Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Cyclospora

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/diseases/cyclospora.html

  Cyclospora is a one-celled parasite too small to be seen with the naked eye (only 8 to 10 microns in diameter). Its full name is Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Because Cyclospora is a newly recognized infectious organism, many questions about its biology, the ways it is spread and the illness it causes remain unanswered. […] It is not known how common the various modes of transmission are, nor is it known whether animals can be infected and can serve as sources of infection for humans. […] In fact, the parasite does not become infectious until days to weeks after it is passed in the stool (the amount of time depends on factors such as temperature and humidity). […] However, so-called indirect spread might occur. […] The risk may vary with season. Some evidence suggests that infection is most common in spring and summer.

• #2 Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Cyclospora spp. – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/cyclospora-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html

  Cyclospora are coccidian in a genus isopora. Cyclospora are in phylum Apicomplexa, subclass Coccidiasina, and family Eimeriidae. Cyclospora has spherical, thick walled spores, oocyst with a diameter of 8-10 m and contains two sporocysts, each of which contains two sporozoites. Cyclospora oocysts, when freshly passed in the stool are not sporulated and therefore are not infective. Oocysts require a few days to weeks to develop and mature in the environment into the infective sporulated oocyst, thus precluding direct fecal-oral transmission. Upon ingested oocysts excyst in the gut and release the sporozoites, which invade the epithelial cells of the small intestine. Sporozoites undergo two generations of asexual reproduction in the cell and become meronts, which initiate the macro and micro gametocyte sexual cycle.

• #3 Which Foods Are the Cyclospora Parasite Found In? | Marler Clark

  https://marlerclark.com/news_events/which-foods-are-the-cyclospora-parasite-found-in

  Cyclospora is a microscopic parasite that can cause food- or water-related gastrointestinal illness. Cyclospora cayetanensis is the only species of this organism found in humans. […] In the United States, Cyclospora causes about 11,000 illnesses (cyclosporiasis) yearly. […] Cyclosporiasis is an intestinal illness caused by the protozoan parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis, which is transmissible by ingestion of food or water contaminated with sporulated oocysts. […] The modes of transmission of C. cayetanensis are still not completely understood. Direct person-to-person transmission is unlikely because the oocysts are not infectious when initially shed.

• #4 FSHN22-6/FS440: Prevention of Cyclospora Contamination and Transmission on the Farm

  https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FS440

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is the only species of Cyclospora that causes disease in humans, known as cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora is spread when human feces containing Cyclospora oocysts (egg-like life stage) are released into the environment in or around agriculture growing regions. […] People become infected with Cyclospora when food contaminated with the oocysts is consumed. […] Unlike bacteria and viruses, sanitizers used in fresh produce settings are not effective against Cyclospora, due to the oocysts protective coating. […] Because humans are the only source of contamination, prevention efforts should focus on health, hygiene, and sanitation on the farm.

• #5 Cyclosporiasis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, And Treatment

  https://www.netmeds.com/health-library/post/cyclosporiasis-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment?srsltid=AfmBOorlJcPuzudY03NZuvy50zpkMmZdfFfyearkljVr6xXxEwHCChgL

  Cyclosporiasis is an acute intestinal infection caused by a unicellular parasite called Cyclospora cayetanensis. This parasitic infection occurs by consuming food or water that has been contaminated with this pathogen. […] First reported in 1979, the whole host range of this microscopic, spore-forming, intestinal protozoan parasitic infection, also referred to as travelers diarrhea is still unknown. Presently, humans are the only known host, with chimpanzees and a few other primates thought to be potential carriers. Primarily Cyclospora is spread by people ingesting something or spread by the fecal-oral route, meaning through the consumption of food or water contaminated by feces. Contaminated fruits and vegetables also cause cyclospora infections. […] During infection, some of the parasitic cells undergo a reproductive stage where survival structures called oocysts are produced which can survive in adverse moist conditions for long periods. These structures eventually spread the infection to other new hosts, and after being passed in a bowel movement, they become infectious, and the infection needs more than a week to affect the body. Persons of all ages and people living or traveling in tropical or subtropical regions may be at increased risk for infection. More often, the chances of Cyclosporiasis getting passed on from one person to another are remote.

• #6 Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a Food-Borne and Waterborne Parasite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2806662/

  The coccidian parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis is recognized as an emerging pathogen that causes protracted diarrhea in humans. […] Since then, Cyclospora has been considered a cause of traveler’s diarrhea. […] In 1991 and 1992, Ortega and collaborators characterized this controversial organism as a new coccidian species capable of infecting humans and belonging to the genus Cyclospora. […] The etymology of the nomen triviale was derived from Peruvian University Cayetano Heredia, Ortega’s alma mater and the research base for the field studies that collected the Cyclospora-positive specimens. […] In 1995, molecular phylogenetic analysis of the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene suggested that Cyclospora was a parasite closely related to the Eimeria genus. […] The biology, clinical presentation, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and control of cyclosporiasis are reviewed, with a focus on diagnostic assays currently being used for clinical and environmental samples.

• #7 Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a Food-Borne and Waterborne Parasite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2806662/

  The coccidian parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis is recognized as an emerging pathogen that causes protracted diarrhea in humans. […] Since then, Cyclospora has been considered a cause of traveler’s diarrhea. […] In 1991 and 1992, Ortega and collaborators characterized this controversial organism as a new coccidian species capable of infecting humans and belonging to the genus Cyclospora. […] The etymology of the nomen triviale was derived from Peruvian University Cayetano Heredia, Ortega’s alma mater and the research base for the field studies that collected the Cyclospora-positive specimens. […] In 1995, molecular phylogenetic analysis of the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene suggested that Cyclospora was a parasite closely related to the Eimeria genus. […] The biology, clinical presentation, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and control of cyclosporiasis are reviewed, with a focus on diagnostic assays currently being used for clinical and environmental samples.

• #8 Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a Food-Borne and Waterborne Parasite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2806662/

  The coccidian parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis is recognized as an emerging pathogen that causes protracted diarrhea in humans. […] Since then, Cyclospora has been considered a cause of traveler’s diarrhea. […] In 1991 and 1992, Ortega and collaborators characterized this controversial organism as a new coccidian species capable of infecting humans and belonging to the genus Cyclospora. […] The etymology of the nomen triviale was derived from Peruvian University Cayetano Heredia, Ortega’s alma mater and the research base for the field studies that collected the Cyclospora-positive specimens. […] In 1995, molecular phylogenetic analysis of the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene suggested that Cyclospora was a parasite closely related to the Eimeria genus. […] The biology, clinical presentation, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and control of cyclosporiasis are reviewed, with a focus on diagnostic assays currently being used for clinical and environmental samples.

• #9 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is an intestinal coccidian parasite transmitted to humans through the consumption of oocysts in fecally contaminated food and water. […] Cyclosporiasis is a foodborne and waterborne intestinal parasitic disease caused by the coccidian parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis occurs worldwide, with hot spots of endemicity including tropical and subtropical regions of Latin America (including the Caribbean), Central and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. […] This parasite is particularly prevalent in settings with poor sanitation where the environment is contaminated with human feces from infected individuals. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis has a complex life cycle involving both sexual and asexual development within a single host.

• #10 Cyclosporiasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/intestinal-protozoa-and-microsporidia/cyclosporiasis

  Cyclosporiasis is caused by an obligate intracellular protozoan. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route, usually via contaminated food or water. […] In the United States, there are approximately 1000 to 2000 cases of cyclosporiasis reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) each year, and more cases may go unreported. […] The life cycle of C. cayetanensis is similar to that of Cryptosporidium, except that oocysts passed in stool are not sporulated. Thus, when freshly passed in stools, the oocysts are not infective, and direct fecal-oral transmission cannot occur. […] Diagnosis of cyclosporiasis is by stool tests, either molecular testing for parasite DNA or microscopic examination for oocysts. […] The molecular diagnosis of C. cayetanensis is primarily via multiplex assays for a variety of gastrointestinal pathogens. […] Treatment of choice for cyclosporiasis is double-strength TMP/SMX for 7 to 10 days. […] Avoiding food or water that may have been contaminated with feces is the best way to prevent cyclosporiasis.

• #11 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Infection is initiated by the ingestion of fully sporulated oocysts in fecally contaminated food or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is usually confined to the upper small intestine in immunocompetent hosts, but it can cause ectopic infection of the biliary tree and gall bladder in patients with HIV infection and AIDS. […] Parasite invasion and replication within enterocytes damages the small intestinal epithelium, leading to the disruption of the brush border, loss of membrane bound digestive enzymes, and intestinal villous blunting and atrophy. […] The presentation of infection varies with the age and immune status of the host, as well as the local endemicity of infection. […] Infection is often mild or asymptomatic, particularly in residents of highly endemic countries. […] More severe disease occurs most commonly in infants, the elderly, and profoundly immunocompromised patients such as those with HIV/AIDS.

• #12 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Treatment, Diagnosis, Prevention

  https://www.medicinenet.com/cyclospora_infection_cyclosporiasis/article.htm

  Cyclosporiasis is a diarrheal illness that occurs when humans accidentally ingest the Cyclospora cayetanensis parasite. This happens by drinking or eating uncooked items contaminated with soil or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis was originally described as coccidian or Cyanobacterium-like because it resembled certain algae. In fact, it is a parasite that cycles between the environment (soil) and humans during its life cycle. It survives for long periods of time in nature as an oocyst. Cyclospora oocysts can resist extreme temperatures and the usual levels of chlorine in treated water. When temperatures warm, the oocyst matures and releases the infectious forms, called sporocysts. When sporocysts are ingested by a human, they invade the epithelial cells of the small intestine. They multiply in the cells and produce new oocysts. These are excreted in feces, starting the cycle all over again.

• #13 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Infection is initiated by the ingestion of fully sporulated oocysts in fecally contaminated food or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is usually confined to the upper small intestine in immunocompetent hosts, but it can cause ectopic infection of the biliary tree and gall bladder in patients with HIV infection and AIDS. […] Parasite invasion and replication within enterocytes damages the small intestinal epithelium, leading to the disruption of the brush border, loss of membrane bound digestive enzymes, and intestinal villous blunting and atrophy. […] The presentation of infection varies with the age and immune status of the host, as well as the local endemicity of infection. […] Infection is often mild or asymptomatic, particularly in residents of highly endemic countries. […] More severe disease occurs most commonly in infants, the elderly, and profoundly immunocompromised patients such as those with HIV/AIDS.

• #14 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Infection is initiated by the ingestion of fully sporulated oocysts in fecally contaminated food or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is usually confined to the upper small intestine in immunocompetent hosts, but it can cause ectopic infection of the biliary tree and gall bladder in patients with HIV infection and AIDS. […] Parasite invasion and replication within enterocytes damages the small intestinal epithelium, leading to the disruption of the brush border, loss of membrane bound digestive enzymes, and intestinal villous blunting and atrophy. […] The presentation of infection varies with the age and immune status of the host, as well as the local endemicity of infection. […] Infection is often mild or asymptomatic, particularly in residents of highly endemic countries. […] More severe disease occurs most commonly in infants, the elderly, and profoundly immunocompromised patients such as those with HIV/AIDS.

• #15 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Treatment, Diagnosis, Prevention

  https://www.medicinenet.com/cyclospora_infection_cyclosporiasis/article.htm

  Cyclosporiasis is a diarrheal illness that occurs when humans accidentally ingest the Cyclospora cayetanensis parasite. This happens by drinking or eating uncooked items contaminated with soil or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis was originally described as coccidian or Cyanobacterium-like because it resembled certain algae. In fact, it is a parasite that cycles between the environment (soil) and humans during its life cycle. It survives for long periods of time in nature as an oocyst. Cyclospora oocysts can resist extreme temperatures and the usual levels of chlorine in treated water. When temperatures warm, the oocyst matures and releases the infectious forms, called sporocysts. When sporocysts are ingested by a human, they invade the epithelial cells of the small intestine. They multiply in the cells and produce new oocysts. These are excreted in feces, starting the cycle all over again.

• #16 Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Cyclospora spp. – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/cyclospora-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html

  Cyclospora are coccidian in a genus isopora. Cyclospora are in phylum Apicomplexa, subclass Coccidiasina, and family Eimeriidae. Cyclospora has spherical, thick walled spores, oocyst with a diameter of 8-10 m and contains two sporocysts, each of which contains two sporozoites. Cyclospora oocysts, when freshly passed in the stool are not sporulated and therefore are not infective. Oocysts require a few days to weeks to develop and mature in the environment into the infective sporulated oocyst, thus precluding direct fecal-oral transmission. Upon ingested oocysts excyst in the gut and release the sporozoites, which invade the epithelial cells of the small intestine. Sporozoites undergo two generations of asexual reproduction in the cell and become meronts, which initiate the macro and micro gametocyte sexual cycle.

• #17 Cyclospora cayetanensis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclospora_cayetanensis

  is a coccidian parasite that causes a diarrheal disease called cyclosporiasis in humans and possibly in other primates. […] has since emerged as an endemic cause of diarrheal disease in tropical countries and a cause of traveler’s diarrhea and food-borne infections in developed nations. […] The only confirmed hosts for are humans. Infection is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, and begins when a person ingests oocysts in feces-contaminated food or water. […] The oocysts that are passed are not, however, immediately infectious. Sporulation can take from one to several weeks, meaning person-to-person transmission is not a likely event. […] Persons living or traveling in developing tropical or subtropical areas may be at an increased risk of acquiring , as it is endemic in these areas.

• #18 Cyclosporiasis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, And Treatment

  https://www.netmeds.com/health-library/post/cyclosporiasis-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment?srsltid=AfmBOorlJcPuzudY03NZuvy50zpkMmZdfFfyearkljVr6xXxEwHCChgL

  Cyclosporiasis is an acute intestinal infection caused by a unicellular parasite called Cyclospora cayetanensis. This parasitic infection occurs by consuming food or water that has been contaminated with this pathogen. […] First reported in 1979, the whole host range of this microscopic, spore-forming, intestinal protozoan parasitic infection, also referred to as travelers diarrhea is still unknown. Presently, humans are the only known host, with chimpanzees and a few other primates thought to be potential carriers. Primarily Cyclospora is spread by people ingesting something or spread by the fecal-oral route, meaning through the consumption of food or water contaminated by feces. Contaminated fruits and vegetables also cause cyclospora infections. […] During infection, some of the parasitic cells undergo a reproductive stage where survival structures called oocysts are produced which can survive in adverse moist conditions for long periods. These structures eventually spread the infection to other new hosts, and after being passed in a bowel movement, they become infectious, and the infection needs more than a week to affect the body. Persons of all ages and people living or traveling in tropical or subtropical regions may be at increased risk for infection. More often, the chances of Cyclosporiasis getting passed on from one person to another are remote.

• #19 Cyclospora cayetanensis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclospora_cayetanensis

  is a coccidian parasite that causes a diarrheal disease called cyclosporiasis in humans and possibly in other primates. […] has since emerged as an endemic cause of diarrheal disease in tropical countries and a cause of traveler’s diarrhea and food-borne infections in developed nations. […] The only confirmed hosts for are humans. Infection is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, and begins when a person ingests oocysts in feces-contaminated food or water. […] The oocysts that are passed are not, however, immediately infectious. Sporulation can take from one to several weeks, meaning person-to-person transmission is not a likely event. […] Persons living or traveling in developing tropical or subtropical areas may be at an increased risk of acquiring , as it is endemic in these areas.

• #20 Cyclosporiasis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/cyclosporiasis/index.html

  Cyclosporiasis is an intestinal illness caused by the microscopic parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is a unicellular parasite that causes an intestinal infection called cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is a unicellular parasite that causes an intestinal infection called cyclosporiasis.

• #21 Cyclospora | FDA

  https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborne-pathogens/cyclospora

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a parasite that is so small it can only be seen under a microscope. When people eat food or drink water thats contaminated with Cyclospora, they can get an intestinal illness called cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora is generally transmitted when infected feces contaminate food or water. Its unlikely to be transmitted directly from person to person because the Cyclospora parasite needs time (days to weeks) after being passed in a bowel movement to become infectious for another person. […] However, people living in other areas can become infected with Cyclospora by consuming food or water that has been contaminated with the parasite. […] Although its unknown exactly how food and water become infected with Cyclospora, people should be aware that rinsing or washing food is not likely to remove it.

• #22 Cyclospora | FDA

  https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborne-pathogens/cyclospora

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a parasite that is so small it can only be seen under a microscope. When people eat food or drink water thats contaminated with Cyclospora, they can get an intestinal illness called cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora is generally transmitted when infected feces contaminate food or water. Its unlikely to be transmitted directly from person to person because the Cyclospora parasite needs time (days to weeks) after being passed in a bowel movement to become infectious for another person. […] However, people living in other areas can become infected with Cyclospora by consuming food or water that has been contaminated with the parasite. […] Although its unknown exactly how food and water become infected with Cyclospora, people should be aware that rinsing or washing food is not likely to remove it.

• #23 Cyclospora

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/diseases/cyclospora.html

  Cyclospora is a one-celled parasite too small to be seen with the naked eye (only 8 to 10 microns in diameter). Its full name is Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Because Cyclospora is a newly recognized infectious organism, many questions about its biology, the ways it is spread and the illness it causes remain unanswered. […] It is not known how common the various modes of transmission are, nor is it known whether animals can be infected and can serve as sources of infection for humans. […] In fact, the parasite does not become infectious until days to weeks after it is passed in the stool (the amount of time depends on factors such as temperature and humidity). […] However, so-called indirect spread might occur. […] The risk may vary with season. Some evidence suggests that infection is most common in spring and summer.

• #24 Cyclospora

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/diseases/cyclospora.html

  Cyclospora is a one-celled parasite too small to be seen with the naked eye (only 8 to 10 microns in diameter). Its full name is Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Because Cyclospora is a newly recognized infectious organism, many questions about its biology, the ways it is spread and the illness it causes remain unanswered. […] It is not known how common the various modes of transmission are, nor is it known whether animals can be infected and can serve as sources of infection for humans. […] In fact, the parasite does not become infectious until days to weeks after it is passed in the stool (the amount of time depends on factors such as temperature and humidity). […] However, so-called indirect spread might occur. […] The risk may vary with season. Some evidence suggests that infection is most common in spring and summer.

• #25 Cyclospora cayetanensis and Cyclosporiasis: An Update

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/7/9/317

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a coccidian parasite of humans, with a direct fecal–oral transmission cycle. It is globally distributed and an important cause of foodborne outbreaks of enteric disease in many developed countries, mostly associated with the consumption of contaminated fresh produce. […] The risk of infection in developed countries is associated with travel to endemic areas and the domestic consumption of contaminated food, mainly fresh produce imported from endemic regions. Water and soil contaminated with fecal matter may act as a vehicle of transmission for C. cayetanensis infection. […] The modes of transmission of C. cayetanensis are still not completely documented, although fecal–oral transmission is the major route. Direct person-to-person transmission is unlikely. Indirect transmission can occur if an infected person contaminates the environment, the oocysts sporulate under the right conditions, and then contaminated food and water are ingested. The role of soil in transmission has also been proposed.

• #26 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/cyclosporiasis/fact_sheet.htm

  Cyclospora is a microscopic (tiny, not seen without a microscope) parasite that can affect the intestinal tract and cause diarrhea (loose stool/poop) in those who get infected. People get infected when they eat or drink food or water contaminated with the parasite. […] Cyclospora infections can occur in people of all ages. It is associated with foreign travel to tropical or subtropical regions of the world. In the United States, outbreaks have been linked to various types of imported fresh produce. […] Cyclospora is spread by eating or drinking contaminated food or water. Infection spreading directly from one person to another is unlikely. Outbreaks in the United States have been linked to various types of imported fresh produce, such as cilantro, salad mix, basil, snow peas, and raspberries.

• #27 What to know about Cyclospora | Marler Clark

  https://marlerclark.com/news_events/what-to-know-about-cyclospora

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a unicellular, microscopic parasite that can cause food- or water-related gastrointestinal illness. […] Most cases of cyclosporiasis occur in underdeveloped tropical and subtropical regions of the world where the parasite is endemic. […] In North America, outbreaks of cyclosporiasis in humans have been reported mostly from contaminated fresh food products, such as soft fruits (raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries), leafy vegetables (lettuce and mixed salad), and herbs (basil and cilantro). […] Soil is another possible infection source, particularly in areas with poor environmental sanitation. […] The modes of transmission of C. cayetanensis are still not completely understood. Direct person-to-person transmission is unlikely because the oocysts are not infectious when initially shed.

• #28 Cyclospora – Genetic Signatures USA

  https://geneticsignatures.com/us/our-products/gastrointestinal-infections/cyclospora/

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a coccidian parasite that causes cyclosporiasis. Like other coccidian parasites, infected people shed oocysts (rather than cysts or ova) in their feces. These oocytes are often non-infectious when initially excreted. To become infectious, the oocysts mature in favourable environmental conditions. This process takes up to 14 days so it’s unlikely that Cyclospora can spread directly between people. […] C. cayetanensis is the only species known to infect humans and has been reported worldwide, in both developed and developing countries, though is most prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, and in settings with poor sanitation where the environment is contaminated with human faeces from infected individuals. […] Transmission is generally food and waterborne and associated with contaminated fresh produce such as raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, blueberries, basil, and ready-to-eat bagged salads. […] Cyclospora cases mainly occur between May and July in the US, though seasonality is also seen worldwide, which may be affected by rain, temperature, and humidity.

• #29 Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a Food-Borne and Waterborne Parasite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2806662/

  Cyclospora oocysts have been detected in nongastrointestinal samples. […] The rapid transport of fresh fruits and produce from developing countries has increased the chance that endemic parasites from other regions may come into contact with consumers from industrialized nations. […] Cyclospora oocysts have been detected in drinking water sources in Guatemala, Nepal, and Haiti.

• #30 What to know about Cyclospora | Marler Clark

  https://marlerclark.com/news_events/what-to-know-about-cyclospora

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a unicellular, microscopic parasite that can cause food- or water-related gastrointestinal illness. […] Most cases of cyclosporiasis occur in underdeveloped tropical and subtropical regions of the world where the parasite is endemic. […] In North America, outbreaks of cyclosporiasis in humans have been reported mostly from contaminated fresh food products, such as soft fruits (raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries), leafy vegetables (lettuce and mixed salad), and herbs (basil and cilantro). […] Soil is another possible infection source, particularly in areas with poor environmental sanitation. […] The modes of transmission of C. cayetanensis are still not completely understood. Direct person-to-person transmission is unlikely because the oocysts are not infectious when initially shed.

• #31 Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Cyclospora spp. – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/cyclospora-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html

  Direct person-to-person transmission of Cyclospora is unlikely to occur because the organism is not immediately infectious when shed. Consumption of untreated water or contaminated food, or direct or indirect contact of contaminated soil can cause infection. […] The oocysts are excreted unsporulated, requiring 7-13 days of optimal conditions outside of the host to mature. After an incubation of 2-11 days, immunocompetent patients experience a self-limited, but prolonged, relapsing watery diarrhea. […] Cyclospora has been found in domestic animals, feces of chicken (oocysts), and the intestines of mammals and birds. Cyclospora-like oocysts have also been found in zoo animals (nonhuman primates, carnivores, and artiodactyla). […] Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) and ciprofloxacin (treatment failures occur more frequently with this quinolone). Cyclospora are resistant to chemicals such as chlorine used for treating water. The Cyclospora oocysts are inactivated after heating at 60C for 1 h. Oocysts cannot be induced to sporulate at minus 18C for 24 h. Desiccation for 15 minutes causes the oocysts walls to rupture. […] Cyclospora spp. require 7-15 days in the environment to sporulate, showing that they are able to survive in soil. Oocysts have been noted to survive in water for 2 months at 4C and 7 days at 37C.

• #32 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Treatment, Diagnosis, Prevention

  https://www.medicinenet.com/cyclospora_infection_cyclosporiasis/article.htm

  Cyclosporiasis is a diarrheal illness that occurs when humans accidentally ingest the Cyclospora cayetanensis parasite. This happens by drinking or eating uncooked items contaminated with soil or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis was originally described as coccidian or Cyanobacterium-like because it resembled certain algae. In fact, it is a parasite that cycles between the environment (soil) and humans during its life cycle. It survives for long periods of time in nature as an oocyst. Cyclospora oocysts can resist extreme temperatures and the usual levels of chlorine in treated water. When temperatures warm, the oocyst matures and releases the infectious forms, called sporocysts. When sporocysts are ingested by a human, they invade the epithelial cells of the small intestine. They multiply in the cells and produce new oocysts. These are excreted in feces, starting the cycle all over again.

• #33 Cyclosporiasis and Fresh Produce | FDA

  https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborne-pathogens/cyclosporiasis-and-fresh-produce

  Cyclosporiasis occurs only in humans, and the parasite originates from the feces of infected people. The parasite is transmitted when feces of infected people contaminate food or water. […] C. cayetanensis needs to spend some time in specific environmental conditions to become infectious and later cause cyclosporiasis; therefore, this parasite is unlikely to be transmitted directly from person-to-person. […] Although chlorine and other antimicrobial chemical treatments are effective at reducing harmful populations of bacteria and viruses, they are not considered effective on C. cayetanensis. […] Since infected humans are the only source of C. cayetanensis, practices that ensure proper worker hygiene, workplace sanitation, and monitoring of inputs that may be contaminated by human feces (e.g., surface waters that may be impacted by sewage leaks) are critical to reducing the likelihood of contamination. […] Personnel infected with C. cayetanensis can shed the parasite into the environment and/or directly onto produce.

• #34 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is an intestinal coccidian parasite transmitted to humans through the consumption of oocysts in fecally contaminated food and water. […] Cyclosporiasis is a foodborne and waterborne intestinal parasitic disease caused by the coccidian parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis occurs worldwide, with hot spots of endemicity including tropical and subtropical regions of Latin America (including the Caribbean), Central and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. […] This parasite is particularly prevalent in settings with poor sanitation where the environment is contaminated with human feces from infected individuals. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis has a complex life cycle involving both sexual and asexual development within a single host.

• #35 Cyclospora

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cyclospora/

  Cyclospora is an infection that causes diarrhoea. It’s not found in the UK, but there’s a risk of getting it while travelling in some parts of the world. […] You can get cyclospora from drinking unclean water or eating food that has not been cooked thoroughly or washed with clean water. […] Cyclospora is found in parts of Central and South America, south and southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. […] You cannot catch it from close contact with someone who has it. […] Cyclospora usually gets better on its own within a few days or weeks.

• #36 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is an intestinal coccidian parasite transmitted to humans through the consumption of oocysts in fecally contaminated food and water. […] Cyclosporiasis is a foodborne and waterborne intestinal parasitic disease caused by the coccidian parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis occurs worldwide, with hot spots of endemicity including tropical and subtropical regions of Latin America (including the Caribbean), Central and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. […] This parasite is particularly prevalent in settings with poor sanitation where the environment is contaminated with human feces from infected individuals. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis has a complex life cycle involving both sexual and asexual development within a single host.

• #37 Cyclospora cayetanensis and Cyclosporiasis: An Update

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/7/9/317

  Cyclospora cayetanensis infection has been reported worldwide, in both developed and developing countries, but it is most common in tropical and subtropical areas. […] The main risk factors for cyclosporiasis in industrialized countries include international travel to cyclosporiasis-endemic areas and domestic consumption of contaminated food—mainly fresh produce imported from these regions. […] The epidemiology of C. cayetanensis infections is affected by socioeconomic status. Poverty and low socio-economic status are considered as risk factors for infection. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis affects both immunocompetent and immunocompromised persons. However, it is more severe in immunocompromised hosts, in particular in HIV-infected patients for whom it is an important cause of diarrhea. […] The importance of Cyclospora cayetanensis as a major cause of food-borne outbreaks is increasing in developed countries and remains an important cause of diarrhea in children in developing countries.

• #38 Cyclospora cayetanensis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclospora_cayetanensis

  is a coccidian parasite that causes a diarrheal disease called cyclosporiasis in humans and possibly in other primates. […] has since emerged as an endemic cause of diarrheal disease in tropical countries and a cause of traveler’s diarrhea and food-borne infections in developed nations. […] The only confirmed hosts for are humans. Infection is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, and begins when a person ingests oocysts in feces-contaminated food or water. […] The oocysts that are passed are not, however, immediately infectious. Sporulation can take from one to several weeks, meaning person-to-person transmission is not a likely event. […] Persons living or traveling in developing tropical or subtropical areas may be at an increased risk of acquiring , as it is endemic in these areas.

• #39 Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a Food-Borne and Waterborne Parasite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2806662/

  The coccidian parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis is recognized as an emerging pathogen that causes protracted diarrhea in humans. […] Since then, Cyclospora has been considered a cause of traveler’s diarrhea. […] In 1991 and 1992, Ortega and collaborators characterized this controversial organism as a new coccidian species capable of infecting humans and belonging to the genus Cyclospora. […] The etymology of the nomen triviale was derived from Peruvian University Cayetano Heredia, Ortega’s alma mater and the research base for the field studies that collected the Cyclospora-positive specimens. […] In 1995, molecular phylogenetic analysis of the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene suggested that Cyclospora was a parasite closely related to the Eimeria genus. […] The biology, clinical presentation, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and control of cyclosporiasis are reviewed, with a focus on diagnostic assays currently being used for clinical and environmental samples.

• #40 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Treatment, Diagnosis, Prevention

  https://www.medicinenet.com/cyclospora_infection_cyclosporiasis/article.htm

  Cyclospora cayetanensis causes disease throughout the world, but it is commonest in tropical and subtropical climates. Outbreaks in cooler areas are often caused by food imported from warmer climates. Food is at risk if exposed to soil or water that is contaminated with human feces. Fresh produce like lettuce, raspberries, basil, and snow peas have caused past outbreaks. In 2013, an outbreak involved many states, including Texas, Iowa, and Nebraska. It affected hundreds of people and was at least partially caused by bagged lettuce grown in Mexico. […] Cyclospora may cause infection more than once if contaminated food or water is ingested. Currently, there is no available vaccine to prevent infection with Cyclospora cayetanensis.

• #41 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/cyclosporiasis/fact_sheet.htm

  Cyclospora infection is diagnosed by identifying the parasite during a microscopic examination of the stool (poop) in a laboratory test. […] People can be reinfected with Cyclospora if they are exposed to the parasite again. […] Avoid water or food that may be contaminated with feces (poop). Thoroughly wash all fresh produce, including herbs, fruits, and vegetables. When traveling to a country with poor sanitary conditions, it is important to drink water from sources you know to be safe such as sealed bottled water, boiled tap water, and carbonated (bubbly) water from sealed cans. It is also important to be aware of the foods you eat that you did not peel/wash yourself, including fresh fruit or vegetables, as they may be contaminated with Cyclospora.

• #42 Cyclospora cayetanensis and Cyclosporiasis: An Update

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/7/9/317

  Cyclospora cayetanensis infection has been reported worldwide, in both developed and developing countries, but it is most common in tropical and subtropical areas. […] The main risk factors for cyclosporiasis in industrialized countries include international travel to cyclosporiasis-endemic areas and domestic consumption of contaminated food—mainly fresh produce imported from these regions. […] The epidemiology of C. cayetanensis infections is affected by socioeconomic status. Poverty and low socio-economic status are considered as risk factors for infection. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis affects both immunocompetent and immunocompromised persons. However, it is more severe in immunocompromised hosts, in particular in HIV-infected patients for whom it is an important cause of diarrhea. […] The importance of Cyclospora cayetanensis as a major cause of food-borne outbreaks is increasing in developed countries and remains an important cause of diarrhea in children in developing countries.

• #43 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/cyclosporiasis/fact_sheet.htm

  Cyclospora infection is diagnosed by identifying the parasite during a microscopic examination of the stool (poop) in a laboratory test. […] People can be reinfected with Cyclospora if they are exposed to the parasite again. […] Avoid water or food that may be contaminated with feces (poop). Thoroughly wash all fresh produce, including herbs, fruits, and vegetables. When traveling to a country with poor sanitary conditions, it is important to drink water from sources you know to be safe such as sealed bottled water, boiled tap water, and carbonated (bubbly) water from sealed cans. It is also important to be aware of the foods you eat that you did not peel/wash yourself, including fresh fruit or vegetables, as they may be contaminated with Cyclospora.

• #44 Cyclospora

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/diseases/cyclospora.html

  Cyclospora is a one-celled parasite too small to be seen with the naked eye (only 8 to 10 microns in diameter). Its full name is Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Because Cyclospora is a newly recognized infectious organism, many questions about its biology, the ways it is spread and the illness it causes remain unanswered. […] It is not known how common the various modes of transmission are, nor is it known whether animals can be infected and can serve as sources of infection for humans. […] In fact, the parasite does not become infectious until days to weeks after it is passed in the stool (the amount of time depends on factors such as temperature and humidity). […] However, so-called indirect spread might occur. […] The risk may vary with season. Some evidence suggests that infection is most common in spring and summer.

• #45 Cyclospora – Genetic Signatures USA

  https://geneticsignatures.com/us/our-products/gastrointestinal-infections/cyclospora/

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a coccidian parasite that causes cyclosporiasis. Like other coccidian parasites, infected people shed oocysts (rather than cysts or ova) in their feces. These oocytes are often non-infectious when initially excreted. To become infectious, the oocysts mature in favourable environmental conditions. This process takes up to 14 days so it’s unlikely that Cyclospora can spread directly between people. […] C. cayetanensis is the only species known to infect humans and has been reported worldwide, in both developed and developing countries, though is most prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, and in settings with poor sanitation where the environment is contaminated with human faeces from infected individuals. […] Transmission is generally food and waterborne and associated with contaminated fresh produce such as raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, blueberries, basil, and ready-to-eat bagged salads. […] Cyclospora cases mainly occur between May and July in the US, though seasonality is also seen worldwide, which may be affected by rain, temperature, and humidity.

• #46 Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a Food-Borne and Waterborne Parasite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2806662/

  Cyclospora infections have also been described in Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, and Argentina. […] Epidemiological studies have shown that consumption of untreated water, lack of adequate sanitation, and the presence of animals in the household are associated with increased risk of Cyclospora infections. […] The transmission of Cyclospora through domestic animals was suggested in early epidemiological surveys and studies conducted in areas of endemicity. […] Cyclospora oocysts have been detected in water for human consumption in several instances. […] Cyclospora has also been reported for children living in marginal urban districts of Trujillo, Peru. […] The therapy of choice for treatment of cyclosporiasis is TMP-SMX. […] The presence of Cyclospora in stools from animals could be explained by eating or coprophagic habits of the surveyed animals.

• #47 Cyclospora and Cyclosporiasis: The Nepalese Perspective – ScienceOpen

  https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.15212/ZOONOSES-2023-0051

  Cyclospora infections have been reported in all types of populations, regardless of age. […] In endemic regions, like Nepal, young children are more frequently infected with Cyclospora. […] In Nepal, several instances have been recorded with C. cayetanensis being more prevalent among children < 15 years of age, however, at varying proportions. [...] A human-animal nexus in the transmission of Cyclospora oocysts has been reported in Nepal. [...] Cyclospora spp. identified in many domestic animals remains controversial owing to the lack of a sophisticated molecular approach for identification. [...] Cyclospora contamination has been recorded in June and July in water samples of ponds and irrigation canals. [...] Contaminated sewage water, fresh produce (especially vegetables), exposure to contaminated soil, and the presence of domestic animals could be attributed to be the causes of cyclosporiasis outbreaks in humans. [...] Comprehensive studies using molecular techniques under the support of public health authorities are necessary to provide significant information regarding the probable circulation of Cyclospora in humans, animals, and environmental samples.

• #48 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Infection is initiated by the ingestion of fully sporulated oocysts in fecally contaminated food or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is usually confined to the upper small intestine in immunocompetent hosts, but it can cause ectopic infection of the biliary tree and gall bladder in patients with HIV infection and AIDS. […] Parasite invasion and replication within enterocytes damages the small intestinal epithelium, leading to the disruption of the brush border, loss of membrane bound digestive enzymes, and intestinal villous blunting and atrophy. […] The presentation of infection varies with the age and immune status of the host, as well as the local endemicity of infection. […] Infection is often mild or asymptomatic, particularly in residents of highly endemic countries. […] More severe disease occurs most commonly in infants, the elderly, and profoundly immunocompromised patients such as those with HIV/AIDS.

• #49 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Infection is initiated by the ingestion of fully sporulated oocysts in fecally contaminated food or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is usually confined to the upper small intestine in immunocompetent hosts, but it can cause ectopic infection of the biliary tree and gall bladder in patients with HIV infection and AIDS. […] Parasite invasion and replication within enterocytes damages the small intestinal epithelium, leading to the disruption of the brush border, loss of membrane bound digestive enzymes, and intestinal villous blunting and atrophy. […] The presentation of infection varies with the age and immune status of the host, as well as the local endemicity of infection. […] Infection is often mild or asymptomatic, particularly in residents of highly endemic countries. […] More severe disease occurs most commonly in infants, the elderly, and profoundly immunocompromised patients such as those with HIV/AIDS.

• #50 Cyclospora cayetanensis and Cyclosporiasis: An Update

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/7/9/317

  Cyclospora cayetanensis infection has been reported worldwide, in both developed and developing countries, but it is most common in tropical and subtropical areas. […] The main risk factors for cyclosporiasis in industrialized countries include international travel to cyclosporiasis-endemic areas and domestic consumption of contaminated food—mainly fresh produce imported from these regions. […] The epidemiology of C. cayetanensis infections is affected by socioeconomic status. Poverty and low socio-economic status are considered as risk factors for infection. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis affects both immunocompetent and immunocompromised persons. However, it is more severe in immunocompromised hosts, in particular in HIV-infected patients for whom it is an important cause of diarrhea. […] The importance of Cyclospora cayetanensis as a major cause of food-borne outbreaks is increasing in developed countries and remains an important cause of diarrhea in children in developing countries.

• #51 Ynes Ortega receives grant to study Cyclospora presence in the U.S. – Center for Tropical and Emerging Global DiseasesYnes Ortega receives grant to study Cyclospora presence in the U.S. – Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases

  https://ctegd.uga.edu/ynes-ortega-receives-grant-to-study-cyclospora-presence-in-the-u-s/

  Historically, Cyclospora infection in the United States has been associated with imported fresh produce. […] However, in 2018, the U.S. saw two significant outbreaks associated with vegetables grown in the United States. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis, the single-cell parasite that causes cyclosporiasis, was first described by Ortega in the 1990s. A person becomes infected with the parasite by consuming contaminated food, mostly fresh fruits and vegetables, and water. […] Up until 2018, it was believed that Cyclospora was not present in the United States. […] Therefore, one of the main goals of this grant is to determine how widely distributed this parasite is within the United States.

• #52 Ynes Ortega receives grant to study Cyclospora presence in the U.S. – Center for Tropical and Emerging Global DiseasesYnes Ortega receives grant to study Cyclospora presence in the U.S. – Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases

  https://ctegd.uga.edu/ynes-ortega-receives-grant-to-study-cyclospora-presence-in-the-u-s/

• #53 FSHN0519/FS130: Preventing Foodborne Illness: Cyclosporiasis

  https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FS130

  Cyclosporiasis is an intestinal illness caused by the microscopic parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis. People can become infected with Cyclospora by consuming food, such as fresh produce, that has come in contact with water contaminated with the parasite. […] Cyclospora is a microscopic, single-celled, intestinal, obligate (requiring a host for completion of its life cycle) protozoan parasite. Among several species of Cyclospora, only C. cayetanensis causes illness in humans. […] It is well known that Cyclospora multiplies in the small intestine of humans, but the full host range of C. cayetanensis is currently unknown. […] Foods can be contaminated with Cyclospora oocysts when exposed to feces of infected individuals. […] The increase in prevalence seen in recent years may be due in part to changes in diagnostic testing practicesnamely, increased use of a multiplex molecular assay to examine stool specimens.

• #54 Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a Food-Borne and Waterborne Parasite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2806662/

  Cyclospora oocysts have been detected in nongastrointestinal samples. […] The rapid transport of fresh fruits and produce from developing countries has increased the chance that endemic parasites from other regions may come into contact with consumers from industrialized nations. […] Cyclospora oocysts have been detected in drinking water sources in Guatemala, Nepal, and Haiti.

• #55 Cyclosporiasis and Fresh Produce | FDA

  https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborne-pathogens/cyclosporiasis-and-fresh-produce

  Cyclosporiasis is an intestinal illness caused by the parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis (C. cayetanensis). […] Cyclosporiasis occurs only in humans, the only known host for C. cayetanensis. […] Infected people shed the parasite in their feces — good hygiene and other sanitary protections such as those described in the Produce Safety Rule (e.g., evaluating worker health and hygiene practices, or assessing septic systems and water sources) are key to preventing the spread of C. cayetanensis to fresh produce. […] C. cayetanensis is a parasite that must live inside a human host for part of its life cycle, as well as living outside the host during an environmental phase. […] A person can become infected after ingesting food or water contaminated with the parasite. […] Cyclosporiasis outbreaks have been associated with the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables around the world, including the United States.

• #56 Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Cyclospora spp. – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/cyclospora-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html

  Direct person-to-person transmission of Cyclospora is unlikely to occur because the organism is not immediately infectious when shed. Consumption of untreated water or contaminated food, or direct or indirect contact of contaminated soil can cause infection. […] The oocysts are excreted unsporulated, requiring 7-13 days of optimal conditions outside of the host to mature. After an incubation of 2-11 days, immunocompetent patients experience a self-limited, but prolonged, relapsing watery diarrhea. […] Cyclospora has been found in domestic animals, feces of chicken (oocysts), and the intestines of mammals and birds. Cyclospora-like oocysts have also been found in zoo animals (nonhuman primates, carnivores, and artiodactyla). […] Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) and ciprofloxacin (treatment failures occur more frequently with this quinolone). Cyclospora are resistant to chemicals such as chlorine used for treating water. The Cyclospora oocysts are inactivated after heating at 60C for 1 h. Oocysts cannot be induced to sporulate at minus 18C for 24 h. Desiccation for 15 minutes causes the oocysts walls to rupture. […] Cyclospora spp. require 7-15 days in the environment to sporulate, showing that they are able to survive in soil. Oocysts have been noted to survive in water for 2 months at 4C and 7 days at 37C.

• #57 Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Cyclospora spp. – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/cyclospora-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html

  Direct person-to-person transmission of Cyclospora is unlikely to occur because the organism is not immediately infectious when shed. Consumption of untreated water or contaminated food, or direct or indirect contact of contaminated soil can cause infection. […] The oocysts are excreted unsporulated, requiring 7-13 days of optimal conditions outside of the host to mature. After an incubation of 2-11 days, immunocompetent patients experience a self-limited, but prolonged, relapsing watery diarrhea. […] Cyclospora has been found in domestic animals, feces of chicken (oocysts), and the intestines of mammals and birds. Cyclospora-like oocysts have also been found in zoo animals (nonhuman primates, carnivores, and artiodactyla). […] Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) and ciprofloxacin (treatment failures occur more frequently with this quinolone). Cyclospora are resistant to chemicals such as chlorine used for treating water. The Cyclospora oocysts are inactivated after heating at 60C for 1 h. Oocysts cannot be induced to sporulate at minus 18C for 24 h. Desiccation for 15 minutes causes the oocysts walls to rupture. […] Cyclospora spp. require 7-15 days in the environment to sporulate, showing that they are able to survive in soil. Oocysts have been noted to survive in water for 2 months at 4C and 7 days at 37C.

• #58 Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Cyclospora spp. – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/cyclospora-pathogen-safety-data-sheet.html

  Direct person-to-person transmission of Cyclospora is unlikely to occur because the organism is not immediately infectious when shed. Consumption of untreated water or contaminated food, or direct or indirect contact of contaminated soil can cause infection. […] The oocysts are excreted unsporulated, requiring 7-13 days of optimal conditions outside of the host to mature. After an incubation of 2-11 days, immunocompetent patients experience a self-limited, but prolonged, relapsing watery diarrhea. […] Cyclospora has been found in domestic animals, feces of chicken (oocysts), and the intestines of mammals and birds. Cyclospora-like oocysts have also been found in zoo animals (nonhuman primates, carnivores, and artiodactyla). […] Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) and ciprofloxacin (treatment failures occur more frequently with this quinolone). Cyclospora are resistant to chemicals such as chlorine used for treating water. The Cyclospora oocysts are inactivated after heating at 60C for 1 h. Oocysts cannot be induced to sporulate at minus 18C for 24 h. Desiccation for 15 minutes causes the oocysts walls to rupture. […] Cyclospora spp. require 7-15 days in the environment to sporulate, showing that they are able to survive in soil. Oocysts have been noted to survive in water for 2 months at 4C and 7 days at 37C.

• #59 Determination of physical and chemical… | Center for Produce Safety

  https://www.centerforproducesafety.org/research-database/determination-of-physical-and-chemical-mechanisms-to-prevent-cyclospora-infection

  The efficiency of an inactivation method will be reported as the number of intact oocysts after application of the test method and the % sporulation of oocysts. This will capture both physical disruption of oocysts and inactivation of intact oocysts. […] This study will identify 2 methods for inactivation of Cyclospora oocysts to reduce or eliminate the risks associated with agricultural water inputs. […] During this funding period, we identified at least two methods for oocyst inactivation, with several experiments still underway due to sporadic and late availability of sufficient quantities of oocysts. […] While testing various methods to establish a positive control treatment, it was noted that pH modification using 0.1N NaOH was an effective measure in blocking development through sporulation.

• #60 Determination of physical and chemical… | Center for Produce Safety

  https://www.centerforproducesafety.org/research-database/determination-of-physical-and-chemical-mechanisms-to-prevent-cyclospora-infection

  Interestingly, reducing pH using 1N HCl had no effect, showing that mildly alkalizing, but not acidifying, Eimeria acervulina suspensions can reduce viability. […] It would be valuable to determine the minimal concentration of NaOH or other alkalizing agents sufficient to prevent foodborne transmission of infective oocysts. […] However, since no method for culturing Cyclospora cayetanensis has yet been developed, evaluating the success of inactivation assays currently relies on microscopic examination of treated oocysts. […] By mid-February 2023, data from the initial ozone screening and gamma ray testing will be available for analysis, potentially increasing the number of validated methods to break the life cycles of food- and waterborne coccidians.

• #61 Update on Cyclospora cayetanensis, a Food-Borne and Waterborne Parasite

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2806662/

  Cyclospora oocysts have been detected in nongastrointestinal samples. […] The rapid transport of fresh fruits and produce from developing countries has increased the chance that endemic parasites from other regions may come into contact with consumers from industrialized nations. […] Cyclospora oocysts have been detected in drinking water sources in Guatemala, Nepal, and Haiti.

• #62 Cyclospora and Cyclosporiasis: The Nepalese Perspective – ScienceOpen

  https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.15212/ZOONOSES-2023-0051

  Cyclospora infections have been reported in all types of populations, regardless of age. […] In endemic regions, like Nepal, young children are more frequently infected with Cyclospora. […] In Nepal, several instances have been recorded with C. cayetanensis being more prevalent among children < 15 years of age, however, at varying proportions. [...] A human-animal nexus in the transmission of Cyclospora oocysts has been reported in Nepal. [...] Cyclospora spp. identified in many domestic animals remains controversial owing to the lack of a sophisticated molecular approach for identification. [...] Cyclospora contamination has been recorded in June and July in water samples of ponds and irrigation canals. [...] Contaminated sewage water, fresh produce (especially vegetables), exposure to contaminated soil, and the presence of domestic animals could be attributed to be the causes of cyclosporiasis outbreaks in humans. [...] Comprehensive studies using molecular techniques under the support of public health authorities are necessary to provide significant information regarding the probable circulation of Cyclospora in humans, animals, and environmental samples.

• #63 Causes of cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/cyclosporiasis-cyclospora/causes-cyclosporiasis-cyclospora.html

  Cyclosporiasis is an illness of the intestines caused by a parasite called Cyclospora. […] The most common way that Cyclospora is spread is by eating food or drinking water that contains the Cyclospora parasite. […] Only humans and possibly primates can be affected by Cyclospora. Therefore cyclosporiasis does not spread between humans and animals. […] The Cyclospora parasite gets in sources of water when feces from infected people enter the water supply.

• #64

  http://www.bccdc.ca/health-info/diseases-conditions/cyclospora-infection

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a parasite that causes a diarrheal illness. Cyclosporiasis is not usually a serious illness but can persist for several weeks. […] This parasite is not usually found in BC. Most infections in BC residents occur during travel to tropical countries. However, outbreaks can occur in BC in the spring and summer from importation of contaminated produce such as fresh herbs, lettuce and berries. […] Cyclospora are spread by the fecal-oral route, meaning through the consumption of food or water contaminated by human feces. The parasite is not spread from person-to-person because it is not infectious when it is passed in the stools of an infected person. It must remain in the environment, outside the host, for a number of days to become infectious. Contaminated fruits and vegetables are the main source of cyclospora infections. Produce may become contaminated when watered with or washed in water containing the parasite, or when handled by infected workers.

• #65

  http://www.bccdc.ca/health-info/diseases-conditions/cyclospora-infection

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a parasite that causes a diarrheal illness. Cyclosporiasis is not usually a serious illness but can persist for several weeks. […] This parasite is not usually found in BC. Most infections in BC residents occur during travel to tropical countries. However, outbreaks can occur in BC in the spring and summer from importation of contaminated produce such as fresh herbs, lettuce and berries. […] Cyclospora are spread by the fecal-oral route, meaning through the consumption of food or water contaminated by human feces. The parasite is not spread from person-to-person because it is not infectious when it is passed in the stools of an infected person. It must remain in the environment, outside the host, for a number of days to become infectious. Contaminated fruits and vegetables are the main source of cyclospora infections. Produce may become contaminated when watered with or washed in water containing the parasite, or when handled by infected workers.

• #66 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/cyclosporiasis/fact_sheet.htm

  Cyclospora is a microscopic (tiny, not seen without a microscope) parasite that can affect the intestinal tract and cause diarrhea (loose stool/poop) in those who get infected. People get infected when they eat or drink food or water contaminated with the parasite. […] Cyclospora infections can occur in people of all ages. It is associated with foreign travel to tropical or subtropical regions of the world. In the United States, outbreaks have been linked to various types of imported fresh produce. […] Cyclospora is spread by eating or drinking contaminated food or water. Infection spreading directly from one person to another is unlikely. Outbreaks in the United States have been linked to various types of imported fresh produce, such as cilantro, salad mix, basil, snow peas, and raspberries.

• #67 What to know about Cyclospora | Marler Clark

  https://marlerclark.com/news_events/what-to-know-about-cyclospora

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a unicellular, microscopic parasite that can cause food- or water-related gastrointestinal illness. […] Most cases of cyclosporiasis occur in underdeveloped tropical and subtropical regions of the world where the parasite is endemic. […] In North America, outbreaks of cyclosporiasis in humans have been reported mostly from contaminated fresh food products, such as soft fruits (raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries), leafy vegetables (lettuce and mixed salad), and herbs (basil and cilantro). […] Soil is another possible infection source, particularly in areas with poor environmental sanitation. […] The modes of transmission of C. cayetanensis are still not completely understood. Direct person-to-person transmission is unlikely because the oocysts are not infectious when initially shed.

• #68 Cyclospora and Cyclosporiasis: The Nepalese Perspective – ScienceOpen

  https://www.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.15212/ZOONOSES-2023-0051

  Cyclospora infections have been reported in all types of populations, regardless of age. […] In endemic regions, like Nepal, young children are more frequently infected with Cyclospora. […] In Nepal, several instances have been recorded with C. cayetanensis being more prevalent among children < 15 years of age, however, at varying proportions. [...] A human-animal nexus in the transmission of Cyclospora oocysts has been reported in Nepal. [...] Cyclospora spp. identified in many domestic animals remains controversial owing to the lack of a sophisticated molecular approach for identification. [...] Cyclospora contamination has been recorded in June and July in water samples of ponds and irrigation canals. [...] Contaminated sewage water, fresh produce (especially vegetables), exposure to contaminated soil, and the presence of domestic animals could be attributed to be the causes of cyclosporiasis outbreaks in humans. [...] Comprehensive studies using molecular techniques under the support of public health authorities are necessary to provide significant information regarding the probable circulation of Cyclospora in humans, animals, and environmental samples.

• #69 Bacterial Gastroenteritis: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/996978-overview

  Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species are the top three leading causes of bacterial diarrhea worldwide. […] Bacteria employ several mechanisms to invoke a pathologic response. Invasive bacteria cause mucosal ulceration and abscess formation with a subsequent inflammatory cascade. Bacterial toxins control enteral and extraenteral cellular processes. For example, the heat-labile and heat-stable enterotoxins of Escherichia coli activate enteral adenylate cyclase and guanylate cyclase signaling systems. […] Organisms such as E coli and Clostridium species are normal enteric flora, pathogenic strains of which can cause gastroenteritis. […] Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a seafood-transmitted bacterium, is a major cause of gastroenteritis in Japan and appears to be an emerging foodborne pathogen in North America. In 2016, the CDC reported 0.45 cases per 100,000.

• #70 Bacterial Gastroenteritis: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/996978-overview

  The rise in incidence may be attributed in part to the climate change effects on the quantity and distribution of this pathogen. A new lineage of V parahaemolyticus has been identified (sequence type 631) that may rapidly become the predominant type endemic to the Atlantic coast of North America. […] Studies have suggested that the use of acid-suppressing medications (proton pump inhibitors [PPIs], although not H2 receptor antagonists [H2RAs]) may increase the risk of developing gastroenteritis by reducing the acidic environment that serves as an initial defense mechanism against gastrointestinal infections. […] PPI therapy has also been suggested to be an independent risk factor for the development and recurrence of C difficile colitis as well as increases the risk Campylobacter gastroenteritis.

• #71 Cyclospora

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/diseases/cyclospora.html

  Cyclospora is a one-celled parasite too small to be seen with the naked eye (only 8 to 10 microns in diameter). Its full name is Cyclospora cayetanensis. […] Because Cyclospora is a newly recognized infectious organism, many questions about its biology, the ways it is spread and the illness it causes remain unanswered. […] It is not known how common the various modes of transmission are, nor is it known whether animals can be infected and can serve as sources of infection for humans. […] In fact, the parasite does not become infectious until days to weeks after it is passed in the stool (the amount of time depends on factors such as temperature and humidity). […] However, so-called indirect spread might occur. […] The risk may vary with season. Some evidence suggests that infection is most common in spring and summer.

• #72 Cyclospora – Genetic Signatures USA

  https://geneticsignatures.com/us/our-products/gastrointestinal-infections/cyclospora/

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is a coccidian parasite that causes cyclosporiasis. Like other coccidian parasites, infected people shed oocysts (rather than cysts or ova) in their feces. These oocytes are often non-infectious when initially excreted. To become infectious, the oocysts mature in favourable environmental conditions. This process takes up to 14 days so it’s unlikely that Cyclospora can spread directly between people. […] C. cayetanensis is the only species known to infect humans and has been reported worldwide, in both developed and developing countries, though is most prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, and in settings with poor sanitation where the environment is contaminated with human faeces from infected individuals. […] Transmission is generally food and waterborne and associated with contaminated fresh produce such as raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, blueberries, basil, and ready-to-eat bagged salads. […] Cyclospora cases mainly occur between May and July in the US, though seasonality is also seen worldwide, which may be affected by rain, temperature, and humidity.

• #73 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX; trade names Bactrim, Cotrim, Septra) is the treatment of choice for cyclosporiasis. […] There is currently no vaccine for cyclosporiasis. […] The diagnosis of intestinal parasites is laborious, time-consuming, and often requires specialized expertise. […] The molecular diagnosis of C. cayetanensis in stool specimens is primarily done through the use of multiplex assays that contain multiple bacterial, viral, and parasitic targets. […] It is clear that cyclosporiasis is no longer only a threat to individuals living in developing countries with poor sanitation.

• #74 Cyclospora cayetanensis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclospora_cayetanensis

  Since oocysts are shed in the feces of infected persons and then must mature in the environment 214 days before they can become infectious, it is unlikely for a person to get an infection directly from another person, such as an infected food handler. […] No vaccine against this pathogen is available. […] Since infection occurs via fecally contaminated food and water in endemic environments, several simple solutions have been suggested for the prevention of infections.

• #75 Cyclospora

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/diseases/cyclospora.html

  It is not known whether persons with compromised immune systems, such as persons who have AIDS, more commonly develop severe illness if infected with Cyclospora. […] Infection with Cyclospora is treatable with antibiotics. […] Based on the currently available information about how Cyclospora infection is spread, avoiding food and water that may be contaminated with stool probably is the best way to prevent infection.

• #76 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/cyclosporiasis/fact_sheet.htm

  Cyclospora infection is diagnosed by identifying the parasite during a microscopic examination of the stool (poop) in a laboratory test. […] People can be reinfected with Cyclospora if they are exposed to the parasite again. […] Avoid water or food that may be contaminated with feces (poop). Thoroughly wash all fresh produce, including herbs, fruits, and vegetables. When traveling to a country with poor sanitary conditions, it is important to drink water from sources you know to be safe such as sealed bottled water, boiled tap water, and carbonated (bubbly) water from sealed cans. It is also important to be aware of the foods you eat that you did not peel/wash yourself, including fresh fruit or vegetables, as they may be contaminated with Cyclospora.

• #77 Cyclosporiasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/intestinal-protozoa-and-microsporidia/cyclosporiasis

  Cyclosporiasis is caused by an obligate intracellular protozoan. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route, usually via contaminated food or water. […] In the United States, there are approximately 1000 to 2000 cases of cyclosporiasis reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) each year, and more cases may go unreported. […] The life cycle of C. cayetanensis is similar to that of Cryptosporidium, except that oocysts passed in stool are not sporulated. Thus, when freshly passed in stools, the oocysts are not infective, and direct fecal-oral transmission cannot occur. […] Diagnosis of cyclosporiasis is by stool tests, either molecular testing for parasite DNA or microscopic examination for oocysts. […] The molecular diagnosis of C. cayetanensis is primarily via multiplex assays for a variety of gastrointestinal pathogens. […] Treatment of choice for cyclosporiasis is double-strength TMP/SMX for 7 to 10 days. […] Avoiding food or water that may have been contaminated with feces is the best way to prevent cyclosporiasis.

• #78 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/cyclosporiasis/fact_sheet.htm

  Cyclospora infection is diagnosed by identifying the parasite during a microscopic examination of the stool (poop) in a laboratory test. […] People can be reinfected with Cyclospora if they are exposed to the parasite again. […] Avoid water or food that may be contaminated with feces (poop). Thoroughly wash all fresh produce, including herbs, fruits, and vegetables. When traveling to a country with poor sanitary conditions, it is important to drink water from sources you know to be safe such as sealed bottled water, boiled tap water, and carbonated (bubbly) water from sealed cans. It is also important to be aware of the foods you eat that you did not peel/wash yourself, including fresh fruit or vegetables, as they may be contaminated with Cyclospora.

• #79 Cyclospora Infection (Cyclosporiasis) Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/cyclosporiasis/fact_sheet.htm

  Cyclospora infection is diagnosed by identifying the parasite during a microscopic examination of the stool (poop) in a laboratory test. […] People can be reinfected with Cyclospora if they are exposed to the parasite again. […] Avoid water or food that may be contaminated with feces (poop). Thoroughly wash all fresh produce, including herbs, fruits, and vegetables. When traveling to a country with poor sanitary conditions, it is important to drink water from sources you know to be safe such as sealed bottled water, boiled tap water, and carbonated (bubbly) water from sealed cans. It is also important to be aware of the foods you eat that you did not peel/wash yourself, including fresh fruit or vegetables, as they may be contaminated with Cyclospora.

• #80 FSHN22-6/FS440: Prevention of Cyclospora Contamination and Transmission on the Farm

  https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FS440

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is the only species of Cyclospora that causes disease in humans, known as cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora is spread when human feces containing Cyclospora oocysts (egg-like life stage) are released into the environment in or around agriculture growing regions. […] People become infected with Cyclospora when food contaminated with the oocysts is consumed. […] Unlike bacteria and viruses, sanitizers used in fresh produce settings are not effective against Cyclospora, due to the oocysts protective coating. […] Because humans are the only source of contamination, prevention efforts should focus on health, hygiene, and sanitation on the farm.

• #81 FSHN0519/FS130: Preventing Foodborne Illness: Cyclosporiasis

  https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FS130

  The implication of multiple vehicles of infection in the United States since the mid-2000s highlights the need for prevention and control measures to ensure the safety of produce that is eaten raw and the need for an improved understanding of the epidemiology of Cyclospora. […] The new Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) has as one of its tenets the Foreign Supplier Verification Program, which sets standards for any company importing fresh produce into the United States.

• #82 Cyclosporiasis and Fresh Produce | FDA

  https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborne-pathogens/cyclosporiasis-and-fresh-produce

  Cyclosporiasis occurs only in humans, and the parasite originates from the feces of infected people. The parasite is transmitted when feces of infected people contaminate food or water. […] C. cayetanensis needs to spend some time in specific environmental conditions to become infectious and later cause cyclosporiasis; therefore, this parasite is unlikely to be transmitted directly from person-to-person. […] Although chlorine and other antimicrobial chemical treatments are effective at reducing harmful populations of bacteria and viruses, they are not considered effective on C. cayetanensis. […] Since infected humans are the only source of C. cayetanensis, practices that ensure proper worker hygiene, workplace sanitation, and monitoring of inputs that may be contaminated by human feces (e.g., surface waters that may be impacted by sewage leaks) are critical to reducing the likelihood of contamination. […] Personnel infected with C. cayetanensis can shed the parasite into the environment and/or directly onto produce.

• #83 What is Cyclospora?

  https://www.eurofinsus.com/food-testing/resources/cyclospora-outbreaks-and-how-to-mitigate-risk/

  Cyclospora is a parasite commonly found in contaminated food and water. […] The species Cyclospora cayetanensis causes an emerging infectious disease in both developing and developed countries called cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is not transmissible from person to person. […] The FDA also confirmed the presence of the parasite in domestically grown cilantro in July 2020. […] Despite these roadblocks, there are tools to detect C. cayetanensis in food. […] In 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) developed a regulatory method to detect C. cayetanensis in produce. […] Detecting and identifying Cyclospora can minimize microbial hazards in food, but other technologies are also available to prevent the contamination of the produce in the first place. […] You can also hire a contractor to clean and sanitize the portable toilets, and make sure that they dispose of human waste into an appropriate sewage system. […] Further, you can employ a municipal wastewater treatment that will kill C. cayetanensis.

• #84 FSHN22-6/FS440: Prevention of Cyclospora Contamination and Transmission on the Farm

  https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FS440

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is the only species of Cyclospora that causes disease in humans, known as cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora is spread when human feces containing Cyclospora oocysts (egg-like life stage) are released into the environment in or around agriculture growing regions. […] People become infected with Cyclospora when food contaminated with the oocysts is consumed. […] Unlike bacteria and viruses, sanitizers used in fresh produce settings are not effective against Cyclospora, due to the oocysts protective coating. […] Because humans are the only source of contamination, prevention efforts should focus on health, hygiene, and sanitation on the farm.

• #85 What is Cyclospora?

  https://www.eurofinsus.com/food-testing/resources/cyclospora-outbreaks-and-how-to-mitigate-risk/

  Cyclospora is a parasite commonly found in contaminated food and water. […] The species Cyclospora cayetanensis causes an emerging infectious disease in both developing and developed countries called cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is not transmissible from person to person. […] The FDA also confirmed the presence of the parasite in domestically grown cilantro in July 2020. […] Despite these roadblocks, there are tools to detect C. cayetanensis in food. […] In 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) developed a regulatory method to detect C. cayetanensis in produce. […] Detecting and identifying Cyclospora can minimize microbial hazards in food, but other technologies are also available to prevent the contamination of the produce in the first place. […] You can also hire a contractor to clean and sanitize the portable toilets, and make sure that they dispose of human waste into an appropriate sewage system. […] Further, you can employ a municipal wastewater treatment that will kill C. cayetanensis.

• #86 Determination of physical and chemical… | Center for Produce Safety

  https://www.centerforproducesafety.org/research-database/determination-of-physical-and-chemical-mechanisms-to-prevent-cyclospora-infection

  Cyclospora is a ubiquitous foodborne parasite that causes gastrointestinal illness in humans and is typically acquired through consumption of contaminated water or fresh foods. […] Although it is difficult to trace Cyclospora infections to a single product, foodborne infections are primarily from the consumption of produce. […] The number of Cyclospora outbreaks due to contamination of produce has continued to rise over the last decade with 2018 marking the first outbreak associated with domestic produce. […] Results of this investment confirmed that Cyclospora is endemic in the U.S. and can be recovered from wastewater and irrigation water, which poses a significant risk for produce contamination. […] Despite this risk, few studies have investigated methods to inactivate Cyclospora due to two bottlenecks: 1) the inability to culture the organism has limited the number of oocysts that can be collected for inactivation studies; and 2) the methods for determining oocyst viability are laborious, requiring a trained parasitologist to microscopically validate the sporulation of oocysts.

• #87 Determination of physical and chemical… | Center for Produce Safety

  https://www.centerforproducesafety.org/research-database/determination-of-physical-and-chemical-mechanisms-to-prevent-cyclospora-infection

  The efficiency of an inactivation method will be reported as the number of intact oocysts after application of the test method and the % sporulation of oocysts. This will capture both physical disruption of oocysts and inactivation of intact oocysts. […] This study will identify 2 methods for inactivation of Cyclospora oocysts to reduce or eliminate the risks associated with agricultural water inputs. […] During this funding period, we identified at least two methods for oocyst inactivation, with several experiments still underway due to sporadic and late availability of sufficient quantities of oocysts. […] While testing various methods to establish a positive control treatment, it was noted that pH modification using 0.1N NaOH was an effective measure in blocking development through sporulation.

• #88 Determination of physical and chemical… | Center for Produce Safety

  https://www.centerforproducesafety.org/research-database/determination-of-physical-and-chemical-mechanisms-to-prevent-cyclospora-infection

  Interestingly, reducing pH using 1N HCl had no effect, showing that mildly alkalizing, but not acidifying, Eimeria acervulina suspensions can reduce viability. […] It would be valuable to determine the minimal concentration of NaOH or other alkalizing agents sufficient to prevent foodborne transmission of infective oocysts. […] However, since no method for culturing Cyclospora cayetanensis has yet been developed, evaluating the success of inactivation assays currently relies on microscopic examination of treated oocysts. […] By mid-February 2023, data from the initial ozone screening and gamma ray testing will be available for analysis, potentially increasing the number of validated methods to break the life cycles of food- and waterborne coccidians.

• #89 Determination of physical and chemical… | Center for Produce Safety

  https://www.centerforproducesafety.org/research-database/determination-of-physical-and-chemical-mechanisms-to-prevent-cyclospora-infection

  The efficiency of an inactivation method will be reported as the number of intact oocysts after application of the test method and the % sporulation of oocysts. This will capture both physical disruption of oocysts and inactivation of intact oocysts. […] This study will identify 2 methods for inactivation of Cyclospora oocysts to reduce or eliminate the risks associated with agricultural water inputs. […] During this funding period, we identified at least two methods for oocyst inactivation, with several experiments still underway due to sporadic and late availability of sufficient quantities of oocysts. […] While testing various methods to establish a positive control treatment, it was noted that pH modification using 0.1N NaOH was an effective measure in blocking development through sporulation.

• #90 Determination of physical and chemical… | Center for Produce Safety

  https://www.centerforproducesafety.org/research-database/determination-of-physical-and-chemical-mechanisms-to-prevent-cyclospora-infection

  Interestingly, reducing pH using 1N HCl had no effect, showing that mildly alkalizing, but not acidifying, Eimeria acervulina suspensions can reduce viability. […] It would be valuable to determine the minimal concentration of NaOH or other alkalizing agents sufficient to prevent foodborne transmission of infective oocysts. […] However, since no method for culturing Cyclospora cayetanensis has yet been developed, evaluating the success of inactivation assays currently relies on microscopic examination of treated oocysts. […] By mid-February 2023, data from the initial ozone screening and gamma ray testing will be available for analysis, potentially increasing the number of validated methods to break the life cycles of food- and waterborne coccidians.

• #91 Cyclosporiasis: Transmission, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17957-cyclosporiasis

  Cyclosporiasis is caused by eating or drinking food or water that’s contaminated with the parasite C. cayetanensis. […] Cyclosporiasis spreads (is transmitted) when the poop (feces) of someone who has a Cyclospora infection gets into a water supply. […] Cyclospora gets into food from contaminated water. Food that’s grown or washed with untreated water is at risk for Cyclospora contamination. […] Cyclosporiasis is a parasitic illness, not caused by a virus or bacteria. Cyclospora is a protozoan a very small (single-celled) organism that you can only see with a microscope.

• #92 Cyclosporiasis: Transmission, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17957-cyclosporiasis

  Cyclosporiasis is caused by eating or drinking food or water that’s contaminated with the parasite C. cayetanensis. […] Cyclosporiasis spreads (is transmitted) when the poop (feces) of someone who has a Cyclospora infection gets into a water supply. […] Cyclospora gets into food from contaminated water. Food that’s grown or washed with untreated water is at risk for Cyclospora contamination. […] Cyclosporiasis is a parasitic illness, not caused by a virus or bacteria. Cyclospora is a protozoan a very small (single-celled) organism that you can only see with a microscope.

• #93 Bacterial Gastroenteritis: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/996978-overview

  Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species are the top three leading causes of bacterial diarrhea worldwide. […] Bacteria employ several mechanisms to invoke a pathologic response. Invasive bacteria cause mucosal ulceration and abscess formation with a subsequent inflammatory cascade. Bacterial toxins control enteral and extraenteral cellular processes. For example, the heat-labile and heat-stable enterotoxins of Escherichia coli activate enteral adenylate cyclase and guanylate cyclase signaling systems. […] Organisms such as E coli and Clostridium species are normal enteric flora, pathogenic strains of which can cause gastroenteritis. […] Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a seafood-transmitted bacterium, is a major cause of gastroenteritis in Japan and appears to be an emerging foodborne pathogen in North America. In 2016, the CDC reported 0.45 cases per 100,000.

• #94 Cyclosporiasis and Fresh Produce | FDA

  https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborne-pathogens/cyclosporiasis-and-fresh-produce

  Cyclosporiasis occurs only in humans, and the parasite originates from the feces of infected people. The parasite is transmitted when feces of infected people contaminate food or water. […] C. cayetanensis needs to spend some time in specific environmental conditions to become infectious and later cause cyclosporiasis; therefore, this parasite is unlikely to be transmitted directly from person-to-person. […] Although chlorine and other antimicrobial chemical treatments are effective at reducing harmful populations of bacteria and viruses, they are not considered effective on C. cayetanensis. […] Since infected humans are the only source of C. cayetanensis, practices that ensure proper worker hygiene, workplace sanitation, and monitoring of inputs that may be contaminated by human feces (e.g., surface waters that may be impacted by sewage leaks) are critical to reducing the likelihood of contamination. […] Personnel infected with C. cayetanensis can shed the parasite into the environment and/or directly onto produce.

• #95 FSHN22-6/FS440: Prevention of Cyclospora Contamination and Transmission on the Farm

  https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FS440

  Cyclospora cayetanensis is the only species of Cyclospora that causes disease in humans, known as cyclosporiasis. […] Cyclospora is spread when human feces containing Cyclospora oocysts (egg-like life stage) are released into the environment in or around agriculture growing regions. […] People become infected with Cyclospora when food contaminated with the oocysts is consumed. […] Unlike bacteria and viruses, sanitizers used in fresh produce settings are not effective against Cyclospora, due to the oocysts protective coating. […] Because humans are the only source of contamination, prevention efforts should focus on health, hygiene, and sanitation on the farm.

• #96 Cyclosporiasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/intestinal-protozoa-and-microsporidia/cyclosporiasis

  Cyclosporiasis is caused by an obligate intracellular protozoan. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route, usually via contaminated food or water. […] In the United States, there are approximately 1000 to 2000 cases of cyclosporiasis reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) each year, and more cases may go unreported. […] The life cycle of C. cayetanensis is similar to that of Cryptosporidium, except that oocysts passed in stool are not sporulated. Thus, when freshly passed in stools, the oocysts are not infective, and direct fecal-oral transmission cannot occur. […] Diagnosis of cyclosporiasis is by stool tests, either molecular testing for parasite DNA or microscopic examination for oocysts. […] The molecular diagnosis of C. cayetanensis is primarily via multiplex assays for a variety of gastrointestinal pathogens. […] Treatment of choice for cyclosporiasis is double-strength TMP/SMX for 7 to 10 days. […] Avoiding food or water that may have been contaminated with feces is the best way to prevent cyclosporiasis.

• #97 Cyclospora infection masquerading as coeliac disease | The Medical Journal of Australia

  https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2004/180/6/cyclospora-infection-masquerading-coeliac-disease

  A diagnosis was made of small intestinal villous atrophy secondary to C. cayetanensis infection. […] C. cayetanensis is a protozoan which was first recognised as a human intestinal parasite in the early 1990s. […] The mode of transmission is thought to be faecaloral, or via ingestion of contaminated water. […] The mechanism by which the protozoan causes villous atrophy is not well understood, but organisms have been found at the site of inflammatory changes. […] Despite the increasing knowledge about the genus Cyclospora, many infections are missed, as the parasite can be difficult to detect in human faecal samples. […] It is also important to realise that Cyclospora oocysts are usually shed in low numbers, even when the patient is very ill. […] Finally, laboratory investigators need to be aware that Cyclospora cysts are morphologically similar to cysts of Cryptosporidium parvum. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis was relatively recently recognised as an intestinal parasite that causes protracted diarrhoea.

• #98

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11908-003-0067-x

  Travel is a risk factor for acquiring infection with a sporeforming protozoa: Cryptosopridium, Cyclospora, Microsporidia, and Isospora. […] Effective treatment is available for Cyclospora, Microsporidia, and Isospora. […] Lammers HA, van Gool T, Eeftinck Schattenkerk JK: Two patients with diarrhea caused by Cyclospora cayetanensis following a trip to the tropics. […] Junod C, Deluol AM, Cosnes J, Bauer P: Cyclospora, a new coccidium agent of travelers diarrhea: 11 cases [letter]. […] Deluol AM, Junod C, Poirot JL, et al.: Travellers diarrhea associated with Cyclospora sp. […] Crowley B, Path C, Moloney C, Keane CT: Cyclospora species- a cause of diarrhoea among Irish travellers to Asia. […] Gascon J, Corachan M, Bombi JA, et al.: Cyclospora in patients with travellers diarrhea.

• #99

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11908-003-0067-x

  Travel is a risk factor for acquiring infection with a sporeforming protozoa: Cryptosopridium, Cyclospora, Microsporidia, and Isospora. […] Effective treatment is available for Cyclospora, Microsporidia, and Isospora. […] Lammers HA, van Gool T, Eeftinck Schattenkerk JK: Two patients with diarrhea caused by Cyclospora cayetanensis following a trip to the tropics. […] Junod C, Deluol AM, Cosnes J, Bauer P: Cyclospora, a new coccidium agent of travelers diarrhea: 11 cases [letter]. […] Deluol AM, Junod C, Poirot JL, et al.: Travellers diarrhea associated with Cyclospora sp. […] Crowley B, Path C, Moloney C, Keane CT: Cyclospora species- a cause of diarrhoea among Irish travellers to Asia. […] Gascon J, Corachan M, Bombi JA, et al.: Cyclospora in patients with travellers diarrhea.

• #100 Cyclosporiasis—Updates on Clinical Presentation, Pathology, Clinical Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8471761/

  Infection is initiated by the ingestion of fully sporulated oocysts in fecally contaminated food or water. […] Cyclospora cayetanensis is usually confined to the upper small intestine in immunocompetent hosts, but it can cause ectopic infection of the biliary tree and gall bladder in patients with HIV infection and AIDS. […] Parasite invasion and replication within enterocytes damages the small intestinal epithelium, leading to the disruption of the brush border, loss of membrane bound digestive enzymes, and intestinal villous blunting and atrophy. […] The presentation of infection varies with the age and immune status of the host, as well as the local endemicity of infection. […] Infection is often mild or asymptomatic, particularly in residents of highly endemic countries. […] More severe disease occurs most commonly in infants, the elderly, and profoundly immunocompromised patients such as those with HIV/AIDS.

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