L-dopa therapy.

• #43 Torticollis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1152543-overview

  In adults, acute wryneck is the most prevalent type of torticollis and develops overnight without provocation. It is self-limited, and symptoms resolve in 1-2 weeks. […] Any abnormality or trauma of the cervical spine can present with torticollis. Trauma, including minor trauma (sprains/strains), fractures, dislocations, and subluxations, often result in spasms of cervical musculature. Other causes may involve infection, spondylosis, tumor, scar tissue, or ligamentous laxity in the atlantoaxial region. […] Torticollis is also often seen as a compensatory mechanism for another disease or symptoms. Patients present with a head tilt to compensate for an essential head tremor or for diplopia secondary to an ocular muscle or nerve palsy. […] Torticollis often presents as a dystonic reaction secondary to medications including phenothiazines, metoclopramide, haloperidol, carbamazepine, phenytoin, and L-dopa therapy.

• #44 Cervical Dystonia |

  https://sydneynorthneurology.com.au/cervical-dystonia/

  Some 5 to 21% of people with CD experienced trauma or injury to the neck or head before they experienced CD. However, this does not mean that these people contracted the condition as a result of the trauma. It is still largely unknown whether traumatic events cause the dystonia or act as a trigger for a dormant pre-existing condition. […] CD can be a secondary symptom associated with Parkinsons disease and associated Parkinsonian disorders; […] CD can be a secondary symptom of Wilsons disease; […] Exposure to toxins; or […] Use of older neuroleptics, anti-nausea medication or anti-vertigo medication.

• #45 Cervical Dystonia |

  https://sydneynorthneurology.com.au/cervical-dystonia/

  Some 5 to 21% of people with CD experienced trauma or injury to the neck or head before they experienced CD. However, this does not mean that these people contracted the condition as a result of the trauma. It is still largely unknown whether traumatic events cause the dystonia or act as a trigger for a dormant pre-existing condition. […] CD can be a secondary symptom associated with Parkinsons disease and associated Parkinsonian disorders; […] CD can be a secondary symptom of Wilsons disease; […] Exposure to toxins; or […] Use of older neuroleptics, anti-nausea medication or anti-vertigo medication.

• #46 Dystonia

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dystonia/

  Dystonia is caused by a problem with the part of the brain that controls movement. […] Often it’s not known why this happens. […] Sometimes it can be due to: an inherited genetic problem, a side effect of certain medicines, such as antipsychotic medicines and anti-sickness medicines, Parkinson’s disease, a stroke, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis.

• #47 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Certain medications including caffeine and some antiepileptic, antipsychotics, antidepressants, anti-emetics, antihistamines, amphetamines and oral contraceptives […] Various vascular abnormalities such as stroke, malformations or hemorrhaging (profuse, excessive bleeding) […] Moreover, dystonia can result from other illnesses affecting the central nervous system (Huntingtons disease, Parkinsons disease or Wilsons disease). […] Scientists have not yet identified the precise biochemical process in the body that triggers symptoms. Research is ongoing to determine the specific roles that genetic, environmental and other factors ultimately play in the development of the disorder. Recent developments show that inheriting the mutated DYT1 gene may increase a childs risk of dystonia. Other genetic mutations may also be associated with dystonia.

• #48 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Certain medications including caffeine and some antiepileptic, antipsychotics, antidepressants, anti-emetics, antihistamines, amphetamines and oral contraceptives […] Various vascular abnormalities such as stroke, malformations or hemorrhaging (profuse, excessive bleeding) […] Moreover, dystonia can result from other illnesses affecting the central nervous system (Huntingtons disease, Parkinsons disease or Wilsons disease). […] Scientists have not yet identified the precise biochemical process in the body that triggers symptoms. Research is ongoing to determine the specific roles that genetic, environmental and other factors ultimately play in the development of the disorder. Recent developments show that inheriting the mutated DYT1 gene may increase a childs risk of dystonia. Other genetic mutations may also be associated with dystonia.

• #49 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Certain medications including caffeine and some antiepileptic, antipsychotics, antidepressants, anti-emetics, antihistamines, amphetamines and oral contraceptives […] Various vascular abnormalities such as stroke, malformations or hemorrhaging (profuse, excessive bleeding) […] Moreover, dystonia can result from other illnesses affecting the central nervous system (Huntingtons disease, Parkinsons disease or Wilsons disease). […] Scientists have not yet identified the precise biochemical process in the body that triggers symptoms. Research is ongoing to determine the specific roles that genetic, environmental and other factors ultimately play in the development of the disorder. Recent developments show that inheriting the mutated DYT1 gene may increase a childs risk of dystonia. Other genetic mutations may also be associated with dystonia.

• #50 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Certain medications including caffeine and some antiepileptic, antipsychotics, antidepressants, anti-emetics, antihistamines, amphetamines and oral contraceptives […] Various vascular abnormalities such as stroke, malformations or hemorrhaging (profuse, excessive bleeding) […] Moreover, dystonia can result from other illnesses affecting the central nervous system (Huntingtons disease, Parkinsons disease or Wilsons disease). […] Scientists have not yet identified the precise biochemical process in the body that triggers symptoms. Research is ongoing to determine the specific roles that genetic, environmental and other factors ultimately play in the development of the disorder. Recent developments show that inheriting the mutated DYT1 gene may increase a childs risk of dystonia. Other genetic mutations may also be associated with dystonia.

• #51 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Certain medications including caffeine and some antiepileptic, antipsychotics, antidepressants, anti-emetics, antihistamines, amphetamines and oral contraceptives […] Various vascular abnormalities such as stroke, malformations or hemorrhaging (profuse, excessive bleeding) […] Moreover, dystonia can result from other illnesses affecting the central nervous system (Huntingtons disease, Parkinsons disease or Wilsons disease). […] Scientists have not yet identified the precise biochemical process in the body that triggers symptoms. Research is ongoing to determine the specific roles that genetic, environmental and other factors ultimately play in the development of the disorder. Recent developments show that inheriting the mutated DYT1 gene may increase a childs risk of dystonia. Other genetic mutations may also be associated with dystonia.

• #52 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Certain medications including caffeine and some antiepileptic, antipsychotics, antidepressants, anti-emetics, antihistamines, amphetamines and oral contraceptives […] Various vascular abnormalities such as stroke, malformations or hemorrhaging (profuse, excessive bleeding) […] Moreover, dystonia can result from other illnesses affecting the central nervous system (Huntingtons disease, Parkinsons disease or Wilsons disease). […] Scientists have not yet identified the precise biochemical process in the body that triggers symptoms. Research is ongoing to determine the specific roles that genetic, environmental and other factors ultimately play in the development of the disorder. Recent developments show that inheriting the mutated DYT1 gene may increase a childs risk of dystonia. Other genetic mutations may also be associated with dystonia.

• #53 Cervical Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25228-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a type of focal dystonia. This is a group of conditions that cause muscle spasms in one part of your body. […] Healthcare providers dont know the exact cause of all cases of cervical dystonia. Research suggests your basal ganglia, or the part of your brain that regulates muscle movements, isnt working as it should. […] Secondary dystonia may be the result of: complications of psychiatric medication use, traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, genetic change (mutation) of GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1 or ANO3 genes. […] You may be more at risk of developing cervical dystonia if you have biological family members who have the condition, take dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, or experienced a brain injury.

• #54 Dystonia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dystonia/symptoms-causes/syc-20350480

  Cervical dystonia sometimes causes pain. […] The exact cause of dystonia isn’t known. But it might involve changes in communication between nerve cells in several regions of the brain. Some forms of dystonia are passed down in families. […] Dystonia also can be a symptom of another disease or condition, including: Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Wilson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, birth injury, stroke, brain tumor or certain conditions that develop in some people with cancer, known as paraneoplastic syndromes, lack of oxygen or carbon monoxide poisoning, infections, such as tuberculosis or encephalitis, reactions to certain medicines or heavy metal poisoning.

• #55 Cervical Dystonia |

  https://sydneynorthneurology.com.au/cervical-dystonia/

  Some 5 to 21% of people with CD experienced trauma or injury to the neck or head before they experienced CD. However, this does not mean that these people contracted the condition as a result of the trauma. It is still largely unknown whether traumatic events cause the dystonia or act as a trigger for a dormant pre-existing condition. […] CD can be a secondary symptom associated with Parkinsons disease and associated Parkinsonian disorders; […] CD can be a secondary symptom of Wilsons disease; […] Exposure to toxins; or […] Use of older neuroleptics, anti-nausea medication or anti-vertigo medication.

• #56 Dystonia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dystonia/symptoms-causes/syc-20350480

  Cervical dystonia sometimes causes pain. […] The exact cause of dystonia isn’t known. But it might involve changes in communication between nerve cells in several regions of the brain. Some forms of dystonia are passed down in families. […] Dystonia also can be a symptom of another disease or condition, including: Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Wilson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, birth injury, stroke, brain tumor or certain conditions that develop in some people with cancer, known as paraneoplastic syndromes, lack of oxygen or carbon monoxide poisoning, infections, such as tuberculosis or encephalitis, reactions to certain medicines or heavy metal poisoning.

• #57 Cervical Dystonia |

  https://sydneynorthneurology.com.au/cervical-dystonia/

  Some 5 to 21% of people with CD experienced trauma or injury to the neck or head before they experienced CD. However, this does not mean that these people contracted the condition as a result of the trauma. It is still largely unknown whether traumatic events cause the dystonia or act as a trigger for a dormant pre-existing condition. […] CD can be a secondary symptom associated with Parkinsons disease and associated Parkinsonian disorders; […] CD can be a secondary symptom of Wilsons disease; […] Exposure to toxins; or […] Use of older neuroleptics, anti-nausea medication or anti-vertigo medication.

• #58 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #59 Dystonia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dystonia/symptoms-causes/syc-20350480

  Cervical dystonia sometimes causes pain. […] The exact cause of dystonia isn’t known. But it might involve changes in communication between nerve cells in several regions of the brain. Some forms of dystonia are passed down in families. […] Dystonia also can be a symptom of another disease or condition, including: Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Wilson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, birth injury, stroke, brain tumor or certain conditions that develop in some people with cancer, known as paraneoplastic syndromes, lack of oxygen or carbon monoxide poisoning, infections, such as tuberculosis or encephalitis, reactions to certain medicines or heavy metal poisoning.

• #60 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #61 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Certain medications including caffeine and some antiepileptic, antipsychotics, antidepressants, anti-emetics, antihistamines, amphetamines and oral contraceptives […] Various vascular abnormalities such as stroke, malformations or hemorrhaging (profuse, excessive bleeding) […] Moreover, dystonia can result from other illnesses affecting the central nervous system (Huntingtons disease, Parkinsons disease or Wilsons disease). […] Scientists have not yet identified the precise biochemical process in the body that triggers symptoms. Research is ongoing to determine the specific roles that genetic, environmental and other factors ultimately play in the development of the disorder. Recent developments show that inheriting the mutated DYT1 gene may increase a childs risk of dystonia. Other genetic mutations may also be associated with dystonia.

• #62 Dystonia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dystonia/symptoms-causes/syc-20350480

  Cervical dystonia sometimes causes pain. […] The exact cause of dystonia isn’t known. But it might involve changes in communication between nerve cells in several regions of the brain. Some forms of dystonia are passed down in families. […] Dystonia also can be a symptom of another disease or condition, including: Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Wilson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, birth injury, stroke, brain tumor or certain conditions that develop in some people with cancer, known as paraneoplastic syndromes, lack of oxygen or carbon monoxide poisoning, infections, such as tuberculosis or encephalitis, reactions to certain medicines or heavy metal poisoning.

• #63 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #64 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  A number of vascular pathologies can result in true cervical dystonia, majority of them being ischemic or hemorrhagic events of the brainstem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. […] Any anatomical/physiological variations in the cervical musculoskeletal system can present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Various craniocervical developmental anomalies can also present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Infections of the upper respiratory tract or soft tissues of the neck can cause torticollis to mimic cervical dystonia. […] Central nervous system lesions can also cause cervical pseudodystonia, along with symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, ataxia, visual disturbances, and cranial nerve deficits. […] Trauma resulting in odontoid fracture, laminar fracture, condylar fracture, osteoporotic fracture, C1 dislocation with split atlas due to various causes can all present as dystonia mimics.

• #65 Cervical Dystonia in Infants: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment

  https://browntrialfirm.com/birth-injury-lawyer/cervical-dystonia-birth-injury/

  Cervical dystonia refers to a type of movement disorder that results in an involuntary contraction of the muscles in the neck. […] Cervical dystonia is a neurological condition, meaning it arises from the brain. This condition causes the brain to send abnormal signals to the muscles in the body, resulting in issues with muscle control. At this time, scientists dont fully understand why this happens. […] Dyskinetic cerebral palsy is one of the leading causes of cervical dystonia. This condition typically begins after a child turns 1 year old and features twisting movements. […] Cervical dystonia can also result from physical trauma to a childs head and neck, which can occur if excessive force is used to pull a child from the birth canal during delivery. […] Secondary dystonia, the most common type of this condition, is often associated with cerebral palsy. Primary dystonia, which is less common, results from a genetic disorder.

• #66 Cervical Dystonia | Birth Injury Lawyers

  https://www.nationalbirthinjurylaw.com/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a neurological disorder that causes the brain to send abnormal signals to the muscles in the body. The exact cause of cervical dystonia is not fully understood. However, certain injuries at birth or medication errors may increase a newborn’s risk of developing this disorder. […] One of the leading causes of cervical dystonia is dyskinetic cerebral palsy. […] Given that cervical dystonia typically arises during middle age, if it occurs in infancy, „secondary causes” such as a birth injury may be to blame. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia is often unknown, and treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms rather than addressing underlying issues. However, while some uncertainty exists regarding its development, some research suggests that injury to the part of the brain that regulates muscle movements (basal ganglia) may be a contributing factor.

• #67 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  Cervical dystonia is mostly idiopathic in nature. However, a small subset of cases are mimics, leading to diagnostic pitfalls. There is paucity of literature on pseudodystonias affecting the cervical region. […] Six out of 2,412 patients (0.24%) were diagnosed as cervical dystonia mimics and the causes included isolated neck extensor myopathy (2), craniovertebral junction anomalies (2), sternocleidomastoid fibrosis (1) and post traumatic sequelae (1). […] Mimics of isolated cervical dystonia are rare. A high degree of suspicion and proper diligent clinical assessment assists management and prognostication. […] Cervical pseudodystonias can be classified further into (1) vascular, (2) musculoskeletal, (3) infections, (4) mass lesions, (5) traumatic, (6) ocular causes (7) otological causes, (8) gastrointestinal causes, (9) psychogenic, and (10) others.

• #68 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  A number of vascular pathologies can result in true cervical dystonia, majority of them being ischemic or hemorrhagic events of the brainstem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. […] Any anatomical/physiological variations in the cervical musculoskeletal system can present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Various craniocervical developmental anomalies can also present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Infections of the upper respiratory tract or soft tissues of the neck can cause torticollis to mimic cervical dystonia. […] Central nervous system lesions can also cause cervical pseudodystonia, along with symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, ataxia, visual disturbances, and cranial nerve deficits. […] Trauma resulting in odontoid fracture, laminar fracture, condylar fracture, osteoporotic fracture, C1 dislocation with split atlas due to various causes can all present as dystonia mimics.

• #69 Dystonia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dystonia/symptoms-causes/syc-20350480

  Cervical dystonia sometimes causes pain. […] The exact cause of dystonia isn’t known. But it might involve changes in communication between nerve cells in several regions of the brain. Some forms of dystonia are passed down in families. […] Dystonia also can be a symptom of another disease or condition, including: Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Wilson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, birth injury, stroke, brain tumor or certain conditions that develop in some people with cancer, known as paraneoplastic syndromes, lack of oxygen or carbon monoxide poisoning, infections, such as tuberculosis or encephalitis, reactions to certain medicines or heavy metal poisoning.

• #70 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #71 Understanding Cervical Dystonia: Memphis Neurology: Neurology Specialists

  https://www.memphisneurology.com/blog/understanding-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is the most common form. This painful condition affects the neck muscles, causing your head to twist or turn to one side or to tilt forward or backward; the most common form is when the chin twists toward the shoulder. […] In most cases, cervical dystonia is idiopathic theres no identifiable cause. However, researchers believe it may be connected in some way to a problem in the basal ganglia, the area of the brain that initiates muscle contractions. The problem may be in the way the nerve cells communicate or fail to communicate correctly. […] Sometimes, the cause may be genetic. A positive family history exists in some 10-25% of cases. Dystonia may also be acquired, when damage occurs to the basal ganglia from events such as: Brain trauma, Oxygen deprivation, Stroke, Tumor, Infection, Medication or illicit drug reactions, Poisoning from lead or carbon monoxide.

• #72 Clinical Diagnostic Evaluation of Dystonia

  https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/clinical-diagnostic-evaluation-of-dystonia/32167/

  Some maneuvers, collectively known as sensory tricks, may ameliorate the dystonia. The presence of a sensory trick can support the diagnosis of dystonia. People with cervical dystonia may find relief from lightly touching their face or the back of their head. […] Patient history should reveal any exposures that may have caused or triggered a dystonic reaction, including the use of dopamine-blocking antipsychotics or antiemetics, toxins, physical trauma, or stress. […] If the predominant movement is diagnosed as dystonia, the next step is determining an etiology. The characteristics gathered through the history and examination should be used to direct laboratory and imaging evaluations if necessary to establish whether the etiology is inherited, acquired, or idiopathic. […] Dystonia has been described in the context of tuberculous meningitis, viral encephalitis, syphilis infection, HIV infection, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. […] Dystonia has also been described as a late effect of carbon monoxide poisoning. […] A thorough patient history and examination are needed to establish the clinical diagnosis, and subsequent imaging and genetic testing can be ordered to identify etiology and a course of treatment.

• #73 Dystonia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystonia

  Meningitis and encephalitis caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal infections of the brain have been associated with dystonia. The main mechanism is inflammation of the blood vessels, causing restriction of blood flow to the basal ganglia. Other mechanisms include direct nerve injury by the organism or a toxin, or autoimmune mechanisms. […] Malfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some dystonias. […] Cerebellum issues causing dystonia is described by Filip et al. 2013: „Although dystonia has traditionally been regarded as a basal ganglia dysfunction, recent provocative evidence has emerged of cerebellar involvement in the pathophysiology of this enigmatic disease.”

• #74 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #75 Clinical Diagnostic Evaluation of Dystonia

  https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/clinical-diagnostic-evaluation-of-dystonia/32167/

  Some maneuvers, collectively known as sensory tricks, may ameliorate the dystonia. The presence of a sensory trick can support the diagnosis of dystonia. People with cervical dystonia may find relief from lightly touching their face or the back of their head. […] Patient history should reveal any exposures that may have caused or triggered a dystonic reaction, including the use of dopamine-blocking antipsychotics or antiemetics, toxins, physical trauma, or stress. […] If the predominant movement is diagnosed as dystonia, the next step is determining an etiology. The characteristics gathered through the history and examination should be used to direct laboratory and imaging evaluations if necessary to establish whether the etiology is inherited, acquired, or idiopathic. […] Dystonia has been described in the context of tuberculous meningitis, viral encephalitis, syphilis infection, HIV infection, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. […] Dystonia has also been described as a late effect of carbon monoxide poisoning. […] A thorough patient history and examination are needed to establish the clinical diagnosis, and subsequent imaging and genetic testing can be ordered to identify etiology and a course of treatment.

• #76 Dystonia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystonia

  Meningitis and encephalitis caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal infections of the brain have been associated with dystonia. The main mechanism is inflammation of the blood vessels, causing restriction of blood flow to the basal ganglia. Other mechanisms include direct nerve injury by the organism or a toxin, or autoimmune mechanisms. […] Malfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some dystonias. […] Cerebellum issues causing dystonia is described by Filip et al. 2013: „Although dystonia has traditionally been regarded as a basal ganglia dysfunction, recent provocative evidence has emerged of cerebellar involvement in the pathophysiology of this enigmatic disease.”

• #77 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #78 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Genetic factors are also believed to play a role in idiopathic and acquired dystonia, especially in individuals who have a relative with another form of the condition. […] A person who is genetically predisposed to a disorder carries a gene (or genes) for the disease, but the gene may not be expressed unless it is triggered or activated by other genetic modifiers or environmental factors (complex genetics). […] In some cases, dystonia occurs due to a known specific cause (acquired dystonia). Conditions associated with acquired dystonia include: […] Brain injury (particularly due to lack of oxygen) during or around the time of birth (the perinatal period) or carbon monoxide poisoning […] Certain infections such as tuberculosis, measles or herpes simplex encephalitis […] Reactions to heavy metal poisoning

• #79 Dystonia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystonia

  Meningitis and encephalitis caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal infections of the brain have been associated with dystonia. The main mechanism is inflammation of the blood vessels, causing restriction of blood flow to the basal ganglia. Other mechanisms include direct nerve injury by the organism or a toxin, or autoimmune mechanisms. […] Malfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some dystonias. […] Cerebellum issues causing dystonia is described by Filip et al. 2013: „Although dystonia has traditionally been regarded as a basal ganglia dysfunction, recent provocative evidence has emerged of cerebellar involvement in the pathophysiology of this enigmatic disease.”

• #80 Dystonia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystonia

  Meningitis and encephalitis caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal infections of the brain have been associated with dystonia. The main mechanism is inflammation of the blood vessels, causing restriction of blood flow to the basal ganglia. Other mechanisms include direct nerve injury by the organism or a toxin, or autoimmune mechanisms. […] Malfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some dystonias. […] Cerebellum issues causing dystonia is described by Filip et al. 2013: „Although dystonia has traditionally been regarded as a basal ganglia dysfunction, recent provocative evidence has emerged of cerebellar involvement in the pathophysiology of this enigmatic disease.”

• #81 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Genetic factors are also believed to play a role in idiopathic and acquired dystonia, especially in individuals who have a relative with another form of the condition. […] A person who is genetically predisposed to a disorder carries a gene (or genes) for the disease, but the gene may not be expressed unless it is triggered or activated by other genetic modifiers or environmental factors (complex genetics). […] In some cases, dystonia occurs due to a known specific cause (acquired dystonia). Conditions associated with acquired dystonia include: […] Brain injury (particularly due to lack of oxygen) during or around the time of birth (the perinatal period) or carbon monoxide poisoning […] Certain infections such as tuberculosis, measles or herpes simplex encephalitis […] Reactions to heavy metal poisoning

• #82 Clinical Diagnostic Evaluation of Dystonia

  https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/clinical-diagnostic-evaluation-of-dystonia/32167/

  Some maneuvers, collectively known as sensory tricks, may ameliorate the dystonia. The presence of a sensory trick can support the diagnosis of dystonia. People with cervical dystonia may find relief from lightly touching their face or the back of their head. […] Patient history should reveal any exposures that may have caused or triggered a dystonic reaction, including the use of dopamine-blocking antipsychotics or antiemetics, toxins, physical trauma, or stress. […] If the predominant movement is diagnosed as dystonia, the next step is determining an etiology. The characteristics gathered through the history and examination should be used to direct laboratory and imaging evaluations if necessary to establish whether the etiology is inherited, acquired, or idiopathic. […] Dystonia has been described in the context of tuberculous meningitis, viral encephalitis, syphilis infection, HIV infection, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. […] Dystonia has also been described as a late effect of carbon monoxide poisoning. […] A thorough patient history and examination are needed to establish the clinical diagnosis, and subsequent imaging and genetic testing can be ordered to identify etiology and a course of treatment.

• #83 Clinical Diagnostic Evaluation of Dystonia

  https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/clinical-diagnostic-evaluation-of-dystonia/32167/

  Some maneuvers, collectively known as sensory tricks, may ameliorate the dystonia. The presence of a sensory trick can support the diagnosis of dystonia. People with cervical dystonia may find relief from lightly touching their face or the back of their head. […] Patient history should reveal any exposures that may have caused or triggered a dystonic reaction, including the use of dopamine-blocking antipsychotics or antiemetics, toxins, physical trauma, or stress. […] If the predominant movement is diagnosed as dystonia, the next step is determining an etiology. The characteristics gathered through the history and examination should be used to direct laboratory and imaging evaluations if necessary to establish whether the etiology is inherited, acquired, or idiopathic. […] Dystonia has been described in the context of tuberculous meningitis, viral encephalitis, syphilis infection, HIV infection, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. […] Dystonia has also been described as a late effect of carbon monoxide poisoning. […] A thorough patient history and examination are needed to establish the clinical diagnosis, and subsequent imaging and genetic testing can be ordered to identify etiology and a course of treatment.

• #84 Clinical Diagnostic Evaluation of Dystonia

  https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/clinical-diagnostic-evaluation-of-dystonia/32167/

  Some maneuvers, collectively known as sensory tricks, may ameliorate the dystonia. The presence of a sensory trick can support the diagnosis of dystonia. People with cervical dystonia may find relief from lightly touching their face or the back of their head. […] Patient history should reveal any exposures that may have caused or triggered a dystonic reaction, including the use of dopamine-blocking antipsychotics or antiemetics, toxins, physical trauma, or stress. […] If the predominant movement is diagnosed as dystonia, the next step is determining an etiology. The characteristics gathered through the history and examination should be used to direct laboratory and imaging evaluations if necessary to establish whether the etiology is inherited, acquired, or idiopathic. […] Dystonia has been described in the context of tuberculous meningitis, viral encephalitis, syphilis infection, HIV infection, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. […] Dystonia has also been described as a late effect of carbon monoxide poisoning. […] A thorough patient history and examination are needed to establish the clinical diagnosis, and subsequent imaging and genetic testing can be ordered to identify etiology and a course of treatment.

• #85 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Genetic factors are also believed to play a role in idiopathic and acquired dystonia, especially in individuals who have a relative with another form of the condition. […] A person who is genetically predisposed to a disorder carries a gene (or genes) for the disease, but the gene may not be expressed unless it is triggered or activated by other genetic modifiers or environmental factors (complex genetics). […] In some cases, dystonia occurs due to a known specific cause (acquired dystonia). Conditions associated with acquired dystonia include: […] Brain injury (particularly due to lack of oxygen) during or around the time of birth (the perinatal period) or carbon monoxide poisoning […] Certain infections such as tuberculosis, measles or herpes simplex encephalitis […] Reactions to heavy metal poisoning

• #86 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #87

  https://www.beaumont.org/conditions/dystonia

  Most cases of dystonia do not have a specific cause, but seem to be related to a problem in the basal ganglia of the brain, the area of the brain responsible for refining movement. […] Acquired dystonia is caused by damage to the basal ganglia due to brain trauma, stroke, tumor, oxygen deprivation, infection, drug reactions, lead poisoning, carbon monoxide poisoning or due to diseases such as Parkinsons, Huntingtons and Wilsons.

• #88 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Genetic factors are also believed to play a role in idiopathic and acquired dystonia, especially in individuals who have a relative with another form of the condition. […] A person who is genetically predisposed to a disorder carries a gene (or genes) for the disease, but the gene may not be expressed unless it is triggered or activated by other genetic modifiers or environmental factors (complex genetics). […] In some cases, dystonia occurs due to a known specific cause (acquired dystonia). Conditions associated with acquired dystonia include: […] Brain injury (particularly due to lack of oxygen) during or around the time of birth (the perinatal period) or carbon monoxide poisoning […] Certain infections such as tuberculosis, measles or herpes simplex encephalitis […] Reactions to heavy metal poisoning

• #89

  https://www.beaumont.org/conditions/dystonia

  Most cases of dystonia do not have a specific cause, but seem to be related to a problem in the basal ganglia of the brain, the area of the brain responsible for refining movement. […] Acquired dystonia is caused by damage to the basal ganglia due to brain trauma, stroke, tumor, oxygen deprivation, infection, drug reactions, lead poisoning, carbon monoxide poisoning or due to diseases such as Parkinsons, Huntingtons and Wilsons.

• #90 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #91 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #92 Diseases That Can Cause Dystonia – BuzzRx

  https://www.buzzrx.com/blog/diseases-that-can-cause-dystonia

  Dystonia occurs due to a malfunction in the basal ganglia, a group of structures located deep in the base of the brain. […] The exact cause of dystonia is not known, but it is believed to be due to a miscommunication between different parts of the brain. Dystonia can be inherited (transmitted genetically), acquired (due to damage or degeneration of the brain structures), or idiopathic (no known cause and no structural damage seen in the brain). […] In primary dystonia, also called an idiopathic dystonia, the only sign is involuntary muscle spasms. There is no known secondary cause. […] A dystonia is called a secondary dystonia or acquired dystonia when you develop dystonia due to a known underlying cause, such as: […] There are case reports of vitamin E deficiency causing dystonia.

• #93 What Triggers Dystonia? Idiopathic, Genetic & Acquired Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/what_triggers_dystonia/article.htm

  Genetic factors are also believed to play a role in idiopathic and acquired dystonia, especially in individuals who have a relative with another form of the condition. […] A person who is genetically predisposed to a disorder carries a gene (or genes) for the disease, but the gene may not be expressed unless it is triggered or activated by other genetic modifiers or environmental factors (complex genetics). […] In some cases, dystonia occurs due to a known specific cause (acquired dystonia). Conditions associated with acquired dystonia include: […] Brain injury (particularly due to lack of oxygen) during or around the time of birth (the perinatal period) or carbon monoxide poisoning […] Certain infections such as tuberculosis, measles or herpes simplex encephalitis […] Reactions to heavy metal poisoning

• #94 Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6006-dystonia

  Dystonia can happen for many reasons and can take many forms, depending on what causes it and the body parts affected. […] Dystonia happens because of disruptions in how your brain should function. It usually involves your basal ganglia, a group of brain structures that link many different brain areas and coordinate how those areas work together. […] Experts organize the causes of dystonia into three categories: Primary, secondary and dystonia plus conditions. […] Primary dystonia: This is when dystonia is the main condition. Its usually idiopathic, which means it happens for an unknown reason. Experts also suspect genetics are a factor, meaning it runs in families. […] Secondary dystonia: This is when dystonia is a symptom of another condition or issue. […] Secondary dystonia can happen because of, or in connection with, a wide range of reasons: Brain tumors. Other brain conditions (such as epilepsy, Parkinsonism, Parkinsons disease, etc.). Cerebral hypoxia (especially for newborns who experienced a lack of oxygen during their birth). Drugs (prescription or recreational). Genetic conditions (such as Wilsons disease or Huntingtons disease). Infections (such as encephalitis). Metabolic conditions. Stroke. Toxins and poisons (carbon monoxide poisoning, manganese poisoning, etc.). Traumatic brain injuries. […] Dystonia happens unpredictably, so you cant prevent it. You also cant reduce the risk of developing primary dystonia. […] However, some causes of secondary dystonia are preventable, or you can reduce your risk of developing them.

• #95 Cervical Dystonia | Birth Injury Lawyers

  https://www.nationalbirthinjurylaw.com/cervical-dystonia

  Additionally, researchers have identified specific gene mutations associated with the disorder, suggesting that some individuals with cervical dystonia may have a genetic predisposition to the condition. Cervical dystonia can also stem from various other factors, including congenital spine abnormalities, injuries to the brain, exposure to certain environmental toxins, brain lesions or abnormal growths, and infections affecting the spine or brain. […] Injury to the basal ganglia may result in dyskinetic cerebral palsy or other movement disorders. Such injuries can occur when a child’s oxygen supply is restricted during pregnancy, delivery, or soon after birth. Infant cervical dystonia can also be caused by a doctor who applies excessive force on the baby’s head during delivery. […] While various factors can contribute to infant cervical dystonia, medical negligence during childbirth is a common culprit. When healthcare providers fail to adhere to established standards of care, and it results in harm to a mother or her newborn, the consequences can be devastating. […] Understanding the specific ways in which medical malpractice can lead to this condition is essential for ensuring that affected families can seek justice and compensation for their losses.

• #96 Spasmodic torticollis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasmodic_torticollis

  Spasmodic torticollis is an extremely painful chronic neurological movement disorder causing the neck to involuntarily turn to the left, right, upwards, and/or downwards. The condition is also referred to as „cervical dystonia”. […] Causes of the disorder are predominantly idiopathic. A small number of patients develop the disorder as a result of another disorder or disease. […] The pathophysiology of spasmodic torticollis is still relatively unknown. Spasmodic torticollis is considered neurochemical in nature, and does not result in structural neurodegenerative changes. […] Although no lesions are present in the basal ganglia in primary spasmodic torticollis, fMRI and PET studies have shown abnormalities of the basal ganglia and hyper activation of the cortical areas. […] Studies have suggested that there is a functional imbalance in the striatal control of the globus pallidus, specifically the substantia nigra pars reticulata.

• #97 Dystonia: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/brain/dystonia-causes-types-symptoms-and-treatments

  Dystonia is a movement disorder in which some of your body’s muscles contract in ways you can’t control. […] Most cases of dystonia don’t have a specific cause. Dystonia seems to be related to a problem in your basal ganglia, the part of your brain that controls your muscle contractions. The problem involves the way the nerve cells communicate. […] Dystonia is divided into three categories: genetic, acquired, and idiopathic. […] If you have genetic dystonia, it means that the problem stems from an abnormal gene you inherited. […] Acquired dystonia is also known as secondary dystonia and is caused by damage to your basal ganglia, usually as a result of: Brain trauma, Stroke, Tumor, Being deprived of oxygen, perhaps during birth, Infection, Poisoning caused by carbon monoxide or heavy metals such as lead, Drug interactions.

• #98 Cervical Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25228-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a type of focal dystonia. This is a group of conditions that cause muscle spasms in one part of your body. […] Healthcare providers dont know the exact cause of all cases of cervical dystonia. Research suggests your basal ganglia, or the part of your brain that regulates muscle movements, isnt working as it should. […] Secondary dystonia may be the result of: complications of psychiatric medication use, traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, genetic change (mutation) of GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1 or ANO3 genes. […] You may be more at risk of developing cervical dystonia if you have biological family members who have the condition, take dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, or experienced a brain injury.

• #99 What’s Causing Your Cervical Dystonia?: Memphis Neurology: Neurology Specialists

  https://www.memphisneurology.com/blog/whats-causing-your-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia, also known as spasmodic torticollis, is the most common form, affecting about 1% of the population, mostly middle-aged women and men. […] In most cases, cervical dystonia is idiopathic that means theres no identifiable cause. However, researchers believe it may be in some way related to a problem in the basal ganglia, the area of the brain that initiates muscle contractions. The fault may lie in the way the nerve cells communicate or fail to communicate appropriately. […] Dystonia may be acquired, when basal ganglia damage occurs due to events such as: Brain trauma, Oxygen deprivation, Stroke, Tumor, Infection, Medication or illicit drug reactions, Poisoning from lead or carbon monoxide. […] Dystonia may also be congenital, with its origin genetic. In some 10-25% of cases, theres evidence of a family history. However, the symptoms among affected family members may vary widely, while those who are just carriers of the disorder may never develop dystonia themselves.

• #100 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.carehospitals.com/diseases-conditions/cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia causes a range of involuntary movements that affect the neck and head. The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown for most people. Doctors have not yet identified a specific trigger for all cases. However, research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain responsible for regulating muscle movements, may not function correctly in individuals with this condition. […] In some instances, cervical dystonia has a genetic component (gene mutations in the GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 genes). […] Certain factors may increase the risk of developing cervical dystonia: Having biological family members with the condition, experiencing a brain injury, Parkinson’s disease, and in some cases, head, neck, or shoulder injuries. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia remains unknown in most cases. Research suggests that the basal ganglia, the part of the brain controlling muscle movements, may not function properly. Some instances have genetic links, with mutations in genes like GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1, and ANO3 identified. Secondary causes can include complications from psychiatric medications, traumatic brain injury, or Parkinson’s disease.

• #101 Spasmodic torticollis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasmodic_torticollis

  Spasmodic torticollis is an extremely painful chronic neurological movement disorder causing the neck to involuntarily turn to the left, right, upwards, and/or downwards. The condition is also referred to as „cervical dystonia”. […] Causes of the disorder are predominantly idiopathic. A small number of patients develop the disorder as a result of another disorder or disease. […] The pathophysiology of spasmodic torticollis is still relatively unknown. Spasmodic torticollis is considered neurochemical in nature, and does not result in structural neurodegenerative changes. […] Although no lesions are present in the basal ganglia in primary spasmodic torticollis, fMRI and PET studies have shown abnormalities of the basal ganglia and hyper activation of the cortical areas. […] Studies have suggested that there is a functional imbalance in the striatal control of the globus pallidus, specifically the substantia nigra pars reticulata.

• #102 Spasmodic torticollis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasmodic_torticollis

  Spasmodic torticollis is an extremely painful chronic neurological movement disorder causing the neck to involuntarily turn to the left, right, upwards, and/or downwards. The condition is also referred to as „cervical dystonia”. […] Causes of the disorder are predominantly idiopathic. A small number of patients develop the disorder as a result of another disorder or disease. […] The pathophysiology of spasmodic torticollis is still relatively unknown. Spasmodic torticollis is considered neurochemical in nature, and does not result in structural neurodegenerative changes. […] Although no lesions are present in the basal ganglia in primary spasmodic torticollis, fMRI and PET studies have shown abnormalities of the basal ganglia and hyper activation of the cortical areas. […] Studies have suggested that there is a functional imbalance in the striatal control of the globus pallidus, specifically the substantia nigra pars reticulata.

• #103 Spasmodic torticollis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spasmodic_torticollis

  It has also been suggested that the functional imbalance is due to an imbalance of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, acetylcholine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid. […] When other conditions lead to spasmodic torticollis, it is said that the spasmodic torticollis is secondary. A variety of conditions can cause brain injury, from external factors to diseases. […] Secondary spasmodic torticollis is diagnosed when any of the following are present: history of exogenous insult or exposure, neurological abnormalities other than dystonia, abnormalities on brain imaging, particularly in the basal ganglia. […] Primary spasmodic torticollis is defined as having no other abnormality other than dystonic movement and occasional tremor in the neck. […] Studies have shown that the DYT7 locus on chromosome 18p in a German family and the DYT13 locus on chromosome 1p36 in an Italian family is associated with spasmodic torticollis. The inheritance for both loci is autosomal dominant.

• #104 7 Everyday Questions about Cervical Dystonia – Pacific Neuroscience Institute

  https://www.pacificneuroscienceinstitute.org/blog/dystonia/7-everyday-questions-about-cervical-dystonia/

  Cervical Dystonia is a painful condition that affects the neck and causes the head to tilt to one side, or causes the head to tremble. […] cervical dystonia is a neurological dysfunction caused by misfiring nerves. […] Cervical dystonia comes from the brain sending abnormal signals to the muscles, resulting in an incorrect set point. […] Cervical dystonia is usually lifelong, even though it does not begin until middle age (commonly). […] Many patients with cervical dystonia may experience lack of improvement or sometimes even in some cases worsening of their dystonia if they are being treated as if they had muscle spasm or degenerative disc disease. […] Botulinum toxin injection works by reducing the communication between nerves and targeted muscles. […] In cases where neither injections nor medications have helped, deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery can be considered. […] There is a long history of success with DBS for cervical (and other causes) of dystonia, but not everyone responds to the same extent.

• #105 What is Cervical Dystonia? – Dysport® (abobotulinumtoxinA)

  https://www.dysport.com/en-us/cervical-dystonia/what-is-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia (CD) is a condition that causes neck muscles to tighten or spasm, causing neck pain and making the head turn, pull in one direction, or shake. […] There is no known cause of cervical dystonia (CD), but there may be a genetic component and some people with CD have family members who also have the condition. CD occurs when nerve signals in the brain tell the muscles in your neck to tighten or spasm. Sometimes, CD may develop after a head, neck, or shoulder injury.

• #106 Cervical dystonia: Causes, symptoms and treatments: Dr Julian Rodrigues | Healthengine Blog

  https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/cervical-dystonia-causes-symptoms-and-treatments-dr-rodrigues

  Cervical dystonia is a primary neurological disorder in most cases. We dont know what causes it. But we know a lot about whats going on in the brain descriptively. Its a brain plasticity disorder. And by that we mean that the brain has made bad connections. […] In the case of torticollis its the realignment of the brains presumed central position.

• #107 Dystonia | Inova

  https://www.inova.org/our-services/inova-movement-disorders-program/conditions-and-treatments/dystonia

  Dystonia is a form of movement disorder where faulty signals from the brain cause abnormal, involuntary and often painful muscle contractions. […] The underlying cause of all dystonia is an abnormal signal from the nervous system to the muscles resulting in involuntary contractions. Dystonia can occur from a genetic condition, a progressive disease or illness, or an injury or change to the central nervous system. […] A primary dystonia is considered when it is the primary symptom and there is no evidence of injury or structural abnormality within the central nervous system. The exact cause is unknown, but it is thought to be abnormal functioning within the regions of the brain responsible for movement, such as the basal ganglia. There is likely a genetic component to a primary dystonia.

• #108 Torticollis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1152543-overview

  Torticollis is not a diagnosis but a symptom of diverse conditions. Presentations of torticollis or cervical dystonia are often defined using causal terms acute torticollis, congenital torticollis, chronic torticollis, or acquired torticollis, idiopathic or secondary. The last implies a chronic etiology, often of a structural nature (eg, odontoid fracture, cystic mass, cervical adenitis). Some of the more common causes include congenital problems, trauma, and infections. […] Because idiopathic cervical dystonia is a neurodegenerative process, the confluence of etiologic factors in modern popular explanations applies here as it does in idiopathic Parkinson disease. Patients have a genetically determined susceptibility to environmental toxins, which, if encountered in threshold doses, activate free radical production in susceptible brain regions, leading to neuronal deterioration.

• #109 Torticollis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1152543-overview

  Torticollis is not a diagnosis but a symptom of diverse conditions. Presentations of torticollis or cervical dystonia are often defined using causal terms acute torticollis, congenital torticollis, chronic torticollis, or acquired torticollis, idiopathic or secondary. The last implies a chronic etiology, often of a structural nature (eg, odontoid fracture, cystic mass, cervical adenitis). Some of the more common causes include congenital problems, trauma, and infections. […] Because idiopathic cervical dystonia is a neurodegenerative process, the confluence of etiologic factors in modern popular explanations applies here as it does in idiopathic Parkinson disease. Patients have a genetically determined susceptibility to environmental toxins, which, if encountered in threshold doses, activate free radical production in susceptible brain regions, leading to neuronal deterioration.

• #110

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00702-023-02736-0

  13% of all ICD patients experienced excessive psychological stress preceding ICD onset. […] ICD with preceding excessive psychological stress is closely connected with ICD-type 2: 63% of patients with ICD-type 2 experienced preceding excessive psychological stress and 84% of patients with preceding excessive psychological stress presented with ICD type 2. […] Our data clearly show, that both ICD-types are non-progressive. For patient counselling, we assume no major further deterioration, once ICD has been stable for two or three years. This is important information for patients, as most of them intuitively assume a chronic progressive course similar to other neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease or Alzheimer disease. […] This is the first description of two distinct types of ICD. For both types, the natural course is non-progressive.

• #111 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms and Causes Explained

  https://lonestarneurology.net/blog/cervical-dystonia/

  Tightening in the neck can affect anyone. But certain factors can increase the risk of developing this condition. Such risk factors include: spastic torticollis is most common in adults between 40 and 60. Women are more likely than men to develop spastic torticollis. Having someone in your family with spastic torticollis increases risks. People who work in certain occupations may be at increased risk. Examples of such occupations are hairdressers or conveyor belt workers. It is in these professions that people have repetitive neck movements.

• #112 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/cervical-dystonia-7371429

  Cervical dystonia is a neurological condition that causes involuntary muscle spasms in the head and neck. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia is unknown. However, certain risk factors can increase your chances of developing this condition. Cervical dystonia is more common among 40- to 60-year-old people assigned female at birth and people with a family history of the condition. […] Cervical dystonia can also be a secondary condition caused by other medical problems, such as stroke, Parkinson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, previous neck injury, and conditions that affect the basal ganglia (located at the base of the brain). […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia is unknown, but it is more common in females and those with a family history.

• #113 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms and Causes Explained

  https://lonestarneurology.net/blog/cervical-dystonia/

  Tightening in the neck can affect anyone. But certain factors can increase the risk of developing this condition. Such risk factors include: spastic torticollis is most common in adults between 40 and 60. Women are more likely than men to develop spastic torticollis. Having someone in your family with spastic torticollis increases risks. People who work in certain occupations may be at increased risk. Examples of such occupations are hairdressers or conveyor belt workers. It is in these professions that people have repetitive neck movements.

• #114 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/cervical-dystonia-7371429

  Cervical dystonia is a neurological condition that causes involuntary muscle spasms in the head and neck. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia is unknown. However, certain risk factors can increase your chances of developing this condition. Cervical dystonia is more common among 40- to 60-year-old people assigned female at birth and people with a family history of the condition. […] Cervical dystonia can also be a secondary condition caused by other medical problems, such as stroke, Parkinson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, previous neck injury, and conditions that affect the basal ganglia (located at the base of the brain). […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia is unknown, but it is more common in females and those with a family history.

• #115 Spasmodic Torticollis | Expert Care Center

  https://expertcarecenter.com/spasmodic-torticollis/

  The presence of other neurological conditions, such as Parkinsons disease, Wilsons disease, or brain injuries, can increase the risk of developing Spasmodic Torticollis. […] In rare cases, infections or autoimmune reactions that affect the brain or nervous system might trigger dystonia. […] In many cases, the cause of Spasmodic Torticollis remains idiopathic, meaning it arises spontaneously or from an obscure or unknown cause. […] Spasmodic Torticollis typically develops in middle age, commonly presenting in individuals between 40 and 60 years old. […] There is a slightly higher prevalence in females compared to males, though the condition can affect anyone. […] Prolonged physical stress or poor posture might contribute to the development of the condition, though this is not well-established. […] Psychological factors, such as stress or trauma, might play a role in triggering or exacerbating the condition.

• #116 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms and Causes Explained

  https://lonestarneurology.net/blog/cervical-dystonia/

  Tightening in the neck can affect anyone. But certain factors can increase the risk of developing this condition. Such risk factors include: spastic torticollis is most common in adults between 40 and 60. Women are more likely than men to develop spastic torticollis. Having someone in your family with spastic torticollis increases risks. People who work in certain occupations may be at increased risk. Examples of such occupations are hairdressers or conveyor belt workers. It is in these professions that people have repetitive neck movements.

• #117 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/cervical-dystonia-7371429

  Cervical dystonia is a neurological condition that causes involuntary muscle spasms in the head and neck. […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia is unknown. However, certain risk factors can increase your chances of developing this condition. Cervical dystonia is more common among 40- to 60-year-old people assigned female at birth and people with a family history of the condition. […] Cervical dystonia can also be a secondary condition caused by other medical problems, such as stroke, Parkinson’s disease, traumatic brain injury, previous neck injury, and conditions that affect the basal ganglia (located at the base of the brain). […] The exact cause of cervical dystonia is unknown, but it is more common in females and those with a family history.

• #118 Spasmodic Torticollis | Expert Care Center

  https://expertcarecenter.com/spasmodic-torticollis/

  The presence of other neurological conditions, such as Parkinsons disease, Wilsons disease, or brain injuries, can increase the risk of developing Spasmodic Torticollis. […] In rare cases, infections or autoimmune reactions that affect the brain or nervous system might trigger dystonia. […] In many cases, the cause of Spasmodic Torticollis remains idiopathic, meaning it arises spontaneously or from an obscure or unknown cause. […] Spasmodic Torticollis typically develops in middle age, commonly presenting in individuals between 40 and 60 years old. […] There is a slightly higher prevalence in females compared to males, though the condition can affect anyone. […] Prolonged physical stress or poor posture might contribute to the development of the condition, though this is not well-established. […] Psychological factors, such as stress or trauma, might play a role in triggering or exacerbating the condition.

• #119

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00702-023-02736-0

  13% of all ICD patients experienced excessive psychological stress preceding ICD onset. […] ICD with preceding excessive psychological stress is closely connected with ICD-type 2: 63% of patients with ICD-type 2 experienced preceding excessive psychological stress and 84% of patients with preceding excessive psychological stress presented with ICD type 2. […] Our data clearly show, that both ICD-types are non-progressive. For patient counselling, we assume no major further deterioration, once ICD has been stable for two or three years. This is important information for patients, as most of them intuitively assume a chronic progressive course similar to other neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease or Alzheimer disease. […] This is the first description of two distinct types of ICD. For both types, the natural course is non-progressive.

• #120 Cervical Dystonia – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/movement-disorders/cervical-dystonia

  The cause of cervical dystonia is usually unknown. […] Usually, the cause is unknown, but in some people, spasmodic torticollis is caused by a genetic mutation. Stress and emotional problems may make spasmodic torticollis worse. […] Cervical dystonia can be present at birth. […] Occur later, caused by various neurologic disorders. […] Result from the use of medications that block dopamine (such as haloperidol and other antipsychotic medications). […] Rarely, an emotional problem is thought to contribute.

• #121 Spasmodic Torticollis | Expert Care Center

  https://expertcarecenter.com/spasmodic-torticollis/

  The presence of other neurological conditions, such as Parkinsons disease, Wilsons disease, or brain injuries, can increase the risk of developing Spasmodic Torticollis. […] In rare cases, infections or autoimmune reactions that affect the brain or nervous system might trigger dystonia. […] In many cases, the cause of Spasmodic Torticollis remains idiopathic, meaning it arises spontaneously or from an obscure or unknown cause. […] Spasmodic Torticollis typically develops in middle age, commonly presenting in individuals between 40 and 60 years old. […] There is a slightly higher prevalence in females compared to males, though the condition can affect anyone. […] Prolonged physical stress or poor posture might contribute to the development of the condition, though this is not well-established. […] Psychological factors, such as stress or trauma, might play a role in triggering or exacerbating the condition.

• #122 Cervical Dystonia: Symptoms and Causes Explained

  https://lonestarneurology.net/blog/cervical-dystonia/

  Tightening in the neck can affect anyone. But certain factors can increase the risk of developing this condition. Such risk factors include: spastic torticollis is most common in adults between 40 and 60. Women are more likely than men to develop spastic torticollis. Having someone in your family with spastic torticollis increases risks. People who work in certain occupations may be at increased risk. Examples of such occupations are hairdressers or conveyor belt workers. It is in these professions that people have repetitive neck movements.

• #123 Dystonia | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/d/dystonia-1.html

  Experts aren’t exactly sure what causes dystonia. But they think it’s related to a problem in the part of the brain called the basal ganglia. This is where your brain processes the information that helps your muscles contract. The theory is that your neurotransmitters, the chemicals that do the talking in the brain, are abnormal in people with dystonia. […] Research has pinpointed a number of different genetic defects that have been linked to dystonia. It can also be caused by a stroke, head injury, or other injury to the brain. These are called forms of secondary dystonia. […] Scientists haven’t yet determined the exact cause of dystonia. But certain factors can put you at risk for the disorder. These include: Family history (genes), Injury to your brain or nervous system, Stroke, Taking certain medicines such as neuroleptics, Infections, Poisoning such as from lead, Doing highly precise hand movements, such as if you are a musician, artist, or engineer.

• #124 What causes focal dystonia? – Dystonia Ireland

  https://www.dystonia.ie/forms-of-dystonia/focal-forms/causes-focal-dystonia/

  Adult-onset Focal Dystonia (for example Cervical dystonia) is a genetic disorder with markedly reduced penetrance. […] we consider that all patients with cervical dystonia have a genetic disorder. […] In cervical dystonia genetic penetrance is very markedly reduced to about 10-15%. […] The penetrance of the gene (the development of dystonia) depends upon many other factors including sex (women are more susceptible), age and environmental exposures. […] Environmental factors affect penetrance (development of dystonia) and influence the nature of the dystonia which develops (expression of the particular type dystonia). […] Summary: Environmental factors appear to increase the likelihood of developing a focal dystonia (car accidents and cervical dystonia; sun exposure and blepharospasm; hours of writing and focal hand dystonia). We hypothesise that adult onset dystonia is a genetic disorder, but the gene is poorly penetrant.

• #125 What causes focal dystonia? – Dystonia Ireland

  https://www.dystonia.ie/forms-of-dystonia/focal-forms/causes-focal-dystonia/

  It is likely that there is a genetic predisposition to develop dystonia and the type of dystonia one develops depends upon the type of environmental exposure. In other words, there is probably not a specific gene for cervical dystonia and another difference gene for blepharospasm. It is more likely that there is a disorder in a particular gene which, depending upon the nature of the environmental exposure, can express itself as cervical dystonia or blepharospasm (or indeed focal hand dystonia).

• #126 Cervical Dystonia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25228-cervical-dystonia

  Cervical dystonia is a type of focal dystonia. This is a group of conditions that cause muscle spasms in one part of your body. […] Healthcare providers dont know the exact cause of all cases of cervical dystonia. Research suggests your basal ganglia, or the part of your brain that regulates muscle movements, isnt working as it should. […] Secondary dystonia may be the result of: complications of psychiatric medication use, traumatic brain injury, Parkinsons disease, genetic change (mutation) of GNAL, THAP1, CIZ1 or ANO3 genes. […] You may be more at risk of developing cervical dystonia if you have biological family members who have the condition, take dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, or experienced a brain injury.

• #127 Dystonia: Symptoms & Causes | NewYork-Presbyterian

  https://www.nyp.org/neuro/parkinsons-disease-movement-disorders/dystonia

  Cervical dystonia (also called spasmodic torticollis or torticollis) affects the neck muscles, causing the head to turn to one side or to be pulled backward or forward. […] Dystonia is believed to arise from an abnormality in the brain that affects neurotransmitters, chemicals that help brain cells communicate with each other. In most cases, the cause of dystonia cannot be identified. […] Acquired (secondary) dystonia is caused by an external factor, such as infections, trauma, stroke, certain medications, or exposure to certain toxins.

• #128 Autoimmune and Inflammatory Mechanisms in Cervical Dystonia | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.09.03.20187815v1.full-text

  There are many causes for cervical dystonia (CD), although most cases are idiopathic and a cause cannot be identified. […] The current manuscript describes a series of studies focusing on potential autoimmune or inflammatory mechanisms in CD. […] Etiologies are heterogeneous and include focal or degenerative lesions of the nervous system, exposure to drugs or medications, infections, and others. However, most cases are idiopathic and a cause cannot be found. […] In view of these observations, there is a need to consider non-genetic mechanisms in CD. […] Multiple uncontrolled case series have suggested autoimmune thyroid disease to be more frequent in CD and related conditions than expected. […] These observations raise the possibility that immune mechanisms may play a pathogenic role for a subgroup of CD.

• #129 Autoimmune and Inflammatory Mechanisms in Cervical Dystonia | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.09.03.20187815v1.full-text

  The autoimmunity survey demonstrated that thyroid disease was significantly more frequent in CD compared with other neurological controls, a finding that confirms prior anecdotal observations. […] The unbiased proteomics study pointed to potential abnormalities of the immune system, and the multiplex immunoassay identified abnormalities among several specific immune markers. […] Although immunological mechanisms may account for only a small subgroup of CD, identifying this subgroup is clinically important because immune-based therapies may be useful.

• #130 Autoimmune and Inflammatory Mechanisms in Cervical Dystonia | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.09.03.20187815v1.full-text

  The autoimmunity survey demonstrated that thyroid disease was significantly more frequent in CD compared with other neurological controls, a finding that confirms prior anecdotal observations. […] The unbiased proteomics study pointed to potential abnormalities of the immune system, and the multiplex immunoassay identified abnormalities among several specific immune markers. […] Although immunological mechanisms may account for only a small subgroup of CD, identifying this subgroup is clinically important because immune-based therapies may be useful.

• #131 Autoimmune and Inflammatory Mechanisms in Cervical Dystonia | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.09.03.20187815v1.full-text

  The autoimmunity survey demonstrated that thyroid disease was significantly more frequent in CD compared with other neurological controls, a finding that confirms prior anecdotal observations. […] The unbiased proteomics study pointed to potential abnormalities of the immune system, and the multiplex immunoassay identified abnormalities among several specific immune markers. […] Although immunological mechanisms may account for only a small subgroup of CD, identifying this subgroup is clinically important because immune-based therapies may be useful.

• #132 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  Cervical dystonia is mostly idiopathic in nature. However, a small subset of cases are mimics, leading to diagnostic pitfalls. There is paucity of literature on pseudodystonias affecting the cervical region. […] Six out of 2,412 patients (0.24%) were diagnosed as cervical dystonia mimics and the causes included isolated neck extensor myopathy (2), craniovertebral junction anomalies (2), sternocleidomastoid fibrosis (1) and post traumatic sequelae (1). […] Mimics of isolated cervical dystonia are rare. A high degree of suspicion and proper diligent clinical assessment assists management and prognostication. […] Cervical pseudodystonias can be classified further into (1) vascular, (2) musculoskeletal, (3) infections, (4) mass lesions, (5) traumatic, (6) ocular causes (7) otological causes, (8) gastrointestinal causes, (9) psychogenic, and (10) others.

• #133 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  A number of vascular pathologies can result in true cervical dystonia, majority of them being ischemic or hemorrhagic events of the brainstem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. […] Any anatomical/physiological variations in the cervical musculoskeletal system can present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Various craniocervical developmental anomalies can also present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Infections of the upper respiratory tract or soft tissues of the neck can cause torticollis to mimic cervical dystonia. […] Central nervous system lesions can also cause cervical pseudodystonia, along with symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, ataxia, visual disturbances, and cranial nerve deficits. […] Trauma resulting in odontoid fracture, laminar fracture, condylar fracture, osteoporotic fracture, C1 dislocation with split atlas due to various causes can all present as dystonia mimics.

• #134 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  A number of vascular pathologies can result in true cervical dystonia, majority of them being ischemic or hemorrhagic events of the brainstem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. […] Any anatomical/physiological variations in the cervical musculoskeletal system can present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Various craniocervical developmental anomalies can also present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Infections of the upper respiratory tract or soft tissues of the neck can cause torticollis to mimic cervical dystonia. […] Central nervous system lesions can also cause cervical pseudodystonia, along with symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, ataxia, visual disturbances, and cranial nerve deficits. […] Trauma resulting in odontoid fracture, laminar fracture, condylar fracture, osteoporotic fracture, C1 dislocation with split atlas due to various causes can all present as dystonia mimics.

• #135 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  A number of vascular pathologies can result in true cervical dystonia, majority of them being ischemic or hemorrhagic events of the brainstem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. […] Any anatomical/physiological variations in the cervical musculoskeletal system can present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Various craniocervical developmental anomalies can also present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Infections of the upper respiratory tract or soft tissues of the neck can cause torticollis to mimic cervical dystonia. […] Central nervous system lesions can also cause cervical pseudodystonia, along with symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, ataxia, visual disturbances, and cranial nerve deficits. […] Trauma resulting in odontoid fracture, laminar fracture, condylar fracture, osteoporotic fracture, C1 dislocation with split atlas due to various causes can all present as dystonia mimics.

• #136 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  A number of vascular pathologies can result in true cervical dystonia, majority of them being ischemic or hemorrhagic events of the brainstem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. […] Any anatomical/physiological variations in the cervical musculoskeletal system can present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Various craniocervical developmental anomalies can also present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Infections of the upper respiratory tract or soft tissues of the neck can cause torticollis to mimic cervical dystonia. […] Central nervous system lesions can also cause cervical pseudodystonia, along with symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, ataxia, visual disturbances, and cranial nerve deficits. […] Trauma resulting in odontoid fracture, laminar fracture, condylar fracture, osteoporotic fracture, C1 dislocation with split atlas due to various causes can all present as dystonia mimics.

• #137 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  A number of vascular pathologies can result in true cervical dystonia, majority of them being ischemic or hemorrhagic events of the brainstem, cerebrum, and cerebellum. […] Any anatomical/physiological variations in the cervical musculoskeletal system can present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Various craniocervical developmental anomalies can also present with cervical pseudodystonia. […] Infections of the upper respiratory tract or soft tissues of the neck can cause torticollis to mimic cervical dystonia. […] Central nervous system lesions can also cause cervical pseudodystonia, along with symptoms like nausea, vomiting, headache, ataxia, visual disturbances, and cranial nerve deficits. […] Trauma resulting in odontoid fracture, laminar fracture, condylar fracture, osteoporotic fracture, C1 dislocation with split atlas due to various causes can all present as dystonia mimics.

• #138 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  Ocular causes like congenital nystagmus, nystagmus compensation (blockage) syndrome, spasmus nutans, oculomotor apraxia, refractive error, blepharoptosis, superior oblique palsy, abducens palsy, vertically incomitant horizontal strabismus, Duane syndrome, Browns syndrome, double elevator palsy, orbital floor fracture, endocrine ophthalmopathy, congenital fibrosis syndrome, and inferior oblique muscle palsy may present with torticollis called ocular torticollis. […] Cervical pseudodystonias secondary to vestibular dysfunctions contribute to otological causes. […] In a child presenting with torticollis or side-to-side head movements associated with vomiting, regurgitation, or epigastric pain, Sandifers syndrome can be suspected. […] Psychogenic dystonia, also known as functional dystonia, is a controversial diagnosis commonly associated with psychiatric comorbidities like anxiety, depression, and personality disorders. […] There are various other causes of cervical pseudodystonias, which are either rarely reported or documented as single association.

• #139 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  Ocular causes like congenital nystagmus, nystagmus compensation (blockage) syndrome, spasmus nutans, oculomotor apraxia, refractive error, blepharoptosis, superior oblique palsy, abducens palsy, vertically incomitant horizontal strabismus, Duane syndrome, Browns syndrome, double elevator palsy, orbital floor fracture, endocrine ophthalmopathy, congenital fibrosis syndrome, and inferior oblique muscle palsy may present with torticollis called ocular torticollis. […] Cervical pseudodystonias secondary to vestibular dysfunctions contribute to otological causes. […] In a child presenting with torticollis or side-to-side head movements associated with vomiting, regurgitation, or epigastric pain, Sandifers syndrome can be suspected. […] Psychogenic dystonia, also known as functional dystonia, is a controversial diagnosis commonly associated with psychiatric comorbidities like anxiety, depression, and personality disorders. […] There are various other causes of cervical pseudodystonias, which are either rarely reported or documented as single association.

• #140 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  Ocular causes like congenital nystagmus, nystagmus compensation (blockage) syndrome, spasmus nutans, oculomotor apraxia, refractive error, blepharoptosis, superior oblique palsy, abducens palsy, vertically incomitant horizontal strabismus, Duane syndrome, Browns syndrome, double elevator palsy, orbital floor fracture, endocrine ophthalmopathy, congenital fibrosis syndrome, and inferior oblique muscle palsy may present with torticollis called ocular torticollis. […] Cervical pseudodystonias secondary to vestibular dysfunctions contribute to otological causes. […] In a child presenting with torticollis or side-to-side head movements associated with vomiting, regurgitation, or epigastric pain, Sandifers syndrome can be suspected. […] Psychogenic dystonia, also known as functional dystonia, is a controversial diagnosis commonly associated with psychiatric comorbidities like anxiety, depression, and personality disorders. […] There are various other causes of cervical pseudodystonias, which are either rarely reported or documented as single association.

• #141 Cervical Dystonia Mimics: A Case Series and Review of the Literature | Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

  https://tremorjournal.org/articles/10.5334/tohm.465

  Ocular causes like congenital nystagmus, nystagmus compensation (blockage) syndrome, spasmus nutans, oculomotor apraxia, refractive error, blepharoptosis, superior oblique palsy, abducens palsy, vertically incomitant horizontal strabismus, Duane syndrome, Browns syndrome, double elevator palsy, orbital floor fracture, endocrine ophthalmopathy, congenital fibrosis syndrome, and inferior oblique muscle palsy may present with torticollis called ocular torticollis. […] Cervical pseudodystonias secondary to vestibular dysfunctions contribute to otological causes. […] In a child presenting with torticollis or side-to-side head movements associated with vomiting, regurgitation, or epigastric pain, Sandifers syndrome can be suspected. […] Psychogenic dystonia, also known as functional dystonia, is a controversial diagnosis commonly associated with psychiatric comorbidities like anxiety, depression, and personality disorders. […] There are various other causes of cervical pseudodystonias, which are either rarely reported or documented as single association.

• #142 Cervical Dystonia – Dystonia Europe

  https://dystonia-europe.org/about-dystonia/types/cervical-dystonia/

  Cervical dystonia (CD) is the most common form of focal dystonia with adult onset. […] The causes of cervical dystonia and in general of dystonias are unknown. Rarely dystonias may be determined by a mutation in a gene (genetic cause). However, almost all cases with onset of cervical dystonia in adult life do not have a genetic cause and are idiopathic (causes are unknown). A few genes have been associated very rarely with cervical dystonia (such as ANO3 and GNAL). It is likely cervical dystonia may result from a combination of genetic and environmental factors. […] It has been hypothesized that cervical dystonia might be caused by a mis-communication between brain areas involved in the control of head posture. Yet, the exact brain mechanisms determining cervical dystonia need to be elucidated.

• #143 Cervical dystonia pathophysiology and treatment options – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11708764/

  Dystonia is a syndrome of sustained involuntary muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal posturing. Cervical dystonia (CD) is a form of dystonia that involves neck muscles. […] Patients with CD are classified according to aetiology into two groups: primary CD (idiopathic–may be genetic or sporadic) or secondary CD (symptomatic). Patients with primary CD have no evidence by history, physical examination or laboratory studies (except primary dystonia gene) of any secondary cause for the dystonic symptoms. […] Secondary or symptomatic CD may be caused by central or peripheral trauma, exposure to dopamine receptor antagonists (tardive), neurodegenerative disease, and other conditions associated with abnormal functioning of the basal ganglia. In the majority of patients with CD, the aetiology is not identifiable and the disorder is often classified as primary.

• #144 Evaluation of outcome of different neurosurgical modalities in management of cervical dystonia | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text

  https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-022-00493-7

  In the majority of patients, the etiology is not identifiable, and the disorder is often classified as primary cervical dystonia. […] Therapy for CD is mainly symptomatic. […] Surgery is usually indicated for patients with CD in whom there is a failure of maximal medical management either due to poor response or occurrence of intolerable side effects, a significant disability that significantly impacts the quality of life, patient should have no cognitive or psychiatric impairment and should be able to fully cooperate with the procedure and long-term follow-up and has no medical contraindications to surgery. […] Surgical management of patients with cervical dystonia of either primary or secondary etiology was associated with significant improvement in head and neck postures after 6 months.

• #145 Dystonia – AANS

  https://www.aans.org/patients/conditions-treatments/dystonia/

  Dystonia results from abnormal functioning of the basal ganglia, a deep part of the brain which helps control coordination of movement. […] The exact cause of dystonia is not yet known but may involve alteration in several regions of the brain or the communication between them. Dystonia may be inherited, acquired, or idiopathic (no known cause). Inherited disorders are transmitted genetically. In acquired forms, dystonia is caused by damage or degeneration of the brain (e.g. after a brain injury or stroke) or exposure to particular drugs. In idiopathic dystonia there is no identifiable cause and no structural damage or degeneration to the brain. […] Cervical dystonia can be particularly painful due to degeneration of the spine, irritation of nerve roots or frequent headaches. […] In 2001, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved botulinum toxin type B for treatment of cervical dystonia. […] So far it has been studied in only small controlled trials for focal hand or cervical dystonia.

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