Choroba wirusowa ebola
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Choroba wirusowa Ebola (EVD) jest wywoływana przez wirusy z rodzaju Ebolavirus (Filoviridae) i charakteryzuje się ostrą gorączką krwotoczną z wysoką śmiertelnością sięgającą do 90%. Wirus posiada jednoniciowy RNA o ujemnej polarności, kodujący 7 genów, w tym glikoproteinę (GP) kluczową dla wnikania do komórek gospodarza poprzez receptory takie jak NPC1, TIM1 czy integryny β1. Po endocytozie i proteolitycznym przetworzeniu GP przez katepsyny B i L następuje fuzja błon i rozpoczęcie replikacji wirusa w monocytach, makrofagach, komórkach dendrytycznych oraz innych tkankach, co prowadzi do masywnej wiremii i stanu zapalnego. Wirus skutecznie hamuje odpowiedź interferonową typu I poprzez białka VP35, VP24 i VP30, co sprzyja rozprzestrzenianiu się zakażenia i indukcji burzy cytokinowej. Uszkodzenie komórek śródbłonka i makrofagów, indukowane m.in. przez GP, prowadzi do zaburzeń krzepnięcia, rozsianego wykrzepiania wewnątrznaczyniowego (DIC) oraz objawów krwotocznych, a także niewydolności wielonarządowej i wstrząsu hipowolemicznego.

Patogeneza Choroba wirusowa ebola

Choroba wirusowa ebola (EVD) to ciężka i często śmiertelna choroba powodowana przez wirusy z rodzaju Ebolavirus, należące do rodziny Filoviridae. Wirusy Ebola są wysoce zakaźnymi patogenami, które powodują ostrą gorączkę krwotoczną u ludzi i naczelnych innych niż człowiek, z wskaźnikami śmiertelności sięgającymi nawet 90% w przypadku niektórych szczepów. Zrozumienie patogenezy zakażenia wirusem Ebola ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych metod leczenia oraz strategii profilaktycznych.123

Genom wirusa Ebola i struktura

Wirus Ebola posiada niesegmentowany, jednoniciowy RNA o ujemnej polarności, kodujący 7 strukturalnych i regulatorowych genów. Genom koduje 4 białka strukturalne wirionu (VP30, VP35, nukleoproteinę i białko polimerazy [L]) oraz 3 białka związane z błoną (VP40, glikoproteinę [GP] i VP24). Gen GP jest umiejscowiony jako czwarty od końca 3′ spośród 7 liniowo ułożonych genów.12

Wirus ma kształt nitkowaty, który może zmieniać się na okrągły lub włóknisty. Podczas składania, wirusowy RNA tworzy kompleks rybonukleoproteiny (RNP) z NP, L, VP30, VP35 i VP24, co tworzy helikalny nukleokapsyd (NC). Nukleokapsyd chroni wirusowy RNA przed degradacją przez endonukleazy i przed odpowiedzią immunologiczną gospodarza.3

Wnikanie wirusa do komórek gospodarza

Wnikanie wirusa do komórek gospodarza stanowi początkowy etap cyklu życiowego wirusa i jest procesem złożonym. Wirus Ebola wnika do organizmu przez błony śluzowe, przerwania ciągłości skóry lub przez wprowadzenie parenteralne.12

Wirus wykorzystuje kilka mechanizmów wnikania do komórki, w tym makropinocytozę, tratwy lipidowe i endocytozę zależną od receptora. W procesie tym kluczową rolę odgrywa podjednostka glikoproteiny wirusowej GP1, która inicjuje wnikanie wirusa do komórek poprzez interakcję z czynnikami adhezyjnymi i receptorami na powierzchni komórek gospodarza.12

Do receptorów komórkowych, które wirus wykorzystuje do wniknięcia, należą: receptor α kwasu foliowego, integryny β1, członkowie rodziny receptorów kinazy tyrozynowej TYRO3, domena immunoglobulinowa i mucynowa T-komórek 1 (TIM1) oraz transporter cholesterolu Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1), który pełni funkcję obligatoryjnego receptora dla wirusa Ebola.123

Po endocytozie wiriony zawierające GP wirusa Ebola początkowo współlokalizują się z przedziałami pozytywnymi dla EEA1 (early endosomal antigen-1), a następnie są transportowane do wczesnych endosomów Rab5-pozytywnych. W późniejszym czasie obserwuje się współlokalizację wirusa z okołojądrowymi późnymi endosomami pozytywnymi dla Rab7/LAMP-1, a dostarczenie do tych przedziałów wydaje się być kluczowe dla wniknięcia.3

Po internalizacji wirusa do makropinosomu następuje jego przeniesienie do przedziału endosomalnego zawierającego proteazy cysteinowe, takie jak katepsyna B i katepsyna L. Te enzymy trawią glikoproteinę wirusową (GP), co inicjuje fuzję błony wirusowej i endosomalnej.12

Replikacja wirusa i reakcja na infekcję

Po fuzji błon wirusowej i komórkowej, cząsteczka wirusa rozkręca się, a jego antygenom jest transkrybowany na mRNA za pomocą białek wirusowych związanych z nukleokapsydem. Genom jest transkrybowany przez kompleks składający się z VP30, VP35 i wirusowej polimerazy L związanej z genomem pokrytym NP. Fosforylacja VP30 powoduje jego odłączenie od kompleksu VP35/L, sygnalizując przejście od transkrypcji do replikacji. NP, VP24, VP30 i VP35 replikują i pokrywają genomy wirusa po tym przełączeniu.1

Wirus Ebola replikuje się bardzo wydajnie w wielu komórkach, produkując duże ilości wirusa w monocytach, makrofagach, komórkach dendrytycznych i innych komórkach, w tym komórkach wątroby, fibroblastach i komórkach kory nadnerczy. Replikacja wirusowa wywołuje wysokie poziomy sygnałów chemicznych związanych ze stanem zapalnym i prowadzi do stanu septycznego.12

Makrofagi i komórki dendrytyczne są prawdopodobnie pierwszymi zainfekowanymi komórkami; filowirusy replikują się łatwo w tych wszechobecnych komórkach strażniczych, powodując ich martwicę i uwalniając duże ilości nowych cząstek wirusowych do płynu pozakomórkowego. Szybkie ogólnoustrojowe rozprzestrzenianie się jest wspomagane przez indukowaną przez wirusa supresję odpowiedzi interferonu typu I.1

Mechanizmy unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej

Wysoka zjadliwość wirusa Ebola jest w dużej mierze przypisywana zdolności tego wirusa do zakłócania odpowiedzi immunologicznej gospodarza. Wirus Ebola może zapobiegać produkcji interferonów typu I i blokować odpowiedź interferonową w niezakażonych komórkach.12

Kilka białek wirusowych jest zaangażowanych w ten proces:

  • VP35 zakłóca sygnalizację RIG-I/MDA-5 i indukcję interferonu. Dodatkowo, VP35 i VP30 blokują odpowiedź RNAi przeciwko ekspresji genów wirusowych.12
  • VP24 działa hamująco na sygnalizację interferonu typu I i II (IFN). Hamuje to ekspresję genów indukowaną przez interferon, a w komórkach prezentujących antygen zapobiega wzmocnieniu prezentacji antygenu limfocytom T.34
  • Sekrecja sGP działa jako przynęta dla przeciwciał przeciwko GP. sGP wiąże się do neutrofili CD16b, receptora Fc γ III specyficznego dla neutrofili, i hamuje wczesną aktywację neutrofili. sGP może być również odpowiedzialne za głęboką limfopenię charakteryzującą zakażenie Ebolą.12

Wirus Ebola wywołuje dysfunkcje komórek odpornościowych wrodzonych. Zakażenie komórek dendrytycznych (DC) wirusem Ebola zostało wykazane zarówno in vitro, jak i in vivo. Co ciekawe, zakażone DC wykazywały stosunkowo niewielką śmiertelność komórek przez 6 dni od zakażenia. Zakażone wirusem Ebola DC nie produkowały cytokin, w tym interferonów typu I, i nie były w stanie przeprowadzić prawidłowego procesu dojrzewania. Nieprawidłowe różnicowanie DC prowadzi do nieskutecznych synaps DC/komórek T, które nie są w stanie wywołać prawidłowej adaptacyjnej odpowiedzi immunologicznej.12

Ostatnio odkryto nowy mechanizm unikania przez wirusa Ebola odpowiedzi immunologicznej gospodarza. Badania wykazały, że wirusowe ciała inkluzyjne (IBs) w komórkach zakażonych cząstkami wirusopodobnymi zdolnymi do transkrypcji i replikacji wirusa Ebola (trVLPs) pełnią rolę w unikaniu odpowiedzi immunologicznej poprzez sekwestrację czynnika regulatorowego 3 interferonu (IRF3) w ciałach inkluzyjnych i zapobieganie interakcji IRF3 z kinazami TBK1 i IKKε. Ta sekwestracja IRF3 w ciałach inkluzyjnych blokuje fosforylację IRF3 i translokację jądrową w kaskadzie sygnałowej TBK1-IRF3, która jest kluczowa dla indukcji IFN.123

Efekty cytotoksyczne i uszkodzenie tkanek

Glikoproteina (GP) wirusa Ebola odgrywa kluczową rolę w manifestacjach zakażenia wirusem Ebola. GP pozwala wirusowi na wprowadzenie swoich składników do monocytów i/lub makrofagów, gdzie uszkodzenie komórek lub ekspozycja na cząstki wirusowe może powodować uwalnianie cytokin związanych ze stanem zapalnym i gorączką, oraz do komórek śródbłonka, co uszkadza integralność naczyń.1

Efekty cytotoksyczne GP na funkcje makrofagów i komórek śródbłonka zaburzają funkcję komórek zapalnych i integralność układu naczyniowego. Ponadto, zmieniając ekspresję powierzchniową białek adhezyjnych i cząsteczek rozpoznawania immunologicznego, wirus Ebola może zakłócać procesy krytyczne dla aktywacji immunologicznej i funkcji cytolitycznej limfocytów T.1

Uszkodzenie wątroby, w połączeniu z masywną wiremią, prowadzi do rozsianego wykrzepiania wewnątrznaczyniowego. Wirus ostatecznie zakaża mikronaczyniowe komórki śródbłonka i narusza integralność naczyń.12

Drugi, nieco większy (120-150 kd) GP, glikoproteina transbłonowa, jest włączony do wirionu Ebola i wiąże się z komórkami śródbłonka, ale nie z neutrofilami. Wiadomo, że wirus Ebola wnika, replikuje się i niszczy komórki śródbłonka. Zniszczenie powierzchni śródbłonka jest związane z rozsianym wykrzepianiem wewnątrznaczyniowym, co może przyczyniać się do objawów krwotocznych, które charakteryzują wiele, choć nie wszystkie, zakażenia Ebolą.1

Glikoproteina wirusowa (GP) Ebola może być głównym czynnikiem determinującym uszkodzenie komórek naczyniowych, dlatego zakażenie komórek śródbłonka indukuje uszkodzenia strukturalne, które mogą przyczyniać się do skazy krwotocznej. GP wiąże się z neutrofilami i komórkami śródbłonka przez DCSIGN (dendritic-cell-specific ICAM3-grabbing non-integrin) i LSIGN (liver and lymph node SIGN), które zapewniają połączenia z komórką-GP poprzez determinanty węglowodanowe. Te wiązania utworzone z receptorem neutrofili CD16 powodują znaczne zmniejszenie sygnału CR3 i receptora Fc II B, unikając usuwania wirusa.1

GP jest odpowiedzialny za cytotoksyczność wobec komórek śródbłonka poprzez wydzielanie enzymów, proteolitycznych endosomów (takich jak katepsyna), które powodują zniszczenie śródbłonka naczyniowego i zwiększenie przepuszczalności naczyń oraz objawy krwotoczne.2

Zaburzenia krzepnięcia i odpowiedź zapalna

Zaburzenia krzepnięcia i krwawienia powszechnie obserwowane w EVD zostały przypisane zwiększonej aktywacji zewnątrzpochodnej drogi kaskady krzepnięcia z powodu nadmiernej produkcji czynnika tkankowego przez makrofagi i monocyty.1

Zakażenie wirusem Ebola wywołuje ekspresję kilku mediatorów zapalnych, w tym interferonu, interleukin 2, 6, 8 i 10, białka 10 indukowanego przez interferon, białka chemotaktycznego monocytów 1, regulowanego po aktywacji, normalnie wyrażanego i wydzielanego (RANTES), TNF oraz reaktywnych form tlenu i azotu.1

Reaktywne formy tlenu i azotu przyczyniają się do uszkodzenia komórek i tkanek, a tym samym do uszkodzenia naczyń i narządów. Zakażenie Ebolą jest związane z krwotokiem u 50% pacjentów. Zmiany w układzie krzepnięcia są wywoływane przez wirusa Ebola i uważa się, że są zapośredniczone przez produkcję czynnika tkankowego.1

Wiele badań wskazuje na wzrost prokoagulacyjnego białka czynnika tkankowego, wolnych rodników tlenowych, cytokin i chemokin po zakażeniu wirusem Ebola, co może prowadzić do ciężkiej choroby i śmierci. Podwyższone poziomy kilku cytokin stwierdzono w makrofagach zakażonych wirusem Ebola jeszcze przed wykryciem ekspresji genów wirusowych, co wskazuje na rolę GP wirusa Ebola w wywoływaniu stanu zapalnego.1

Niedawno odkryto nowy mechanizm molekularny aktywacji zapalnej przez macierzowe białko wirusa Ebola VP40. Wykazano, że wysoce zjadliwy wirus Ebola wywoływał wysoką i trwałą odpowiedź prozapalną w porównaniu z mniej zjadliwymi ebolawirusami w komórkach nieimmunologicznych poprzez aktywację NF-κB niezależną od TLR4. Zidentyfikowano białko macierzowe wirusa Ebola VP40 jako silny aktywator NF-κB w komórkach nieimmunologicznych, którego wewnętrzna zdolność aktywacji zapalnej jest wyższa niż białek VP40 z mniej zjadliwych ebolawirusów. Sugeruje to, że VP40 jest nowym determinantem zjadliwości indukującym różne stopnie odpowiedzi prozapalnych wśród ebolawirusów. Mechanistycznie, VP40 aktywował szlak sygnałowy NF-κB, głównie za pośrednictwem TNFR1, wykorzystując mechanizm niezależny od ligandu.12

Zmiany metaboliczne w zakażonych komórkach

Wirus Ebola może wywoływać uwalnianie cytokin prozapalnych z następowym przeciekiem naczyniowym i upośledzeniem krzepnięcia, prowadzącym ostatecznie do niewydolności wielonarządowej i wstrząsu po wniknięciu i zakażeniu pacjentów. Wirus Ebola jest znany z bezpośredniego atakowania komórek śródbłonka i makrofagów, nawet bez zakażania ich, poprzez bezpośrednie interakcje z białkami wirusowymi. Te interakcje wpływają na mechanikę komórkową i procesy immunologiczne, które są ściśle powiązane z innymi kluczowymi funkcjami komórkowymi, takimi jak metabolizm.1

Badania metabolomiczne wykazały, że cząstki wirusopodobne Ebola (VLP) prowadzą do zmian metabolicznych w komórkach śródbłonka, makrofagach M1 i M2. Analiza różnicowej obfitości metabolitów i zaburzonych szlaków sygnałowych zidentyfikowała specyficzne cechy metaboliczne, głównie w szlakach metabolicznych związanych z kwasami tłuszczowymi, steroidami i aminokwasami dla wszystkich trzech typów komórek, w sposób specyficzny dla komórki gospodarza.12

Rola czynników genetycznych w podatności na zakażenie

Badania prowadzone na myszach współpracy krzyżowej (CC) wykazały, że naturalna zmienność genów gospodarza reguluje ciężkość choroby u ssaków. Zidentyfikowano dwa specyficzne regiony genetyczne u tych myszy, które są podatne na najbardziej śmiertelne efekty wirusa Ebola. Te podatności genetyczne, znalezione w chromosomach osiem i siedem, są powiązane z wysokimi ilościami wirusa we krwi i ciężkim stanem zapalnym, szczególnie w wątrobie. Podczas gdy wirus jest przenoszony przez kontakt z zakażonymi płynami ustrojowymi, wątroba staje się dominującym miejscem replikacji wirusa i stanu zapalnego.1

Zespół odkrył również drugą podatność gospodarza w chromosomie siedem, gdzie obecność funkcjonalnego regionu genetycznego (locus) zwanego TRIM5 była powiązana z ciężkim zapaleniem wątroby, utratą wagi i ostatecznie śmiercią. Jednakże badacze odkryli, że w przypadku zakażenia wirusem Ebola obecność funkcjonalnego locus TRIM5 faktycznie prowadziła do gorszych wyników i ostatecznej śmierci, ponieważ wirus wywoływał nadaktywną odpowiedź immunologiczną zwaną burzą cytokinową, powodującą masową śmierć komórek, stan zapalny i niewydolność wątroby.12

Konsekwencje patogenezy choroby wirusowej ebola

Zakażenie wirusem Ebola prowadzi do limfopenii, neutrofilii, zwiększonego poziomu cytokin prozapalnych w surowicy, rozsianego wykrzepiania wewnątrznaczyniowego (DIC), martwicy wątroby i martwicy tkanki limfoidalnej. Zakażenie skutkuje aktywacją mechanizmów efektorowych typu I (cytotoksyczność i produkcja interferonu), a także silną aktywacją i różnicowaniem limfocytów T.1

Śmiertelne zakażenie charakteryzuje się wieloogniskową martwicą w tkankach, takich jak wątroba i śledziona. Podczas zakażenia wirusem Ebola dochodzi do deplecji i martwicy limfoidalnej u pacjentów z chorobą śmiertelną i u naczelnych innych niż człowiek zakażonych eksperymentalnie.12

Najcięższa martwica występuje w wątrobie i jest związana z tworzeniem ciałek podobnych do ciałek Councilmana, podobnych do tych obserwowanych w żółtej gorączce. W zakażeniach śmiertelnych tkanki i krew gospodarza zawierają dużą liczbę wirionów Ebola, a tkanki i płyny ustrojowe są wysoce zakaźne.1

Ponadto wirus Ebola atakuje śledzionę i nerki, gdzie zabija komórki, które pomagają organizmowi regulować równowagę płynów i chemiczną oraz które wytwarzają białka pomagające krwi krzepnąć.1

Pacjenci w końcowym stadium choroby umierają z powodu kombinacji niewydolności wielonarządowej i wstrząsu hipowolemicznego z powodu ciężkiej utraty płynów. Pacjenci z chorobą śmiertelną rozwijają objawy kliniczne wcześnie podczas zakażenia i umierają zazwyczaj między 6 a 16 dniem z powodu wstrząsu hipowolemicznego i niewydolności wielonarządowej.12

Przetrwanie wirusa Ebola w organizmie

Ortoebolowirusy są znane z utrzymywania się w miejscach uprzywilejowanych immunologicznie u niektórych osób, które wyzdrowiały. Miejsca te obejmują jądra, wnętrze oka i mózg. Nawrót – objawowa choroba przy braku ponownej infekcji u kogoś, kto wyzdrowiał z choroby Ebola – jest rzadki, ale został udokumentowany. Przyczyny tego zjawiska nie są jeszcze w pełni zrozumiane.1

Transmisja wirusa Ebola przez zakażone nasienie została udokumentowana do piętnastu miesięcy po wyzdrowieniu klinicznym. Postuluje się, że pojawienie się następstw choroby może wynikać z utrzymywania się zakaźnego wirusa Ebola, który pozostaje ukryty (np. niewykryty przez układ odpornościowy) w miejscach uprzywilejowanych immunologicznie.12

Wysunięto hipotezę, że mutacja w GP wirusa Ebola, w szczególności E545D, może być skorelowana z przetrwaniem wirusa, chociaż inne, obecnie nieznane mutacje mogą być również związane z przetrwaniem wirusa.1

Implikacje dla leczenia i profilaktyki

Zrozumienie patogenezy zakażenia wirusem Ebola ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania środków zapobiegawczych i terapeutycznych. Odkrycia dotyczące mechanizmów molekularnych leżących u podstaw patogenezy wirusa Ebola dostarczają racjonalnych podstaw do skupienia się na GP jako celu dla szczepionki zapobiegawczej i wskazówek do innych interwencji klinicznych.1

Dla choroby wirusowej Ebola, WHO wydała silne zalecenia dotyczące leczenia mAb114 (ansuvimabTM) lub REGN-EB3 (InmazebTM), które są przeciwciałami monoklonalnymi. Chociaż istnieją licencjonowane szczepionki i środki terapeutyczne na chorobę wirusową Ebola, nie ma zatwierdzonej szczepionki ani leczenia na inne choroby Ebola, takie jak SVD lub BVD. Produkty kandydujące są w fazie rozwoju.1

Wirus Ebola przeszedł szybką mutację podczas rozprzestrzeniania się wśród ludzi. Wirus Ebola jest wirusem RNA, którego replikacja jest bardzo podatna na błędy, przy czym niemal jedna mutacja wirusowa występuje podczas każdego cyklu replikacji. Ta niezwykle wysoka częstość mutacji prowadzi do znacznej różnorodności genetycznej i antygenowej, która pozwala populacji wirusa Ebola na rozwinięcie oporności na leki przeciwwirusowe i szczepionki.1

Aktualnie dostępne leki w proponowanym schemacie leczenia zawierają koktajl leków przeciwwirusowych skierowanych na różne etapy replikacji wirusa Ebola, aby osiągnąć maksymalne zahamowanie replikacji wirusowej i zapobiec szybkiemu rozwojowi oporności na fawipirawir, jedyny lek w schemacie, który jest skierowany przeciwko zmiennym celom wirusa Ebola. Wykazano, że zmniejsza on replikację wirusa Ebola.2

Badacze starają się opracować model zwierzęcy przetrwania wirusa Ebola, który pozwoliłby naukowcom badać następstwa, przetrwanie wirusa i nawroty, a także umożliwiłby opracowanie środków do przeciwdziałania tym stadiom choroby. Opracowanie takiego modelu umożliwiłoby badaczom studiowanie mechanizmów przetrwania, nawrotów i następstw, a ostatecznie opracowanie środków do leczenia następstw choroby lub hamowania ich pojawienia się.1

Identyfikacja biomarkerów i przyszłe kierunki badań

Kompleksowe badania metabolomiczne zidentyfikowały potencjalne biomarkery i ścieżki metaboliczne zaburzone przez zakażenie wirusem Ebola. Te odkrycia umożliwiają lepsze zrozumienie patogenezy choroby i mogą prowadzić do opracowania nowych strategii terapeutycznych.12

Wieloplatformowa analiza „omiczna” ludzkiej choroby wirusowej Ebola ujawniła, że sygnatury molekularne EVD pokrywają się z tymi w sepsie, sugerując, że enzymy trzustkowe przyczyniają się do uszkodzenia tkanek w śmiertelnej EVD, oraz sugerując, że zakażenie wirusem Ebola może indukować nieprawidłowe neutrofile, których aktywność mogłaby wyjaśnić cechy charakterystyczne śmiertelnej EVD.12

Badania te dostarczają wglądu w patogenezę EVD, sugerują skuteczne podejście do identyfikacji biomarkerów i stanowią ważne zasoby dla społeczności naukowej do dalszej analizy ciężkości ludzkiej EVD.1

Konieczne są dalsze badania, aby w pełni zrozumieć mechanizmy patogenetyczne leżące u podstaw ciężkiej choroby wirusowej Ebola i opracować bardziej ukierunkowane strategie terapeutyczne. Identyfikacja kluczowych determinantów zjadliwości, takich jak VP40, i ich roli w modulowaniu odpowiedzi zapalnej może prowadzić do opracowania nowych terapii mających na celu łagodzenie dysregulacji immunologicznej w ciężkich zakażeniach wirusem Ebola.1

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  1. 09.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC224575/
    Ebola virus is an aggressive pathogen that causes a highly lethal hemorrhagic fever syndrome in humans and nonhuman primates. […] Although its clinical course is well known, the specific mechanisms underlying the pathogenicity of Ebola virus have not been clearly delineated. […] The rapid progression of Ebola virus infection has further complicated the control of this disease, affording little opportunity to develop acquired immunity. […] Damage to the liver, combined with massive viremia, leads to disseminated intravascular coagulopathy. The virus eventually infects microvascular endothelial cells and compromises vascular integrity. […] Several lines of evidence suggest that the viral GP plays a key role in the manifestations of Ebola virus infection. […] Specifically, GP allows the virus to introduce its contents into monocytes and/or macrophages, where cell damage or exposure to viral particles may cause the release of cytokines associated with inflammation and fever, and into endothelial cells, which damages vascular integrity.
  • #1 Ebola Virus Infection: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/216288-overview
    Ebola virus has a nonsegmented negative-stranded RNA genome containing 7 structural and regulatory genes. The Ebola genome codes for 4 virion structural proteins (VP30, VP35, nucleoprotein, and a polymerase protein [L]) and 3 membrane-associated proteins (VP40, glycoprotein [GP], and VP24). The GP gene is positioned fourth from the 3 end of the 7 linearly arranged genes. […] After infection, human and nonhuman primates experience an early period of rapid viral multiplication that, in lethal cases, is associated with an ineffective immunologic response. Although a full understanding of Ebola virus disease must await further investigations, part of the pathogenesis has been elucidated. […] The sGP binds to neutrophil CD16b, a neutrophil-specific Fc g receptor III, and inhibits early neutrophil activation. The sGP also may be responsible for the profound lymphopenia that characterizes Ebola infection. Thus, sGP is believed to play pivotal roles in the ability of Ebola to prevent an early and effective host immune response.
  • #1 Ebola virus disease 2014 | Medicina Universitaria
    https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-medicina-universitaria-304-articulo-ebola-virus-disease-2014-X1665579614676072
    Ebola virus disease was first described in 1976 originating from the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of Congo. […] Ebola virus infections are characterized by immune suppression and a systemic inflammatory response that causes impairment of the vascular, coagulation, and immune systems, leading to multiorgan failure and shock, and thus, in some ways, resembling septic shock. […] Information about the pathology and pathogenesis of Ebola virus infections in man is scarce. Yet, comprehensive studies have been done in animals. […] Ebola virus enters the host through mucosal surfaces, breaks, and abrasions in the skin, or by parenteral introduction. […] The route of transmission of Ebola viruses seems to affect the disease course and outcome. […] Ebola virus has a broad cell tropism, infecting a wide range of cell types.
  • #1 Immunological Perspective for Ebola Virus Infection and Various Treatment Measures Taken to Fight the Disease
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/9/10/850
    EBOV infection leads to lymphopenia, neutrophilia, increased serum proinflammatory cytokines, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), liver necrosis and lymphoid tissue necrosis. […] The infection results in the activation of type-I effector mechanisms (cytotoxicity and interferon production) as well as strong T cell activation and differentiation. […] Management of EBOV infection remains a great challenge, where lack of a specific treatment is the main cause of high mortality. […] EBOV can infect almost any cell, except lymphocytes; however, virus propagation was demonstrated in limited cell types such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, NK cells, epithelial cells and hepatocytes. […] Within these cell range, it appears that mononuclear phagocytes (macrophages including alveolar cells, monocytes and dendritic cells) are the most susceptible to infection in the initial phase of disease. […] Three uptake mechanisms were identified by which EBOV could enter the cell: macro-pinocytosis, lipid raft and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
  • #1 Structural and Functional Aspects of Ebola Virus Proteins
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/10/1330
    This review will provide a comprehensive analysis of all EBOV proteins functions and enlist the protein residues involved. This review will identify therapeutic and multi-protein/peptide vaccine development targets by understanding viral proteins’ role in the replication cycle. […] To enter the host cell, EBOV can use several attachment factors, such as human folate receptor- α, β1 integrins, TYRO3 receptor tyrosine kinase family members, T-cell immunoglobulin, and mucin domain 1 (TIM1). […] EBOV GP consists of two subunits, GP1 and GP2. After uptake, proteolysis of EBOV GP1 appears significant for viral entry. The mechanism of proteolysis varies depending on the host cell type and can be carried out by cathepsin B, cathepsin L, as well as thermolysin. This EBOV GP1 proteolysis is essential for viral interaction with the obligate host receptor cholesterol transporter Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1), a step critical for viral entry. This interaction initiates the fusion of viral and host cell membrane, leading to the release of viral RNP into the cytoplasm.
  • #1 Immunological Perspective for Ebola Virus Infection and Various Treatment Measures Taken to Fight the Disease
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/9/10/850
    Endocytosis precedes the uncoating and fusion between viral and endosomal membranes. […] Internalization of the virus into a macropinosome is followed by its transfer to an endosomal compartment containing the cysteine proteases such as cathepsin B and cathepsin L. […] The latter helps to digest the viral glycoprotein (GP) which initiates viral and endosomal membrane fusion. […] EVD symptoms appear after an incubation period ranging from 2–21 days. They include fever, weakness, vomiting, anorexia, abdominal pains, chills, “ghost-like” expressionless face, proteinuria and diarrhea. […] Infection results in viremia which presents with hemorrhages (petechiae, mucosal hemorrhage, ecchymosis and visceral hemorrhage), tachycardia, electrolyte disorders, multiple vital organ (liver, respiratory and renal) failure and necrosis.
  • #1 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis Pathway
    https://www.bosterbio.com/pathway-maps/cytokines/ebola-virus-pathogenesis-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOoqfRGFBM3jRkx700rXVR2eUhu0EeoH7Y1P-o3GfRkq6lOk1LuKL
    Once the viral and internal cell membranes fuse, the virus particle uncoils and its anti-genome is transcribed into messenger RNA via nucleocapsid-associated viral proteins. The genome is transcribed by a complex consisting of VP30, VP35, and the viral polymerase L bound to an NP coated genome. Phosphorylation of VP30 causes it to dissociate from the VP35/L complex, signaling the transition from transcription to replication. NP, VP24, VP30, and VP35 replicate and coat virus genomes following this switch. […] The expression and secretion of sGP acts as a decoy for antibodies against GP. The viral proteins VP35, VP30, and VP24 are expressed in all cell types and are involved in innate immune avoidance. VP35 inhibits RIG-I/MDA-5 signaling and interferon induction. Additionally, VP35 and VP30 inhibit the viral gene expression-specific RNAi response. VP24 inhibits Interferon (IFN) type I and II signaling. This inhibits Interferon-induced gene expression and, in antigen-presenting cells, prevents antigen presentation to T cells from being enhanced.
  • #1 Ebola – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola
    EVD in humans is caused by four of six viruses of the genus Ebolavirus. The four are Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Ta Forest virus (TAFV) and one simply called Ebola virus (EBOV, formerly Zaire Ebola virus). EBOV, species Zaire ebolavirus, is the most dangerous of the known EVD-causing viruses, and is responsible for the largest number of outbreaks. […] Like other filoviruses, EBOV replicates very efficiently in many cells, producing large amounts of virus in monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and other cells including liver cells, fibroblasts, and adrenal gland cells. Viral replication triggers high levels of inflammatory chemical signals and leads to a septic state. […] EBOV is thought to infect humans through contact with mucous membranes or skin breaks. After infection, endothelial cells (cells lining the inside of blood vessels), liver cells, and several types of immune cells such as macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells are the main targets of attack. Following infection, immune cells carry the virus to nearby lymph nodes where further reproduction of the virus takes place.
  • #1 Review on Ebola Virus Disease: Its Outbreak and Current Status
    https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/review-on-ebola-virus-disease-its-outbreak-and-current-status-2161-1165-1000204.php?aid=65511
    After entering the body through mucous membranes, breaks in the skin, or parentally, Ebola virus infects many different cell types. […] Macrophages and dendrite cells are probably the first to be infected; filoviruses replicate readily within these ubiquitous sentinel cells, causing their necrosis and releasing large numbers of new viral particles into extracellular fluid. […] Rapid systemic spread is aided by virus-induced suppression of type l interferon responses. […] Fatal infection is characterized by multifocal necrosis in tissues such as the liver and spleen. […] The mainstay of treatment for Ebola virus disease involves supportive care to maintain adequate cardiovascular function while the immune system mobilizes an adaptive response to eliminate the infection.
  • #1 Molecular mechanisms of Ebola pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6608070/
    Ebola viruses (EBOVs) and Marburg viruses (MARVs) are among the deadliest human viruses, as highlighted by the recent and widespread Ebola virus outbreak in West Africa, which was the largest and longest epidemic of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in history, resulting in significant loss of life and disruptions across multiple continents. […] The high virulence of EBOV is attributed in large part to the ability of this virus to interfere with the host immune response. […] The mechanisms underlying the differences in disease severity and fatality rates among species and strains are not fully understood. […] During the terminal stage of the disease, there is an increase in vascular permeability, massive tissue injury, dysregulation of the coagulation cascade, and hemorrhage. […] EBOV can prevent production of, and cellular responses to, type I IFN.
  • #1 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis
    https://www.abeomics.com/ebola-virus-pathogenesis
    VP35 interferes with RIG-I/MDA-5 signaling and induction of Interferon. Additionally, VP35 and VP30 block the RNAi response against viral gene expression. VP24 acts to inhibit type I and II Interferon (IFN) signaling. […] The newly created particles then leave via lipid rafts, leaving a destabilized vascular system responsible for the massive blood loss causing hemorrhagic fever characteristic of Ebola patients.
  • #1 Molecular mechanisms of Ebola virus pathogenesis: focus on cell death | Cell Death & Differentiation
    https://www.nature.com/articles/cdd201567
    EBOV infection induces innate immune cell dysfunctions. […] EBOV infection is able to impair type-I IFNs production by infected cells and to block IFN response in uninfected cells. […] EBOV infection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) failed to induce type I IFNs and inhibited IFN-α production induced by double-stranded RNA. […] Several viral proteins are involved in this process. […] The ability of EBOV to infect and replicate in DC has been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. […] Interestingly, infected DC exhibited relatively little cell death over 6 days of infection. […] EBOV-infected DC failed to produce cytokines, including type-I IFNs, and were unable to perform a correct maturation process. […] The aberrant DC differentiation results in ineffective DC-/T-cell synapses that are unable to induce a correct adaptive immune response.
  • #1 Ebola Virus Sequesters IRF3 in Viral Inclusion Bodies to Evade Host Antiviral Immunity
    https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/88122
    This study explores how Ebola virus evades human immune responses. The study reports a potential new mechanism wherein Ebola virus traps human IRF3, a key transcription factor involved in immune signaling, into virus-produced „inclusion bodies”. […] Viral inclusion bodies (IBs) commonly form during the replication of Ebola virus (EBOV) in infected cells, but their role in viral immune evasion has rarely been explored. Here, we found that interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), but not TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK-1) or IB kinase epsilon (IKK), was recruited and sequestered in viral IBs when the cells were infected by EBOV transcription- and replication-competent virus-like particles (trVLPs). […] Consequently, the association of TBK1 and IRF3, which plays a vital role in type I interferon (IFN-I) induction, was blocked by EBOV trVLPs infection.
  • #1 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC224575/
    The cytotoxic effects of GP on macrophage and endothelial cell function disrupt inflammatory cell function and the integrity of the vasculature. […] In addition, by altering the cell surface expression of adhesion proteins and immune recognition molecules, Ebola virus may disrupt processes critical to immune activation and cytolytic-T-cell function. […] These phenomena likely account for the dysregulation of the inflammatory response and the vascular dysfunction characteristic of lethal Ebola virus infection, providing a rationale for focusing on GP as a target for a preventative vaccine and providing leads for other clinical interventions.
  • #1 Ebola Virus Infection: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/216288-overview
    A second, somewhat larger (120-150 kd) GP, transmembrane glycoprotein, is incorporated into the Ebola virion and binds to endothelial cells but not to neutrophils. Ebola virus is known to invade, replicate in, and destroy endothelial cells. Destruction of endothelial surfaces is associated with disseminated intravascular coagulation, and this may contribute to the hemorrhagic manifestations that characterize many, but not all, Ebola infections. […] Clinical infection in human and nonhuman primates is associated with rapid and extensive viral replication in all tissues. Viral replication is accompanied by widespread and severe focal necrosis. The most severe necrosis occurs in the liver, and this is associated with the formation of Councilman-like bodies similar to those seen in yellow fever. In fatal infections, the hosts tissues and blood contain large numbers of Ebola virions, and the tissues and body fluids are highly infectious.
  • #1 Ebola Virus’s Glycoproteins and Entry Mechanism | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/51600
    The GP binds with neutrophils and endothelial cells by the DCSIGN (dendritic-cell-specific ICAM3grabbing non-integrin) and LSIGN (liver and lymph node SIGN), which provide links to cell-GP via carbohydrate determinants. These bonds formed with the neutrophil receptor CD16 cause a significant reduction in the signal CR3 and Fc receptor II B, avoiding virus clearance. It has been shown that the strong pro-inflammatory responses were induced by the commitment of the EBOV GP with the TLR-4 and by the activation of the NF-B transcription factor. The GP is responsible for cytotoxicity on endothelial cells by secretion of enzymes, proteolytic endosomes (such as cathepsin), that cause the destruction of the vascular endothelium and increase in vascular permeability and haemorrhagic signs. […] The mechanism of recognition and virus entry. GP binds to the antibodies of unknown site in the Fab regions. C1q complement allows the binding of the antibody bound to the virus with the target cells. The internalization of virus is the objective of multiple receptors known to the GP, they are of relatively non-specific type.
  • #1 Ebola – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola
    The breakdown of endothelial cells leading to blood vessel injury can be attributed to EBOV glycoproteins. This damage occurs due to the synthesis of Ebola virus glycoprotein (GP), which reduces the availability of specific integrins responsible for cell adhesion to the intercellular structure and causes liver damage, leading to improper clotting. The widespread bleeding that occurs in affected people causes swelling and shock due to loss of blood volume. […] The dysfunctional bleeding and clotting commonly seen in EVD has been attributed to increased activation of the extrinsic pathway of the coagulation cascade due to excessive tissue factor production by macrophages and monocytes. […] EBOV proteins blunt the human immune system’s response to viral infections by interfering with the cells’ ability to produce and respond to interferon proteins such as interferon-alpha, interferon-beta, and interferon gamma. […] By inhibiting these immune responses, EBOV may quickly spread throughout the body.
  • #1 Ebola virus disease 2014 | Medicina Universitaria
    https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-medicina-universitaria-304-articulo-ebola-virus-disease-2014-X1665579614676072
    Ebola virus glycoprotein may be the primary determinant of vascular-cell injury, therefore infection of endothelial cells induces structural damage, which could contribute to the hemorrhagic diathesis. […] During Ebola virus infection, there is a lymphoid depletion and necrosis in patients with fatal disease and in non-human primates experimentally infected. […] Ebola virus infection triggers the expression of several inflammatory mediators including interferon, interleukins 2, 6, 8, and 10, interferon-inducible protein 10, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), TNF, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. […] Inhibition of the type I interferon response seems to be a key feature of filovirus pathogenesis. […] The different species of Ebola virus seems to cause different clinical manifestations, but close observation of the diseases under good conditions has been rare. […] Patients with fatal disease develop clinical signs early during infection and die typically between day 6 and 16, due to hypovolemic shock and multiorgan failure.
  • #1 Ebola pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Ebola_pathophysiology
    Causes hepatocellular necrosis which could impair the synthesis of proteins of the coagulation system. […] Affects the synthesis of enzymes responsible for the synthesis of steroids, leading to hypotension, and fluid and electrolytes disturbances. […] Necrosis of the spleen, lymph nodes and thymus; Apoptosis of lymphocytes leading to lymphopenia. […] Some viral proteins, such as VP35 and VP24, block the type I interferon response, which plays a key role of the pathogenesis of the disease. […] The reactive oxygen and nitrogen species contribute to the cell and tissue damage, and therefore vascular and organ damage. […] Ebola infection is associated with hemorrhage in 50% of patients. […] Alterations of the coagulation system are induced by the ebola virus, and are thought to be mediated by the production of tissue factor. […] Mechanisms underlying coagulation abnormalities in ebola hemorrhagic fever: overexpression of tissue factor in primate monocytes/macrophages is a key event.
  • #1 Immunological Perspective for Ebola Virus Infection and Various Treatment Measures Taken to Fight the Disease
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/9/10/850
    Multiple studies indicate a surge in procoagulant tissue factor protein, oxygen free radicals, cytokines and chemokines upon EBOV infection which could lead to a severe disease and death. […] Elevated levels of several cytokines were found in macrophages infected with EBOV even before detection of viral gene expression, indicating a role of EBOV GP in inducing the inflammation. […] VP35 plays a central role in host immune response evasion. […] The suppression of an innate immune response by VP35 has far reaching consequences. It impairs RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) signaling resulting in lack of DC maturation which restricts IFN-α/β and cytokine production as well as T cell activation. […] EBOV GP can interfere with immune recognition of HLA class I and II molecules, a phenomenon termed as “steric occlusion.” […] EBOV GP also has the anti-tetherin activity, thus, disabling the stoppage of VP40-mediated viral budding by host cell tetherin as well as disabling the immune response stimulation via NF-kB signaling.
  • #1 Novel mechanism of inflammatory activation by Ebola virus matrix protein linked to the ebolavirus virulence | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.10.06.616882v1.full-text
    Uncontrolled systemic inflammatory responses are a critical pathological feature of fatal Ebola virus (EBOV) infection. […] Here, we demonstrated that highly virulent EBOV induced a high and sustained pro-inflammatory response compared to less virulent ebolaviruses in non-MNPs through TLR4-independent NF-κB activation. […] We identified the EBOV matrix protein VP40 as a potent activator of NF-κB in non-MNPs, whose intrinsic inflammatory activation ability is higher than VP40 proteins from less virulent ebolaviruses. […] This suggests that VP40 is a novel virulence determinant inducing distinct degrees of pro-inflammatory responses among ebolaviruses. […] Mechanistically, VP40 activated the NF-κB signaling pathway, primarily via TNFR1 using a ligand-independent mechanism. […] These findings reveal mechanisms that may drive systemic inflammation and promote EBOV pathogenesis, suggesting potential therapeutic strategies to mitigate immune dysregulation in severe EBOV infections.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00109-023-02309-4
    Ebola virus can trigger a release of pro-inflammatory cytokines with subsequent vascular leakage and impairment of clotting finally leading to multiorgan failure and shock after entering and infecting patients. […] Ebola virus is known to directly target endothelial cells and macrophages, even without infecting them, through direct interactions with viral proteins. […] These interactions affect cellular mechanics and immune processes, which are tightly linked to other key cellular functions such as metabolism. […] Therefore, in the present study, an untargeted cellular metabolomic approach was performed to investigate the metabolic alterations of primary human endothelial cells and M1 and M2 macrophages upon exposure to Ebola viruslike particles (VLP). […] The results show that Ebola VLP led to metabolic changes among endothelial, M1, and M2 cells.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00109-023-02309-4
    Differential metabolite abundance and perturbed signaling pathway analysis further identified specific metabolic features, mainly in fatty acid-, steroid-, and amino acid-related metabolism pathways for all the three cell types, in a host cell specific manner. […] This work characterized for the first time the metabolic alternations of endothelial cells and two primary human macrophage subtypes after Ebola VLP exposure, and identified the potential metabolites and pathways differentially affected, highlighting the important role of those host cells in disease development and progression. […] Investigations regarding the metabolic alterations to ECs and macrophages triggered by EBOV are limited. […] To address this critical gap in knowledge, we studied the impact of Ebola VLP on ECs and the different polarization status of macrophages by untargeted cellular metabolomics using direct infusion-mass spectrometry (DI-MS).
  • #1 Genetic discoveries in mice shed light on vulnerability to Ebola virus disease – UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health
    https://sph.unc.edu/sph-news/genetic-discoveries-in-mice-shed-light-on-vulnerability-to-ebola-virus-disease/
    The virus that causes Ebola virus disease (EVD) has seen rare but repeated outbreaks, particularly in African countries. […] Researchers at UNC-Chapel Hill have been studying the effects of Ebola virus in a special breed of mice that shares similarities with humans in their viral response patterns and health outcomes. […] In collaboration with researchers at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), this team of researchers have published a new study in Cell Reports identifying two specific genetic regions in these mice that are vulnerable to Ebola virus most deadly effects. […] These genetic vulnerabilities, found in chromosomes eight and seven, are linked to high amounts of virus in the blood and severe inflammation, particularly in the liver. […] While the virus is transmitted by contact with infected bodily fluids, the liver becomes a dominant site for virus replication and inflammation.
  • #1 Genetic discoveries in mice shed light on vulnerability to Ebola virus disease – UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health
    https://sph.unc.edu/sph-news/genetic-discoveries-in-mice-shed-light-on-vulnerability-to-ebola-virus-disease/
    The lab has, for years, been seeking potential treatment strategies for dangerous viral threats by mapping how natural variation in host genes regulates disease severity in mammals using collaborative cross (CC) mice. […] By identifying these host genes, new strategies can be developed to counter disease severity. […] The team also found a second host vulnerability in chromosome seven, where the presence of a functional genetic region (locus) called TRIM5 was linked to severe liver inflammation, weight loss and eventual death. […] However, the researchers found that in the case of Ebola virus infection, the presence of a functional TRIM5 locus actually led to worse outcomes and eventual death because the virus provoked an overactive immune response called a cytokine storm, causing massive cell death, inflammation and liver failure.
  • #1 Molecular mechanisms of Ebola virus pathogenesis: focus on cell death | Cell Death & Differentiation
    https://www.nature.com/articles/cdd201567
    Ebola virus (EBOV) belongs to the Filoviridae family and is responsible for a severe disease characterized by the sudden onset of fever and malaise accompanied by other non-specific signs and symptoms; in 30-50% of cases hemorrhagic symptoms are present. […] The EBOV first attacks macrophages and dendritic immune cells. […] The innate immune reaction is characterized by a cytokine storm, with secretion of numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines, which induces a huge number of contradictory signals and hurts the immune cells, as well as other tissues. […] In addition to the immune system, EBOV attacks the spleen and kidneys, where it kills cells that help the body to regulate its fluid and chemical balance and that make proteins that help the blood to clot. […] In this review, we analyze the molecular mechanisms at the basis of Ebola pathogenesis with a particular focus on the cell death pathways induced by the virus.
  • #1 Factsheet about Ebola disease
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/infectious-disease-topics/ebola-virus-disease/facts/factsheet-about-ebola-disease
    Haemorrhagic manifestations can also appear (e.g. bloody diarrhoea, nosebleeds, haematemesis, petechiae, ecchymoses and prolonged bleeding from needle-puncture sites). Certain patients develop profuse internal and external haemorrhages and disseminated intravascular coagulation. […] Patients in the final stage of the disease die from a combination of multi-organ failure and hypovolemic shock due to severe fluid losses. […] A spill-over from animal to human is a rare event, but subsequent human-to-human transmission can sustain large outbreaks. […] Ebolaviruses are highly transmissible by direct contact with the blood (e.g. through mucous membranes or broken skin), or other bodily fluids (e.g. saliva, urine or vomit) of infected people, their dead bodies, or any surfaces and materials soiled by infectious fluids.
  • #1
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease
    Ebola disease is caused by viruses that belong to the Orthoebolavirus genus of the filoviridae family. […] While there are licensed vaccines and therapeutics for Ebola virus disease, there is no approved vaccine or treatment for other Ebola diseases, such as SVD or BVD. Candidate products are in development. […] For Ebola virus disease, WHO made strong recommendations for treatment with mAb114 (ansuvimabTM) or REGN-EB3 (InmazebTM) that are both monoclonal antibodies. […] Orthoebolaviruses are known to persist in immune-privileged sites in some people who have recovered. These sites include the testicles, the inside of the eye and the brain. Relapse-symptomatic illness in the absence of re-infection in someone who has recovered from Ebola disease is rare but has been documented. Reasons for this phenomenon are not yet fully understood. […] Ebola virus transmission via infected semen has been documented up to fifteen months after clinical recovery.
  • #1 Ebola virus disease sequelae and viral persistence in animal models: Implications for the future | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1012065
    It was hypothesized that a mutation in the EBOV GP, specifically E545D, may be correlated with viral persistence, though other, currently unknown mutations may also be associated with viral persistence. […] Much remains to be understood about the mechanisms of establishing EBOV persistence in immunologically privileged sites and if and how EBOV may be re-activated to instill a productive infection. […] The development of an animal model of EBOV persistence would allow researchers to study sequelae, viral persistence, and recrudescence, and enable the development of MCMs for these stages of illness. […] The development of such a model would enable researchers to study mechanisms of persistence, recrudescence, and sequelae, and, ultimately, develop MCMs to treat disease sequelae or inhibit their appearance.
  • #1
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-disease
    Ebola disease is caused by viruses that belong to the Orthoebolavirus genus of the filoviridae family. […] While there are licensed vaccines and therapeutics for Ebola virus disease, there is no approved vaccine or treatment for other Ebola diseases, such as SVD or BVD. Candidate products are in development. […] For Ebola virus disease, WHO made strong recommendations for treatment with mAb114 (ansuvimabTM) or REGN-EB3 (InmazebTM) that are both monoclonal antibodies. […] Orthoebolaviruses are known to persist in immune-privileged sites in some people who have recovered. These sites include the testicles, the inside of the eye and the brain. Relapse-symptomatic illness in the absence of re-infection in someone who has recovered from Ebola disease is rare but has been documented. Reasons for this phenomenon are not yet fully understood.
  • #1 Human Ebola virus infection in West Africa: a review of available therapeutic agents that target different steps of the life cycle of Ebola virus | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text
    https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2049-9957-3-43
    The EBOV has undergone a rapid mutation during its spread through humans. […] The EBOV is an RNA virus the replication of which is highly error prone with nearly one viral mutation occurring during each cycle of replication. This extremely high mutation rate leads to significant genetic and antigenic diversity that allows the EBOV population to evolve resistance to antiviral medications and vaccines. […] The currently available medications in the proposed regimen—which is a treatment regimen containing a cocktail of antiviral medications targeting the different steps of the EBOV replication in order to achieve maximal suppression of viral replication and to prevent the rapid development of resistance to favipiravir, the only drug in the regimen that is directed against a mutable target of the EBOV—has been shown to reduce the replication of the EBOV.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00109-023-02309-4
    This study demonstrates the strength of metabolomics for biomarker discovery and elucidates the effect of virus on host cells. […] Ebola VLP-treated ECs were mainly characterized by an alteration of lipids, fatty acids (FA), glycerophospholipids (GPL), sterol lipids (ST), and acylcarnitine (CAR) as can be seen in Fig. 3a. […] Our results show that ST and FA are the two pre-eminent metabolite classes in both Ebola VLP-treated M1 and M2 groups. […] The change in ST metabolites is probably due to the involvement of steroid degradation and biosynthesis pathways in M1 and M2, respectively, according to our pathway analysis results. […] This hypothesis is also supported by the evidence that these two classes of lipids were detected in lower levels in the M1 and M2 control group. […] In summary, an untargeted metabolomics analysis was undertaken and found metabolite and metabolic pathway alterations that are involved in the Ebola VLP-induced cellular metabolic reprogramming to ECs, M1, and M2.
  • #1 Multi-platform ’Omics Analysis of Human Ebola Virus Disease Pathogenesis | Datahub
    https://data.pnnl.gov/group/nodes/publication/13294
    The pathogenesis of human Ebola virus disease (EVD) is complex. EVD is characterized by high levels of virus replication and dissemination, dysregulated immune responses, extensive virus- and host-mediated tissue damage, and disordered coagulation. […] Our results indicate that EVD molecular signatures overlap with those of sepsis, imply that pancreatic enzymes contribute to tissue damage in fatal EVD, and suggest that Ebola virus infection may induce aberrant neutrophils whose activity could explain hallmarks of fatal EVD. […] This work reveals insight into EVD pathogenesis, suggests an effective approach for biomarker identification, and provides an important community resource for further analysis of human EVD severity.
  • #1 Multi-platform ’Omics Analysis of Human Ebola Virus Disease Pathogenesis (Journal Article) | OSTI.GOV
    https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1485690
    The pathogenesis of human Ebola virus disease (EVD) is complex. EVD is characterized by high levels of virus replication and dissemination, dysregulated immune responses, extensive virus- and host-mediated tissue damage, and disordered coagulation. […] Our results indicate that EVD molecular signatures overlap with those of sepsis, imply that pancreatic enzymes contribute to tissue damage in fatal EVD, and suggest that Ebola virus infection may induce aberrant neutrophils whose activity could explain hallmarks of fatal EVD. […] We report this work reveals insight into EVD pathogenesis, suggests an effective approach for biomarker identification, and provides an important community resource for further analysis of human EVD severity.
  • #1 Novel mechanism of inflammatory activation by Ebola virus matrix protein linked to the ebolavirus virulence | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.10.06.616882v1.full-text
    In this study, we demonstrate that the EBOV matrix protein VP40 triggers sustained activation of NF-κB signaling via a tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-dependent mechanism in non-immune target cells lacking TLR4 expression. […] This finding represents a novel, TLR4-independent mechanism for amplifying and sustaining pro-inflammatory responses in the host by EBOV. […] Our findings provide critical insights into the molecular mechanism leading to the induction of uncontrolled pro-inflammatory responses underlying EVD pathogenesis.
  • #2 Molecular mechanisms of Ebola virus pathogenesis: focus on cell death | Cell Death & Differentiation
    https://www.nature.com/articles/cdd201567
    Ebola virus (EBOV) belongs to the Filoviridae family and is responsible for a severe disease characterized by the sudden onset of fever and malaise accompanied by other non-specific signs and symptoms; in 30-50% of cases hemorrhagic symptoms are present. […] The EBOV first attacks macrophages and dendritic immune cells. […] The innate immune reaction is characterized by a cytokine storm, with secretion of numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines, which induces a huge number of contradictory signals and hurts the immune cells, as well as other tissues. […] In addition to the immune system, EBOV attacks the spleen and kidneys, where it kills cells that help the body to regulate its fluid and chemical balance and that make proteins that help the blood to clot. […] In this review, we analyze the molecular mechanisms at the basis of Ebola pathogenesis with a particular focus on the cell death pathways induced by the virus.
  • #2 Structural and Functional Aspects of Ebola Virus Proteins
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/10/1330
    Ebola virus (EBOV), member of genus Ebolavirus, family Filoviridae, have a non-segmented, single-stranded RNA that contains seven genes: (a) nucleoprotein (NP), (b) viral protein 35 (VP35), (c) VP40, (d) glycoprotein (GP), (e) VP30, (f) VP24, and (g) RNA polymerase (L). […] This review presents a detailed discussion on various functional aspects of all EBOV proteins and their residues. An introduction to ebolaviruses and their life cycle is also provided for clarity of the available analysis. We believe that this review will help understand the roles played by different EBOV proteins in the pathogenesis of the disease. It will help in targeting significant protein residues for therapeutic and multi-protein/peptide vaccine development. […] EBOV has a thread-like shape virion, which can be changed to circular or filamentous. The viral genome is 19 kb long, linear, non-segmented negative sense (NNS), single-stranded RNA, encoding seven genes. Each gene, except GP, contains a single open reading frame (ORF). In contrast, the GP gene consists of three overlapping ORFs. During the assembly, viral RNA forms a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex with NP, L, VP30, VP35 and VP24, which appears as a helical nucleocapsid (NC). NC protects the viral RNA from degradation by endonucleases and hosts immune response.
  • #2 Ebola disease – Etiology | BMJ Best Practice US
    https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/aetiology
    There have been major advances in elucidating the pathogenesis of infection; however, most of the studies have been performed in nonhuman primate and rodent models. […] The virus genome consists of a single 19 kb strand of negative-sense RNA with 7 viral genes that are transcribed by the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase present in the virion. The single strand of RNA is covered by helically-arranged viral nucleoproteins NP and VP30 that are linked by matrix proteins VP24 and VP4 to the lipid bilayer that coats the virion. […] Tissue invasion occurs via infected fluid coming into contact with breaks in the mucosa or skin. This can occur with animal-to-human or human-to-human transmission. Monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells are the preferred replication sites for filoviruses on initial infection. Infected cells migrate to the regional lymph nodes, liver, and spleen, thereby disseminating the infection. Ebola virus has a wide cell tropism and is able to infect a variety of different cell types, but extensive viral replication occurs in lymphoid tissue, liver, and the spleen.
  • #2 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis Pathway
    https://www.bosterbio.com/pathway-maps/cytokines/ebola-virus-pathogenesis-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOoqfRGFBM3jRkx700rXVR2eUhu0EeoH7Y1P-o3GfRkq6lOk1LuKL
    Entry into the host cell, as the first step in the viral life cycle, is a complex and multifaceted process. Although the mechanism of cellular entry is not fully understood, it involves uptake via a macropinocytosis-like mechanism. This mechanism is associated with actin polymerization-induced outward extensions of the plasma membrane. After fusion of the distal loop ends, these so-called membrane ruffles can fold back on themselves and form a macropinosome. The viral glycoprotein1 subunit (GP1) initiates virus entry into cells by interacting with both adherence factors and one or more receptors on the surface of host cells. […] Internalized virus containing EBOV GP virions initially colocalizes with EEA1 (early endosomal antigen-1) positive compartments and is then trafficked to Rab5-positive early endosomes. At a later time point, colocalization of the virus with perinuclear Rab7/LAMP-1-positive late endosomes has been observed, and delivery to these compartments appears to be critical for entry.
  • #2 Nature and History of Ebola Virus: An Overview
    https://brieflands.com/articles/ans-55883.html
    Ebola virus is infamous due to its reputation in hemorrhagic fever disease outbreaks in various countries of the world including West Africa. […] The current paper briefly discussed the history of Ebola virus along with its origin, geographical distribution, structure, replication, reservoirs, hosts, pathogenicity, viral entry mechanism, mode of action, epidemiology, viral transmission, disease symptoms, diagnostic strategies, clinical applications, medication and protective measures to create awareness among people. […] Zaire Ebolavirus (ZEBOV) similar to Reston Ebolavirus (REBOV) can replicate and induce infection in pigs and can be transmitted to other animals. […] EBOV proteins interact with various host proteins for virus replication. Several host proteins, such as Nieman-Pick C1, mucin domain 1, T-cell immunoglobulin, Tyro3 receptor tyrosine kinase family Axl, cathepsin L/B, Mer and Dtk were identified as important cellular factors involved in the EBOV entry step.
  • #2 Nature and History of Ebola Virus: An Overview
    https://brieflands.com/articles/ans-55883.html
    The EBOV-glycoprotein (EBOV-GP) has a molecular mass of approximately 140 kDa, mediates viral entry and promotes viral release from host cells. […] EBOV-GP is the main viral determinant of the Ebola virus pathogenicity that induces cytotoxic effects in human endothelial cells. […] The mucin-like domain of GP was required for this effect and indicated that it was the viral determinant of Ebola pathogenicity. […] Enzymes such as cathepsin B (CatB) and cathepsin L (CatL) play an essential role in diminishing the multiplication of infectious ZEBOV by carrying out proteolysis of the EBOV GP subunit GP1.
  • #2 Molecular mechanisms of Ebola virus pathogenesis: focus on cell death | Cell Death & Differentiation
    https://www.nature.com/articles/cdd201567
    Cytopathic effect have been observed in in vitro filovirus-infected cells, but the mechanisms leading to cell death in EBOV infection are far from being understood. […] Electron microscopic analysis of tissues from EBOV-infected animals indicate that infected cells do not undergo apoptosis, but show vacuolization and sign of necrosis. […] The complex array of pathogenetic events involved in the severe clinical manifestation of Ebola derives from a number of mechanisms. […] Analyses of human samples obtained from succumbed patients or from experimentally infected animal models indicated that monocytes/macrophages, DCs, fibroblasts, hepatocytes, adrenal cells and epithelial cells can be productively infected by this virus. […] Several immunological mechanisms are involved in the pathogenesis of EBOV infection involving both innate and adaptive immune response.
  • #2 Molecular mechanisms of Ebola virus pathogenesis: focus on cell death | Cell Death & Differentiation
    https://www.nature.com/articles/cdd201567
    EBOV infection induces innate immune cell dysfunctions. […] EBOV infection is able to impair type-I IFNs production by infected cells and to block IFN response in uninfected cells. […] EBOV infection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) failed to induce type I IFNs and inhibited IFN-α production induced by double-stranded RNA. […] Several viral proteins are involved in this process. […] The ability of EBOV to infect and replicate in DC has been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. […] Interestingly, infected DC exhibited relatively little cell death over 6 days of infection. […] EBOV-infected DC failed to produce cytokines, including type-I IFNs, and were unable to perform a correct maturation process. […] The aberrant DC differentiation results in ineffective DC-/T-cell synapses that are unable to induce a correct adaptive immune response.
  • #2 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis Pathway
    https://www.bosterbio.com/pathway-maps/cytokines/ebola-virus-pathogenesis-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOoqfRGFBM3jRkx700rXVR2eUhu0EeoH7Y1P-o3GfRkq6lOk1LuKL
    Once the viral and internal cell membranes fuse, the virus particle uncoils and its anti-genome is transcribed into messenger RNA via nucleocapsid-associated viral proteins. The genome is transcribed by a complex consisting of VP30, VP35, and the viral polymerase L bound to an NP coated genome. Phosphorylation of VP30 causes it to dissociate from the VP35/L complex, signaling the transition from transcription to replication. NP, VP24, VP30, and VP35 replicate and coat virus genomes following this switch. […] The expression and secretion of sGP acts as a decoy for antibodies against GP. The viral proteins VP35, VP30, and VP24 are expressed in all cell types and are involved in innate immune avoidance. VP35 inhibits RIG-I/MDA-5 signaling and interferon induction. Additionally, VP35 and VP30 inhibit the viral gene expression-specific RNAi response. VP24 inhibits Interferon (IFN) type I and II signaling. This inhibits Interferon-induced gene expression and, in antigen-presenting cells, prevents antigen presentation to T cells from being enhanced.
  • #2 Immunological Perspective for Ebola Virus Infection and Various Treatment Measures Taken to Fight the Disease
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/9/10/850
    Multiple studies indicate a surge in procoagulant tissue factor protein, oxygen free radicals, cytokines and chemokines upon EBOV infection which could lead to a severe disease and death. […] Elevated levels of several cytokines were found in macrophages infected with EBOV even before detection of viral gene expression, indicating a role of EBOV GP in inducing the inflammation. […] VP35 plays a central role in host immune response evasion. […] The suppression of an innate immune response by VP35 has far reaching consequences. It impairs RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) signaling resulting in lack of DC maturation which restricts IFN-α/β and cytokine production as well as T cell activation. […] EBOV GP can interfere with immune recognition of HLA class I and II molecules, a phenomenon termed as “steric occlusion.” […] EBOV GP also has the anti-tetherin activity, thus, disabling the stoppage of VP40-mediated viral budding by host cell tetherin as well as disabling the immune response stimulation via NF-kB signaling.
  • #2 Ebola Virus Sequesters IRF3 in Viral Inclusion Bodies to Evade Host Antiviral Immunity
    https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/88122
    These results suggested a novel immune evasion mechanism by which EBOV evades host innate immunity. […] EBOV uses various approaches to evade the host immune response, including antagonizing IFN production, inhibiting IFN signaling, and enhancing IFN resistance. […] Here, we report that viral IBs in EBOV transcription- and replication-competent virus-like particles (trVLPs)-infected cells appear to play a role in immune evasion by sequestering IRF3 into IBs and preventing the interaction of IRF3 with TBK1 and IKK. […] The sequestration of IRF3 in IBs was further investigated at different hours post infection (hpi) of EBOV trVLPs. […] These data collectively suggested that the EBOV-mediated sequestration of IRF3 in IBs blocks IRF3 phosphorylation and nuclear translocation in the TBK1-IRF3 signaling cascade, which is critical for IFN induction.
  • #2 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis
    https://www.abeomics.com/ebola-virus-pathogenesis
    Ebola virus is an aggressive pathogen that causes a highly lethal hemorrhagic fever syndrome in humans and nonhuman primates. […] Cytokines are released when reticulo-endothelial cells encounter virus, which can contribute to exaggerated inflammatory responses that are not protective. Damage to the liver, combined with massive viremia, leads to disseminated intravascular coagulopathy. The virus eventually infects microvascular endothelial cells and compromises vascular integrity. […] It has also been shown as the crucial factor for Ebola virus pathogenicity. […] The energetically unfavorable insertion of the EBOV GP2 fusion loop into host endosomal membranes is followed by the energetically favorable collapse of EBOV GP into a six-helix bundle, allowing for lipid mixing and hemifusion of host and viral membrane lipids.
  • #2 Ebola Virus’s Glycoproteins and Entry Mechanism | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/51600
    The GP binds with neutrophils and endothelial cells by the DCSIGN (dendritic-cell-specific ICAM3grabbing non-integrin) and LSIGN (liver and lymph node SIGN), which provide links to cell-GP via carbohydrate determinants. These bonds formed with the neutrophil receptor CD16 cause a significant reduction in the signal CR3 and Fc receptor II B, avoiding virus clearance. It has been shown that the strong pro-inflammatory responses were induced by the commitment of the EBOV GP with the TLR-4 and by the activation of the NF-B transcription factor. The GP is responsible for cytotoxicity on endothelial cells by secretion of enzymes, proteolytic endosomes (such as cathepsin), that cause the destruction of the vascular endothelium and increase in vascular permeability and haemorrhagic signs. […] The mechanism of recognition and virus entry. GP binds to the antibodies of unknown site in the Fab regions. C1q complement allows the binding of the antibody bound to the virus with the target cells. The internalization of virus is the objective of multiple receptors known to the GP, they are of relatively non-specific type.
  • #2 Novel mechanism of inflammatory activation by Ebola virus matrix protein linked to the ebolavirus virulence | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.10.06.616882v1.full-text
    In this study, we demonstrate that the EBOV matrix protein VP40 triggers sustained activation of NF-κB signaling via a tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-dependent mechanism in non-immune target cells lacking TLR4 expression. […] This finding represents a novel, TLR4-independent mechanism for amplifying and sustaining pro-inflammatory responses in the host by EBOV. […] Our findings provide critical insights into the molecular mechanism leading to the induction of uncontrolled pro-inflammatory responses underlying EVD pathogenesis.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00109-023-02309-4
    This study demonstrates the strength of metabolomics for biomarker discovery and elucidates the effect of virus on host cells. […] Ebola VLP-treated ECs were mainly characterized by an alteration of lipids, fatty acids (FA), glycerophospholipids (GPL), sterol lipids (ST), and acylcarnitine (CAR) as can be seen in Fig. 3a. […] Our results show that ST and FA are the two pre-eminent metabolite classes in both Ebola VLP-treated M1 and M2 groups. […] The change in ST metabolites is probably due to the involvement of steroid degradation and biosynthesis pathways in M1 and M2, respectively, according to our pathway analysis results. […] This hypothesis is also supported by the evidence that these two classes of lipids were detected in lower levels in the M1 and M2 control group. […] In summary, an untargeted metabolomics analysis was undertaken and found metabolite and metabolic pathway alterations that are involved in the Ebola VLP-induced cellular metabolic reprogramming to ECs, M1, and M2.
  • #2 Genetic discoveries in mice shed light on vulnerability to Ebola virus disease – UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health
    https://sph.unc.edu/sph-news/genetic-discoveries-in-mice-shed-light-on-vulnerability-to-ebola-virus-disease/
    Schaefer says that because so much of Ebolas damage is concentrated in the liver, their next goal is to investigate the exact mechanism that TRIM5 genes use to cause liver failure and lethal disease. […] Understanding the mechanism that drives disease, she said, will provide opportunities to do something about it.
  • #2 Ebola virus disease 2014 | Medicina Universitaria
    https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-medicina-universitaria-304-articulo-ebola-virus-disease-2014-X1665579614676072
    Ebola virus glycoprotein may be the primary determinant of vascular-cell injury, therefore infection of endothelial cells induces structural damage, which could contribute to the hemorrhagic diathesis. […] During Ebola virus infection, there is a lymphoid depletion and necrosis in patients with fatal disease and in non-human primates experimentally infected. […] Ebola virus infection triggers the expression of several inflammatory mediators including interferon, interleukins 2, 6, 8, and 10, interferon-inducible protein 10, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), TNF, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. […] Inhibition of the type I interferon response seems to be a key feature of filovirus pathogenesis. […] The different species of Ebola virus seems to cause different clinical manifestations, but close observation of the diseases under good conditions has been rare. […] Patients with fatal disease develop clinical signs early during infection and die typically between day 6 and 16, due to hypovolemic shock and multiorgan failure.
  • #2 Ebola virus disease 2014 | Medicina Universitaria
    https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-medicina-universitaria-304-articulo-ebola-virus-disease-2014-X1665579614676072
  • #2 Ebola virus disease sequelae and viral persistence in animal models: Implications for the future | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1012065
    Ebola virus disease (EVD), caused by infection with Ebola virus, results in severe, acute illness with a high mortality rate. […] Existing animal disease models recapitulate acute EVD but are not suitable to investigate the mechanisms of these late disease phenomena. […] It has been postulated that the appearance of sequelae may be due to the persistence of infectious EBOV in which the virus remains hidden (e.g., undetected by the immune system) in immune-privileged sites. […] Taken together, the clinical burden of EBOV persistence in immunologically privileged tissues and the subsequent risk of transmission, as well as the development of sequelae and recrudescence, are cause for public health concerns and, therefore, are a priority focus of the EBOV research community. […] EBOV animal disease models were developed to cause severe disease and lethality to set a high bar for medical countermeasure (MCM) efficacy evaluation during acute disease.
  • #2 Human Ebola virus infection in West Africa: a review of available therapeutic agents that target different steps of the life cycle of Ebola virus | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text
    https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2049-9957-3-43
    The EBOV has undergone a rapid mutation during its spread through humans. […] The EBOV is an RNA virus the replication of which is highly error prone with nearly one viral mutation occurring during each cycle of replication. This extremely high mutation rate leads to significant genetic and antigenic diversity that allows the EBOV population to evolve resistance to antiviral medications and vaccines. […] The currently available medications in the proposed regimen—which is a treatment regimen containing a cocktail of antiviral medications targeting the different steps of the EBOV replication in order to achieve maximal suppression of viral replication and to prevent the rapid development of resistance to favipiravir, the only drug in the regimen that is directed against a mutable target of the EBOV—has been shown to reduce the replication of the EBOV.
  • #2 Multi-platform ’Omics Analysis of Human Ebola Virus Disease Pathogenesis (Journal Article) | OSTI.GOV
    https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1485690
    The pathogenesis of human Ebola virus disease (EVD) is complex. EVD is characterized by high levels of virus replication and dissemination, dysregulated immune responses, extensive virus- and host-mediated tissue damage, and disordered coagulation. […] Our results indicate that EVD molecular signatures overlap with those of sepsis, imply that pancreatic enzymes contribute to tissue damage in fatal EVD, and suggest that Ebola virus infection may induce aberrant neutrophils whose activity could explain hallmarks of fatal EVD. […] We report this work reveals insight into EVD pathogenesis, suggests an effective approach for biomarker identification, and provides an important community resource for further analysis of human EVD severity.
  • #3 Ebola – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola
    EVD in humans is caused by four of six viruses of the genus Ebolavirus. The four are Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), Sudan virus (SUDV), Ta Forest virus (TAFV) and one simply called Ebola virus (EBOV, formerly Zaire Ebola virus). EBOV, species Zaire ebolavirus, is the most dangerous of the known EVD-causing viruses, and is responsible for the largest number of outbreaks. […] Like other filoviruses, EBOV replicates very efficiently in many cells, producing large amounts of virus in monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and other cells including liver cells, fibroblasts, and adrenal gland cells. Viral replication triggers high levels of inflammatory chemical signals and leads to a septic state. […] EBOV is thought to infect humans through contact with mucous membranes or skin breaks. After infection, endothelial cells (cells lining the inside of blood vessels), liver cells, and several types of immune cells such as macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells are the main targets of attack. Following infection, immune cells carry the virus to nearby lymph nodes where further reproduction of the virus takes place.
  • #3 Structural and Functional Aspects of Ebola Virus Proteins
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/10/1330
    Ebola virus (EBOV), member of genus Ebolavirus, family Filoviridae, have a non-segmented, single-stranded RNA that contains seven genes: (a) nucleoprotein (NP), (b) viral protein 35 (VP35), (c) VP40, (d) glycoprotein (GP), (e) VP30, (f) VP24, and (g) RNA polymerase (L). […] This review presents a detailed discussion on various functional aspects of all EBOV proteins and their residues. An introduction to ebolaviruses and their life cycle is also provided for clarity of the available analysis. We believe that this review will help understand the roles played by different EBOV proteins in the pathogenesis of the disease. It will help in targeting significant protein residues for therapeutic and multi-protein/peptide vaccine development. […] EBOV has a thread-like shape virion, which can be changed to circular or filamentous. The viral genome is 19 kb long, linear, non-segmented negative sense (NNS), single-stranded RNA, encoding seven genes. Each gene, except GP, contains a single open reading frame (ORF). In contrast, the GP gene consists of three overlapping ORFs. During the assembly, viral RNA forms a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex with NP, L, VP30, VP35 and VP24, which appears as a helical nucleocapsid (NC). NC protects the viral RNA from degradation by endonucleases and hosts immune response.
  • #3 Ebola virus disease | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-020-0147-3
    Carette, J. E. et al. Ebola virus entry requires the cholesterol transporter Niemann-Pick C1. […] Schnittler, H.-J. Feldmann, H. Marburg and Ebola hemorrhagic fevers: does the primary course of infection depend on the accessibility of organ-specific macrophages? […] Geisbert, T. W. et al. Pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in cynomolgus macaques: evidence that dendritic cells are early and sustained targets of infection. […] Bray, M. Geisbert, T. W. Ebola virus: the role of macrophages and dendritic cells in the pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. […] Wahl-Jensen, V. et al. Role of Ebola virus secreted glycoproteins and virus-like particles in activation of human macrophages. […] Baize, S. et al. Defective humoral responses and extensive intravascular apoptosis are associated with fatal outcome in Ebola virus-infected patients.
  • #3 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis Pathway
    https://www.bosterbio.com/pathway-maps/cytokines/ebola-virus-pathogenesis-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOoqfRGFBM3jRkx700rXVR2eUhu0EeoH7Y1P-o3GfRkq6lOk1LuKL
    Entry into the host cell, as the first step in the viral life cycle, is a complex and multifaceted process. Although the mechanism of cellular entry is not fully understood, it involves uptake via a macropinocytosis-like mechanism. This mechanism is associated with actin polymerization-induced outward extensions of the plasma membrane. After fusion of the distal loop ends, these so-called membrane ruffles can fold back on themselves and form a macropinosome. The viral glycoprotein1 subunit (GP1) initiates virus entry into cells by interacting with both adherence factors and one or more receptors on the surface of host cells. […] Internalized virus containing EBOV GP virions initially colocalizes with EEA1 (early endosomal antigen-1) positive compartments and is then trafficked to Rab5-positive early endosomes. At a later time point, colocalization of the virus with perinuclear Rab7/LAMP-1-positive late endosomes has been observed, and delivery to these compartments appears to be critical for entry.
  • #3 Ebola Virus Pathogenesis Pathway
    https://www.bosterbio.com/pathway-maps/cytokines/ebola-virus-pathogenesis-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOoqfRGFBM3jRkx700rXVR2eUhu0EeoH7Y1P-o3GfRkq6lOk1LuKL
    Once the viral and internal cell membranes fuse, the virus particle uncoils and its anti-genome is transcribed into messenger RNA via nucleocapsid-associated viral proteins. The genome is transcribed by a complex consisting of VP30, VP35, and the viral polymerase L bound to an NP coated genome. Phosphorylation of VP30 causes it to dissociate from the VP35/L complex, signaling the transition from transcription to replication. NP, VP24, VP30, and VP35 replicate and coat virus genomes following this switch. […] The expression and secretion of sGP acts as a decoy for antibodies against GP. The viral proteins VP35, VP30, and VP24 are expressed in all cell types and are involved in innate immune avoidance. VP35 inhibits RIG-I/MDA-5 signaling and interferon induction. Additionally, VP35 and VP30 inhibit the viral gene expression-specific RNAi response. VP24 inhibits Interferon (IFN) type I and II signaling. This inhibits Interferon-induced gene expression and, in antigen-presenting cells, prevents antigen presentation to T cells from being enhanced.
  • #3 Ebola Virus Sequesters IRF3 in Viral Inclusion Bodies to Evade Host Antiviral Immunity
    https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/88122
    These results suggest that viral IBs act as virus-built jails to imprison transcription factors and present a novel and possible common mechanism of viral immune evasion in which the critical signaling molecule IRF3 is spatially segregated from the antiviral kinases TBK1 and IKK. […] In summary, EBOV VP35 sequesters IRF3 into viral IBs and inhibits the association of IRF3 with TBK1 and IKK, preventing IRF3 from entering the nucleus and thereby inhibiting IFN-I production.
  • #4 Ebola pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Ebola_pathophysiology
    Causes hepatocellular necrosis which could impair the synthesis of proteins of the coagulation system. […] Affects the synthesis of enzymes responsible for the synthesis of steroids, leading to hypotension, and fluid and electrolytes disturbances. […] Necrosis of the spleen, lymph nodes and thymus; Apoptosis of lymphocytes leading to lymphopenia. […] Some viral proteins, such as VP35 and VP24, block the type I interferon response, which plays a key role of the pathogenesis of the disease. […] The reactive oxygen and nitrogen species contribute to the cell and tissue damage, and therefore vascular and organ damage. […] Ebola infection is associated with hemorrhage in 50% of patients. […] Alterations of the coagulation system are induced by the ebola virus, and are thought to be mediated by the production of tissue factor. […] Mechanisms underlying coagulation abnormalities in ebola hemorrhagic fever: overexpression of tissue factor in primate monocytes/macrophages is a key event.