Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Epidemiology of Ebolaviruses from an Etiological Perspective

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/12/2/248

  Since the inception of the ebolavirus in 1976, 32 outbreaks have resulted in nearly 15,350 deaths in more than ten countries of the African continent. […] The 2013–2016 outbreak indicated an alarming geographical spread of the virus and was the first to qualify as an epidemic. […] Despite several research efforts, ebolaviruses’ natural hosts and secondary reservoirs still elude the scientific world. […] The primary source responsible for infecting the index case is also unknown for most outbreaks. […] EBOV infection has been linked to nearly two-thirds of ebolavirus outbreaks. […] Since 2013, nine EBOV outbreaks have been documented, with seven located in the DRC, Central Africa. […] The 2013–2016 West African outbreak, declared an epidemic, was characterized by the highest number of fatal cases, accounting for ~74% of all ebolavirus-caused deaths.

• #2 Ebola Virus Disease – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/ebola-virus-disease

  Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. […] The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. […] The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks. […] Good outbreak control relies on applying a package of interventions, namely case management, infection prevention and control practices, surveillance and contact tracing, a good laboratory service, safe and dignified burials and social mobilization. […] Given the possibility that other imported cases will be introduced into the Americas, and to prevent further spread of the virus, PAHO is working with countries in the region to strengthen their preparedness to detect and quickly respond to a possible imported case of Ebola.

• #3 Health: Infectious Disease Epidemiology & Prevention Division: Filoviruses: Ebola Virus & Marburg Virus

  https://www.in.gov/health/idepd/healthcare-associated-infections-and-antimicrobial-resistance-epidemiology/healthcare-associated-infections/ebola-virus-disease-evd/

  Ebola virus first appeared in 1976 when two consecutive outbreaks of VHF occurred in DRC in a village near the Ebola River, giving the virus its name, and in South Sudan. Since then, six different species of Ebola virus have been discovered, four of which are known to cause disease in humans. […] Symptoms of Ebola virus disease (EVD) may appear anywhere from 2 to 21 days after contact with Ebola virus, with an average of 8 to 10 days. […] Once a human is infected, both MVD and EVD can be transmitted to other humans through direct contact with the blood or bodily fluids of an infected individual who is sick with or has died from either disease. […] There is currently only one FDA approved vaccination for the Ebola virus. This vaccine is given as a single dose vaccine and has been found to be safe and protective only against Zaire ebolavirus, which has caused the largest and most deadly Ebola outbreaks to date.

• #4 Epidemiology of Ebolaviruses from an Etiological Perspective

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/12/2/248

  Since the inception of the ebolavirus in 1976, 32 outbreaks have resulted in nearly 15,350 deaths in more than ten countries of the African continent. […] The 2013–2016 outbreak indicated an alarming geographical spread of the virus and was the first to qualify as an epidemic. […] Despite several research efforts, ebolaviruses’ natural hosts and secondary reservoirs still elude the scientific world. […] The primary source responsible for infecting the index case is also unknown for most outbreaks. […] EBOV infection has been linked to nearly two-thirds of ebolavirus outbreaks. […] Since 2013, nine EBOV outbreaks have been documented, with seven located in the DRC, Central Africa. […] The 2013–2016 West African outbreak, declared an epidemic, was characterized by the highest number of fatal cases, accounting for ~74% of all ebolavirus-caused deaths.

• #5 Ebola disease – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology

  The first cases of Ebola disease were reported in Zaire (now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo [DRC]) in 1976. There were 318 cases and 280 deaths, an 88% case fatality rate. […] Since then, frequent outbreaks have occurred in Central and Western Africa. […] The most common species responsible for outbreaks is the Ebola virus (Orthoebolavirus zairense), the second most common species being the Sudan virus (Orthoebolavirus sudanense). […] The Ebola virus was responsible for the outbreak that started in West Africa in 2014 and finished in 2016. It was first reported in March 2014, and is the largest outbreak since the virus was first discovered in 1976. […] The virus has a reported case fatality rate of up to 90% in previous outbreaks. […] Direct comparison of case fatality rates between different treatment centers and outbreaks should be interpreted with caution as many variables can introduce bias and skew even large cohort data.

• #6 Ebola disease – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology

  In contrast to this, the Sudan virus has a lower case fatality rate of 39% to 65% in previous outbreaks, with the largest outbreak occurring in 2000 in Uganda (425 cases). […] There has only been one outbreak caused by Bundibugyo virus (Orthoebolavirus bundibugyoense): in 2007 in western Uganda, and this outbreak had a case fatality rate of 25%. […] 2022: an outbreak in Uganda started on September 20, 2022 and was declared over on January 11, 2023, with a total of 142 confirmed cases and 55 deaths (case fatality rate 39%). […] The WHO declares an outbreak is over when no confirmed or probable cases are detected for a period of 42 days (i.e., twice the maximum incubation period) since the last potential exposure to the last case occurred; however, WHO recommends heightened surveillance and response activities during the 42-day period and for at least 6 months after.

• #7 Ebola disease – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology

  In contrast to this, the Sudan virus has a lower case fatality rate of 39% to 65% in previous outbreaks, with the largest outbreak occurring in 2000 in Uganda (425 cases). […] There has only been one outbreak caused by Bundibugyo virus (Orthoebolavirus bundibugyoense): in 2007 in western Uganda, and this outbreak had a case fatality rate of 25%. […] 2022: an outbreak in Uganda started on September 20, 2022 and was declared over on January 11, 2023, with a total of 142 confirmed cases and 55 deaths (case fatality rate 39%). […] The WHO declares an outbreak is over when no confirmed or probable cases are detected for a period of 42 days (i.e., twice the maximum incubation period) since the last potential exposure to the last case occurred; however, WHO recommends heightened surveillance and response activities during the 42-day period and for at least 6 months after.

• #8 Ebola (Ebola virus disease) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/ebola-ebola-virus-disease/

  Ebola disease is an often-deadly illness caused by a group of viruses known as orthoebolaviruses. […] The viruses that cause Ebola disease have been found in wild animals (such as fruit bats, monkeys, chimpanzees, and gorillas) in certain parts of Africa and Asia. Outbreaks of Ebola disease in people have occurred in geographic locations where infected animals live. […] Ebola viruses can spread to people who have contact with an infected animals blood, body fluids, or tissues. Ebola viruses then spread from person-to-person through direct contact with blood or body fluids of a person who is sick with or has died from Ebola. […] Contacts of people with Ebola disease should monitor their health closely for 21 days after their exposure. […] The FDA approved the Ebola vaccine rVSV-ZEBOV (called Ervebo) on December 19, 2019. This is the first FDA-approved vaccine for Ebola virus disease caused by Orthoebolavirus zairense. […] Ebola viruses and other viruses that cause hemorrhagic fever are considered possible bioterrorism agents because these viruses could be intentionally released, spread from person-to-person, and cause severe disease or death.

• #9 Ebola (Ebola virus disease) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/ebola-ebola-virus-disease/

  Ebola disease is an often-deadly illness caused by a group of viruses known as orthoebolaviruses. […] The viruses that cause Ebola disease have been found in wild animals (such as fruit bats, monkeys, chimpanzees, and gorillas) in certain parts of Africa and Asia. Outbreaks of Ebola disease in people have occurred in geographic locations where infected animals live. […] Ebola viruses can spread to people who have contact with an infected animals blood, body fluids, or tissues. Ebola viruses then spread from person-to-person through direct contact with blood or body fluids of a person who is sick with or has died from Ebola. […] Contacts of people with Ebola disease should monitor their health closely for 21 days after their exposure. […] The FDA approved the Ebola vaccine rVSV-ZEBOV (called Ervebo) on December 19, 2019. This is the first FDA-approved vaccine for Ebola virus disease caused by Orthoebolavirus zairense. […] Ebola viruses and other viruses that cause hemorrhagic fever are considered possible bioterrorism agents because these viruses could be intentionally released, spread from person-to-person, and cause severe disease or death.

• #10 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  Ebola disease was first identified in 1976 after an outbreak in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo. Since then, these viruses have emerged periodically from the unknown animal that carries them and infected people in several African countries. […] The Ebola virus, Sudan virus, and Bundibugyo virus are the three viruses responsible for most large outbreaks in Africa. […] The Ebola virus is the deadliest and without treatment, up to 90% of cases are fatal. It caused the 2014-2016 outbreak in West Africa, the largest Ebola disease outbreak to date, with more than 28,600 cases reported. […] On September 20, 2022, the Ministry of Health confirmed an outbreak of Ebola (Sudan virus) in Mubende District, in western Uganda. […] This marks the sixth Ebola outbreak in Uganda. Five of the six have been caused by the species Sudan ebolavirus.

• #11 Ebola Virus Disease – WOAH – World Organisation for Animal Health

  https://www.woah.org/en/disease/ebola-virus-disease/

  Ebola virus disease (EVD) is also known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever and is considered to be an emerging zoonotic disease. […] The natural reservoir of Ebola has not yet been confirmed, but fruit bats may be natural hosts for EBOV and are currently thought to be the principal animal reservoir. […] Currently Ebola virus is not an WOAH listed disease but should be notified by the Veterinary Authorities to the WOAH as an emerging disease (Article 1.1.4.). […] Up to 2013, EVD occurred mainly in remote rainforest areas of Central and East Africa (DRC, Sudan, Gabon, Republic of the Congo and Uganda). […] The natural reservoir of Ebola has not yet been confirmed. However, the results of field studies, laboratory research, and epidemiological surveys in Africa strongly suggest that fruit bats may be natural hosts for EBOV and they are currently thought to be the principal animal reservoir.

• #12 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Ebola-Virus-Epidemiology.aspx

  Ebola hemorrhagic fever is considered a classic zoonotic disease with the persistence of the Ebola virus in a reservoir species. […] The exact source of Ebola infections remains an open question, and despite all the efforts, there remains a lack of clear indicators about the reservoir of the virus. […] As each country must strengthen its preparedness and response system to prevent eventual Ebola outbreaks in the future, adequate knowledge about the ecology and transmission of this disease is of the uttermost importance. […] Although a considerable amount of effort has been put into identifying the natural reservoirs with every large outbreak of the disease, potential hosts or arthropod vectors for the Ebola virus have not been found. […] The presence of the Zaire ebolavirus in naturally infected fruit bats was first documented when viral RNA and antibodies were detected in three different bat species of the Pteropodidae family: Hypsignathus monstrosus, Epomops franqueti, and Myonycteris torquata.

• #13 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Ebola-Virus-Epidemiology.aspx

  As the Ebola virus in the reservoir might present in a subclinical or asymptomatic way, there is a possibility of sporadic activation via appropriate stimuli such as stress, changes in food patterns, or infection with other pathogens, which has been demonstrated in experimental conditions. […] This could explain the sporadic nature of infection and periodical outbreaks of this disease in Africa. […] Infection with the Ebola virus in Africa has occurred through the handling of infected gorillas, chimpanzees, monkeys, fruit bats, forest antelopes, and porcupines. […] The disease is introduced into the human population via close contact with the blood, bodily secretions, organs, or other fluids of infected animals. […] Most human infections during outbreaks usually occur by direct contact with infected patients or cadavers.

• #14 Ebola (Ebola virus disease) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/ebola-ebola-virus-disease/

  Ebola disease is an often-deadly illness caused by a group of viruses known as orthoebolaviruses. […] The viruses that cause Ebola disease have been found in wild animals (such as fruit bats, monkeys, chimpanzees, and gorillas) in certain parts of Africa and Asia. Outbreaks of Ebola disease in people have occurred in geographic locations where infected animals live. […] Ebola viruses can spread to people who have contact with an infected animals blood, body fluids, or tissues. Ebola viruses then spread from person-to-person through direct contact with blood or body fluids of a person who is sick with or has died from Ebola. […] Contacts of people with Ebola disease should monitor their health closely for 21 days after their exposure. […] The FDA approved the Ebola vaccine rVSV-ZEBOV (called Ervebo) on December 19, 2019. This is the first FDA-approved vaccine for Ebola virus disease caused by Orthoebolavirus zairense. […] Ebola viruses and other viruses that cause hemorrhagic fever are considered possible bioterrorism agents because these viruses could be intentionally released, spread from person-to-person, and cause severe disease or death.

• #15 Epidemiology and pathogenesis of Ebola disease – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-and-pathogenesis-of-ebola-virus-disease

  Epidemics typically begin when a human comes into contact with an infected animal or its body fluids. […] However, the persistence of virus in persons who have recovered from Ebola virus disease may also be a source of infection for new outbreaks. […] Person-to-person transmission is based upon direct physical contact with the body fluids of a living or deceased patient. […] The experience of the 2014 to 2016 West African epidemic demonstrated that the mortality associated with Ebola virus disease may be reduced through adequate supportive care. […] It also accelerated the investigation of therapies and vaccines for treatment and prevention of Ebola virus disease.

• #16 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Ebola-Virus-Epidemiology.aspx

  Characteristic burial ceremonies where mourners have direct contact with the body of the deceased can also represent an important path of transmission. […] It is important to note that the airborne transmission of Ebola has not been documented, which is comparable to how other respiratory viruses such as the severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are spread.

• #17 Ebola | Utah Epidemiology

  https://epi.utah.gov/ebola/

  Ebola is transmitted through direct contact with the blood or bodily fluids of an infected person with symptoms or through exposure to objects (such as needles) that have been contaminated. Individuals who are not symptomatic are not contagious. Ebola virus is not spread through the air or through contaminated food or water. […] In outbreak settings, Ebola virus typically first spreads to humans after contact with infected wildlife and then spreads person-to-person through direct contact with bodily fluids such as, but not limited to, blood, urine, sweat, semen, and breast milk. Patients can transmit the virus while they have a fever and through later stages of disease, as well as after death, when persons touch the body during funeral preparations. […] While the chances of a large-scale outbreak of Ebola occurring in the United States are very low, the Utah Department of Health recognizes that being prepared is key to preventing disease and infection control.

• #18 What’s New

  https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/EbolaVirusDisease.aspx

  Ebola virus can spread from animal to animal, animal to human, and human to human. The natural source or reservoir of Ebola virus is unknown, but it is believed that bats carrying the virus are able to transmit it to certain animals and humans. […] People can get EVD from contact with infected animals (specifically bats and non-human primates) and from direct contact with other people who are sick with EVD. Ebola virus can easily spread from an infected person to their close contacts. […] Ebola virus can only spread from a person who actively has signs and symptoms of EVD. A person cannot get Ebola virus from someone who does not have symptoms of EVD, except through sex with a man who has recently recovered from having EVD. […] If a person has been exposed to Ebola virus and becomes sick, laboratory tests may be used to determine if the person has EVD. There are currently two U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved antibody treatments for EVD caused by the Zaire Ebola virus, but none for EVD caused by the Sudan Ebola virus. Early supportive care at a hospital can improve the chances of survival.

• #19 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  The current Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa has revealed serious shortcomings in national and international capacity to detect, monitor, and respond to infectious disease outbreaks as they occur. […] Surveillancedefined in the 2005 International Health regulations as the systematic, ongoing collection, collation and analysis of data for public health purposes and the timely dissemination of public health information for assessment and public health response as necessaryis a critical component of outbreak management. […] Inadequate surveillance and/or reporting systems, a major issue for EVD in West Africa, may lead to delayed detection and substantial under-reporting. […] One solution to these problems is the development and deployment of rapid, point-of-care (POC) diagnostic tests, linked to modern information technology.

• #20 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Ebola surveillance in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone had two primary components: 1) case investigation and reporting and 2) contact tracing. […] Effective case reporting requires timely collection, reporting, and integration of epidemiologic, clinical, laboratory, and outcome data on all suspected, probable, and confirmed Ebola cases. […] Despite these issues, Ebola surveillance was continuously maintained in each of the three countries heavily affected by Ebola. Data gathered through these surveillance systems are not complete or perfectly accurate, but they enabled analyses of case characteristics, risk factors for infection, and changes in case distribution over time. […] The first CDC team deployed to Guinea soon after the outbreak was identified in March 2014. This team, along with the Guinean Ministry of Health and Public Hygiene (MoH) and the World Health Organization (WHO), immediately began work on an Ebola surveillance system.

• #21 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Ebola surveillance in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone had two primary components: 1) case investigation and reporting and 2) contact tracing. […] Effective case reporting requires timely collection, reporting, and integration of epidemiologic, clinical, laboratory, and outcome data on all suspected, probable, and confirmed Ebola cases. […] Despite these issues, Ebola surveillance was continuously maintained in each of the three countries heavily affected by Ebola. Data gathered through these surveillance systems are not complete or perfectly accurate, but they enabled analyses of case characteristics, risk factors for infection, and changes in case distribution over time. […] The first CDC team deployed to Guinea soon after the outbreak was identified in March 2014. This team, along with the Guinean Ministry of Health and Public Hygiene (MoH) and the World Health Organization (WHO), immediately began work on an Ebola surveillance system.

• #22

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease

  Ebola disease is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. […] Outbreak control relies on a package of interventions including intensive supportive care of patients, infection prevention and control, disease surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory services, safe and dignified burials, vaccination if relevant, and social mobilization. […] While there are licensed vaccines and therapeutics for Ebola virus disease, there is no approved vaccine or treatment for other Ebola diseases, such as SVD or BVD. Candidate products are in development. […] Community engagement is key to successfully controlling any outbreak. Outbreak control relies on using a range of interventions, such as clinical care, surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory services, infection prevention and control in health facilities, safe and dignified burials, vaccination (only for Ebola virus disease) and social mobilization. […] WHO works with countries to prevent Ebola outbreaks by maintaining surveillance and supporting at-risk countries to develop preparedness plans.

• #23 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Developing a surveillance system during a public health emergency is always challenging but is especially so in countries with limited public health infrastructure. Surveillance for Ebola virus disease (Ebola) in the West African countries heavily affected by Ebola (Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone) faced numerous impediments, including insufficient numbers of trained staff, community reticence to report cases and contacts, limited information technology resources, limited telephone and Internet service, and overwhelming numbers of infected persons. […] Accurate, timely surveillance data are critical during public health emergencies because these data can provide the information needed for appropriate resource allocation, assessment of the success of response, and planning for staffing and resource needs. This was especially true during the 2014-2016 Ebola virus disease (Ebola) epidemic in West Africa. During the epidemic, CDC, along with many other organizations, overcame challenges to conducting effective surveillance in the three countries that were heavily affected (Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone) and had limited public health infrastructure.

• #24 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  The current Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa has revealed serious shortcomings in national and international capacity to detect, monitor, and respond to infectious disease outbreaks as they occur. […] Surveillancedefined in the 2005 International Health regulations as the systematic, ongoing collection, collation and analysis of data for public health purposes and the timely dissemination of public health information for assessment and public health response as necessaryis a critical component of outbreak management. […] Inadequate surveillance and/or reporting systems, a major issue for EVD in West Africa, may lead to delayed detection and substantial under-reporting. […] One solution to these problems is the development and deployment of rapid, point-of-care (POC) diagnostic tests, linked to modern information technology.

• #25 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  The current Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa has revealed serious shortcomings in national and international capacity to detect, monitor, and respond to infectious disease outbreaks as they occur. […] Surveillancedefined in the 2005 International Health regulations as the systematic, ongoing collection, collation and analysis of data for public health purposes and the timely dissemination of public health information for assessment and public health response as necessaryis a critical component of outbreak management. […] Inadequate surveillance and/or reporting systems, a major issue for EVD in West Africa, may lead to delayed detection and substantial under-reporting. […] One solution to these problems is the development and deployment of rapid, point-of-care (POC) diagnostic tests, linked to modern information technology.

• #26 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  Monitoring indirect markers of disease activity, such as internet use and activity on social media may also contribute to epidemiological surveillance. […] The 2009 H1N1 influenza A pandemic was remarkable for being the first serious outbreak to be tracked in real-time by virus genetic data, using data provided by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) within days of samples being taken from suspected cases. […] Virus genome sequencing of the earliest EVD cases from Guinea attributed the outbreak in West Africa to the species ebolavirus within weeks of the first cases being diagnosed. […] The publication of these sequences inspired a series of analytical papers extracting additional inferences about the outbreak including estimates of epidemiological parameters such as the case reproduction rate, infectious period and sampling fraction.

• #27 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  Monitoring indirect markers of disease activity, such as internet use and activity on social media may also contribute to epidemiological surveillance. […] The 2009 H1N1 influenza A pandemic was remarkable for being the first serious outbreak to be tracked in real-time by virus genetic data, using data provided by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) within days of samples being taken from suspected cases. […] Virus genome sequencing of the earliest EVD cases from Guinea attributed the outbreak in West Africa to the species ebolavirus within weeks of the first cases being diagnosed. […] The publication of these sequences inspired a series of analytical papers extracting additional inferences about the outbreak including estimates of epidemiological parameters such as the case reproduction rate, infectious period and sampling fraction.

• #28 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  Mathematical modelling is an established tool in infectious disease epidemiology. […] Real-time projections of case numbers using mathematical models have been provided during many epidemics in the past three decades, including EVD. […] Risk mapping has been applied to a range of diseases, including EVD in Africa. […] The EVD risk map incorporated a set of predictors including elevation, an index of vegetation cover, other environmental variables, and estimated composite distribution data for three bat species suspected to be reservoirs of Ebola virus. […] Strengthening surveillance and response capacity around the world would require investment estimated at tens of billions of dollars per annum, but is likely to be cost-effective.

• #29 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  Mathematical modelling is an established tool in infectious disease epidemiology. […] Real-time projections of case numbers using mathematical models have been provided during many epidemics in the past three decades, including EVD. […] Risk mapping has been applied to a range of diseases, including EVD in Africa. […] The EVD risk map incorporated a set of predictors including elevation, an index of vegetation cover, other environmental variables, and estimated composite distribution data for three bat species suspected to be reservoirs of Ebola virus. […] Strengthening surveillance and response capacity around the world would require investment estimated at tens of billions of dollars per annum, but is likely to be cost-effective.

• #30 Ebola – Genomic Surveillance | Broad Institute

  https://www.broadinstitute.org/what-broad/areas-focus/project-spotlight/ebola-genomic-surveillance

  In March 2014, the first diagnosed case of Zaire ebolavirus (EBOV) was reported in the West African nation of Guinea. […] In an effort to understand how the virus is evolving and spreading, Broad institute member Pardis Sabeti and the members of her lab have been carrying out genomic surveillance of the Ebola virus during the ongoing outbreak. […] This surveillance which includes the sequencing and analysis of Ebola genomes collected from patients provides a better picture of the how the virus is changing, and may offer insights into field diagnostics, treatment, and prevention. […] The Sabeti lab releases all of its Ebola sequence data to the global scientific community as it is generated. […] This practice of releasing data independent of publication demonstrates the potential for rapid sequencing to provide timely insights for outbreak surveillance and control efforts, as well as diagnostic and therapeutic developments.

• #31 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Ebola surveillance in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone had two primary components: 1) case investigation and reporting and 2) contact tracing. […] Effective case reporting requires timely collection, reporting, and integration of epidemiologic, clinical, laboratory, and outcome data on all suspected, probable, and confirmed Ebola cases. […] Despite these issues, Ebola surveillance was continuously maintained in each of the three countries heavily affected by Ebola. Data gathered through these surveillance systems are not complete or perfectly accurate, but they enabled analyses of case characteristics, risk factors for infection, and changes in case distribution over time. […] The first CDC team deployed to Guinea soon after the outbreak was identified in March 2014. This team, along with the Guinean Ministry of Health and Public Hygiene (MoH) and the World Health Organization (WHO), immediately began work on an Ebola surveillance system.

• #32 Ebola Virus Disease Surveillance System Evaluation, Boke region, Guinea, 2019 | TEPHINET

  https://www.tephinet.org/learning/fead/ebola-virus-disease-surveillance-system-evaluation-boke-region-guinea-2019

  In 2014, following the West Africas Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak, WHO declared EVD as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Guinea has established a surveillance system to detect early and respond promptly all cases of EVD. The purpose of this evaluation is to determine whether the system is meeting its objectives to make recommendations to improve the system […] The EVD surveillance database was reviewed between 2014 and 2018. […] 100% of cases were detected within 24 hours after symptoms onset and reported to national level promptly, however, data quality was 62%. […] EVD surveillance system is meeting his objective. Its useful, simple but complex for data entry, acceptable, flexible, and prompt with low data quality and low PPV during outbreak period. However, EVD system is little flexible post outbreak. Efforts should be done to use one database to enter data integrating EVD surveillance into the Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR), improve data quality and follow head of facilities on case definition post ebola outbreak.

• #33 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Liberia’s Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (renamed Ministry of Health [MoH] in October 2014) began surveillance when the first Ebola cases appeared in Liberia in March 2014; however, when no new cases were reported during late April-early June, surveillance was discontinued. […] When the CDC team arrived in Sierra Leone in early August 2014, the country already had reported approximately 550 Ebola cases. […] Throughout the epidemic, CDC helped strengthen Ebola surveillance and contact tracing in Sierra Leone. […] Developing Ebola surveillance in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone was difficult because of the need to implement timely, accurate surveillance under emergency conditions over a wide area.

• #34 Evaluation of Ebola virus disease surveillance system capability to promptly detect a new outbreak in Liberia | BMJ Global Health

  https://gh.bmj.com/content/8/8/e012369

  The study presents detailed surveillance system-wide performance measures for policy-makers and those running health facilities, to inform the development of specific interventions to close performance gaps. […] The West Africa Ebola virus disease (EVD) epidemic 2014-2016, caused by Ebolavirus Zare, was the largest ever recorded. […] Liberia’s Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) strategy was revised to include specific provisions for EVD, reporting tools and standard operating protocols (SOPs) in 2016. […] Therefore, we aimed to assess the performance of Liberia’s EVD surveillance system 5 years after the epidemic, focusing on its ability to detect and respond effectively to a potential new outbreak. […] The health facility assessment found performance gaps in 9 of 10 indicators related to core functions, 5 of 6 indicators related to support functions and 3 of 7 indicators related to quality.

• #35 Evaluation of Ebola virus disease surveillance system capability to promptly detect a new outbreak in Liberia | BMJ Global Health

  https://gh.bmj.com/content/8/8/e012369

  The study presents detailed surveillance system-wide performance measures for policy-makers and those running health facilities, to inform the development of specific interventions to close performance gaps. […] The West Africa Ebola virus disease (EVD) epidemic 2014-2016, caused by Ebolavirus Zare, was the largest ever recorded. […] Liberia’s Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) strategy was revised to include specific provisions for EVD, reporting tools and standard operating protocols (SOPs) in 2016. […] Therefore, we aimed to assess the performance of Liberia’s EVD surveillance system 5 years after the epidemic, focusing on its ability to detect and respond effectively to a potential new outbreak. […] The health facility assessment found performance gaps in 9 of 10 indicators related to core functions, 5 of 6 indicators related to support functions and 3 of 7 indicators related to quality.

• #36 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Liberia’s Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (renamed Ministry of Health [MoH] in October 2014) began surveillance when the first Ebola cases appeared in Liberia in March 2014; however, when no new cases were reported during late April-early June, surveillance was discontinued. […] When the CDC team arrived in Sierra Leone in early August 2014, the country already had reported approximately 550 Ebola cases. […] Throughout the epidemic, CDC helped strengthen Ebola surveillance and contact tracing in Sierra Leone. […] Developing Ebola surveillance in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone was difficult because of the need to implement timely, accurate surveillance under emergency conditions over a wide area.

• #37 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Liberia’s Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (renamed Ministry of Health [MoH] in October 2014) began surveillance when the first Ebola cases appeared in Liberia in March 2014; however, when no new cases were reported during late April-early June, surveillance was discontinued. […] When the CDC team arrived in Sierra Leone in early August 2014, the country already had reported approximately 550 Ebola cases. […] Throughout the epidemic, CDC helped strengthen Ebola surveillance and contact tracing in Sierra Leone. […] Developing Ebola surveillance in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone was difficult because of the need to implement timely, accurate surveillance under emergency conditions over a wide area.

• #38 Successful Implementation of a Multicountry Clinical Surveillance and Data Collection System for Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa: Findings and Lessons Learned | Global Health: Science and Practice

  https://www.ghspjournal.org/content/4/3/394

  From the 5 ETUs in Liberia and Sierra Leone, IMC amassed more than 25,000 pages of clinical, epidemiological, psychosocial, and operational data over the course of the epidemic. […] The goal of IMCs Ebola Research Team was to collect and analyze quality data to better inform responses to future epidemics. […] This study presents IMCs EVD case management operations across Liberia and Sierra Leone, including numbers and trends of patient admissions to our ETUs; key demographic information and outcomes among admitted patients; and geographical and longitudinal displays of patient admissions, EVD positivity, and mortality. […] Patients arriving at an ETU who met the case definition for Ebola virus disease were admitted, while those who did not were referred elsewhere for care. […] All patients at IMC ETUs were treated according to standard treatment protocols adapted to the needs of the host country.

• #39 Successful Implementation of a Multicountry Clinical Surveillance and Data Collection System for Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa: Findings and Lessons Learned | Global Health: Science and Practice

  https://www.ghspjournal.org/content/4/3/394

  Throughout their inpatient course, patients were cared for by trained hygienists, nurses, physician assistants, physicians, or psychosocial support staff. […] IMC developed forms designed to track information on all patients admitted to the ETUs, from admission through discharge and community follow-up. […] All data were collected as part of routine clinical care and for epidemiologic purposes. […] The primary outcome variables of interest for patients admitted to the ETUs were final diagnosis (confirmed Ebola, probable Ebola, or other), disposition (survived, deceased, or transferred), and length of stay in the ETU. […] 20% of the patients admitted to IMC ETUs for triage tested positive for EVD. […] Among patients with EVD, those ages 15 to 24 had the lowest case fatality rate; the youngest and oldest patients had the highest case fatality rates.

• #40 Development and Assessment of Community Event–Based Surveillance for Ebola Virus Disease | Airbel Impact Lab – Research & Innovation at the IRC

  https://airbel.rescue.org/projects/development-and-assessment-of-community-eventbased-surveillance-for-ebola-virus-disease/

  In 2015, community eventbased surveillance (CEBS) was implemented in Sierra Leone to assist with the detection of Ebola virus disease (EVD) cases. […] CEBS detected 30% (16/53) of the EVD cases identified during the study period. […] Although CEBS detected EVD cases, it largely generated false alerts.

• #41 Ebola Virus Disease Surveillance in Two High-Transmission Districts of Sierra Leone During the 2013–2015 Outbreak: Surveillance Methods, Implications for Maternal and Child Health, and Recommendations | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-97637-2_27

  Effective surveillance for Ebola virus disease (EVD) was critical to control the 2013-2015 epidemic in West Africa. At the community level, this work was done by surveillance officers, who were responsible for conducting investigations to identify and refer suspected cases for testing and isolation. Surveillance was also conducted in health care facilities to identify potential cases of EVD and prevent spread of the disease within the facility. […] Surveillance for EVD infection in pregnant, postpartum, and breastfeeding mothers and their children presented more challenges than in the general population. This was especially due to the nonspecific nature of the symptoms used to identify suspected cases of EVD, which overlapped with pregnancy, labor, and its complications, and diseases common in West Africa, notably, malaria.

• #42 Health: Infectious Disease Epidemiology & Prevention Division: Filoviruses: Ebola Virus & Marburg Virus

  https://www.in.gov/health/idepd/healthcare-associated-infections-and-antimicrobial-resistance-epidemiology/healthcare-associated-infections/ebola-virus-disease-evd/

  Ebola virus first appeared in 1976 when two consecutive outbreaks of VHF occurred in DRC in a village near the Ebola River, giving the virus its name, and in South Sudan. Since then, six different species of Ebola virus have been discovered, four of which are known to cause disease in humans. […] Symptoms of Ebola virus disease (EVD) may appear anywhere from 2 to 21 days after contact with Ebola virus, with an average of 8 to 10 days. […] Once a human is infected, both MVD and EVD can be transmitted to other humans through direct contact with the blood or bodily fluids of an infected individual who is sick with or has died from either disease. […] There is currently only one FDA approved vaccination for the Ebola virus. This vaccine is given as a single dose vaccine and has been found to be safe and protective only against Zaire ebolavirus, which has caused the largest and most deadly Ebola outbreaks to date.

• #43 Ebola disease – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology

  The first cases of Ebola disease were reported in Zaire (now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo [DRC]) in 1976. There were 318 cases and 280 deaths, an 88% case fatality rate. […] Since then, frequent outbreaks have occurred in Central and Western Africa. […] The most common species responsible for outbreaks is the Ebola virus (Orthoebolavirus zairense), the second most common species being the Sudan virus (Orthoebolavirus sudanense). […] The Ebola virus was responsible for the outbreak that started in West Africa in 2014 and finished in 2016. It was first reported in March 2014, and is the largest outbreak since the virus was first discovered in 1976. […] The virus has a reported case fatality rate of up to 90% in previous outbreaks. […] Direct comparison of case fatality rates between different treatment centers and outbreaks should be interpreted with caution as many variables can introduce bias and skew even large cohort data.

• #44 Ebola disease – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology

  The first cases of Ebola disease were reported in Zaire (now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo [DRC]) in 1976. There were 318 cases and 280 deaths, an 88% case fatality rate. […] Since then, frequent outbreaks have occurred in Central and Western Africa. […] The most common species responsible for outbreaks is the Ebola virus (Orthoebolavirus zairense), the second most common species being the Sudan virus (Orthoebolavirus sudanense). […] The Ebola virus was responsible for the outbreak that started in West Africa in 2014 and finished in 2016. It was first reported in March 2014, and is the largest outbreak since the virus was first discovered in 1976. […] The virus has a reported case fatality rate of up to 90% in previous outbreaks. […] Direct comparison of case fatality rates between different treatment centers and outbreaks should be interpreted with caution as many variables can introduce bias and skew even large cohort data.

• #45 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  The DRC government declared a new Ebola outbreak in Mbandaka, quateur Province of western DRC on June 1, 2020. […] The DRC government declared its 10th Ebola outbreak on August 1, 2018, in North Kivu province of eastern DRC. […] The outbreak was declared over by the World Health Organization (WHO) on June 25, 2020. […] The outbreak occurred in multiple villages in the vicinity of Boende town but was limited to the quateur province in the western part of the country. […] The West African Ebola epidemic was the largest in history. […] Identification of cases was difficult because of weak surveillance and fragile public health infrastructure. […] By August 2014, WHO declared the situation a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). […] The outbreak was declared over in June 2016.

• #46 Ebola Virus Infection: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/216288-overview

  Ebola and Marburg viruses are responsible for well-documented outbreaks of severe human hemorrhagic fever, with resultant case mortalities ranging from 23% for Marburg virus to 89% for Ebola virus in which more than one case occurred. […] The 2014-2016 Ebola virus outbreak was significant and primarily involved 3 African countriesGuinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. Localized transmission was been reported in Nigeria. Based on genetic analysis, the virus was 97% identical to the Zaire ebolavirus identified in cases in Gabon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo earlier in 2014. […] Individuals considered at risk for Ebola hemorrhagic fever include persons with a travel history to sub-Saharan Africa, persons who have recently cared for infected patients, and animal workers who have worked with primates infected with African-derived Ebola subtypes. In 2011, Uganda experienced a reemergence of the disease.

• #47 Epidemiology of Ebolaviruses from an Etiological Perspective

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/12/2/248

  Since the inception of the ebolavirus in 1976, 32 outbreaks have resulted in nearly 15,350 deaths in more than ten countries of the African continent. […] The 2013–2016 outbreak indicated an alarming geographical spread of the virus and was the first to qualify as an epidemic. […] Despite several research efforts, ebolaviruses’ natural hosts and secondary reservoirs still elude the scientific world. […] The primary source responsible for infecting the index case is also unknown for most outbreaks. […] EBOV infection has been linked to nearly two-thirds of ebolavirus outbreaks. […] Since 2013, nine EBOV outbreaks have been documented, with seven located in the DRC, Central Africa. […] The 2013–2016 West African outbreak, declared an epidemic, was characterized by the highest number of fatal cases, accounting for ~74% of all ebolavirus-caused deaths.

• #48 Ebola Virus: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15606-ebola-virus-disease

  Ebola is rare. But outbreaks occur regularly ever since experts first recognized orthoebolaviruses (the viruses that cause Ebola) in 1976 in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo) in Africa. The largest Ebola outbreak was between 2013 and 2016. In total, there were 28,652 cases worldwide, with 11,325 reported deaths in 10 countries. […] Public health organizations work to contain Ebola outbreaks by looking out for new cases and keeping providers safe who care for people who have Ebola. […] Yes, Ebola still exists between outbreaks. It lives in infected animals. But it sometimes spreads to humans. […] Yes. During the 2013-2016 outbreak that started in Guinea, experts reported Ebola cases in the U.S. and some European countries. Most cases affected medical aid workers whose symptoms started after returning to the U.S. from West Africa. Or they flew to the U.S. for medical treatment after contracting Ebola.

• #49 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  The DRC government declared a new Ebola outbreak in Mbandaka, quateur Province of western DRC on June 1, 2020. […] The DRC government declared its 10th Ebola outbreak on August 1, 2018, in North Kivu province of eastern DRC. […] The outbreak was declared over by the World Health Organization (WHO) on June 25, 2020. […] The outbreak occurred in multiple villages in the vicinity of Boende town but was limited to the quateur province in the western part of the country. […] The West African Ebola epidemic was the largest in history. […] Identification of cases was difficult because of weak surveillance and fragile public health infrastructure. […] By August 2014, WHO declared the situation a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). […] The outbreak was declared over in June 2016.

• #50 Epidemiology of Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa, 2013-2014

  http://www.jbjc.org/en/article/doi/10.3784/j.issn.1003-9961.2014.11.020

  As of September 13, nearly 300 health-care workers have been infected in the five countries (nearly 6% of total cases), in which more than 140 died. […] Genetic analysis indicates that the virus caused this outbreak is a separate clade of the Zaire ebolavirus (EBOV). […] The public health emergency of Ebola virus disease (EVD) occurring in West Africa in 2014 is not only the largest outbreak since the Ebola virus was first discovered in 1976, but also the first report of EVD outbreak in West Africa. […] The outbreak might last for 6 to 9 months from now on.

• #51 Ebola disease prevention, monitoring and surveillance recommendations – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/catmat/ebola-virus-disease-preventive-measures-monitoring-surveillance-travellers.html

  Sustained chains of transmission of the viruses causing EBOD are typically restricted to areas of sub-Saharan Africa, with foci of epidemic disease occurring in parts of Central Africa, West Africa and East Africa. […] The most recent SVD outbreak in Uganda ending on January 11, 2023 included cases from 7 regions: Jinja, Kampala, Kassanda, Kyegegwa, Masaka, Mubende, and Wakiso. […] Outbreaks of EBOD have most recently been reported from: Uganda (September 20, 2022 to January 11, 2023), The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), in the Provinces of: North Kivu (three outbreaks declared between February 7, 2021 and September 27, 2022), quateur (two outbreaks declared between June 1, 2020 and July 4, 2022), Guinea, in the Nzrkor Region (February 14, 2021 to June 19, 2021). […] To date, fifteen outbreaks have been recorded in the DRC since the first recognized outbreak in 1976.

• #52 Ebola disease prevention, monitoring and surveillance recommendations – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/catmat/ebola-virus-disease-preventive-measures-monitoring-surveillance-travellers.html

  The tenth outbreak in the Provinces of North Kivu, Ituri and South Kivu (August 1, 2018 to June 25, 2020) was the country’s longest EVD outbreak and the second largest in the world after the 2014-2016 EVD outbreak in West Africa. […] In addition, during the large-scale 2014-16 outbreak affecting Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea, exportation of cases elsewhere in Africa and to Europe and North America occurred with limited secondary transmissions. […] Given the prolonged incubation period of EBOD (that is, up to 21 days) and relative ease of international travel, EBOD manifesting once an exposed and infected traveller returns home is not unexpected. […] More recent outbreaks have had significantly altered epidemiology due to the availability of EVD vaccines for healthcare workers and close contacts of EVD-infected patients.

• #53 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  On August 22, 2022, the Ministry of Health announced an outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in North Kivu Province. […] On April 23, the Ministry of Health of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) declared an outbreak of EVD in Mbandaka city, Equateur Province. […] On October 8, the Ministry of Health in DRC announced an outbreak of EVD in Beni Health Zone, North Kivu Province. […] On February 7, 2021, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) announced that a case of Ebola virus disease (EVD) had been confirmed in Biena Health Zone, North Kivu Province. […] On February 14, 2021, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in Guinea announced that cases of Ebola virus disease (EVD) had been confirmed in NZrkor Prefecture, a forested rural region in southeast Guinea.

• #54 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  On August 22, 2022, the Ministry of Health announced an outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in North Kivu Province. […] On April 23, the Ministry of Health of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) declared an outbreak of EVD in Mbandaka city, Equateur Province. […] On October 8, the Ministry of Health in DRC announced an outbreak of EVD in Beni Health Zone, North Kivu Province. […] On February 7, 2021, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) announced that a case of Ebola virus disease (EVD) had been confirmed in Biena Health Zone, North Kivu Province. […] On February 14, 2021, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in Guinea announced that cases of Ebola virus disease (EVD) had been confirmed in NZrkor Prefecture, a forested rural region in southeast Guinea.

• #55 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  On August 22, 2022, the Ministry of Health announced an outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in North Kivu Province. […] On April 23, the Ministry of Health of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) declared an outbreak of EVD in Mbandaka city, Equateur Province. […] On October 8, the Ministry of Health in DRC announced an outbreak of EVD in Beni Health Zone, North Kivu Province. […] On February 7, 2021, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) announced that a case of Ebola virus disease (EVD) had been confirmed in Biena Health Zone, North Kivu Province. […] On February 14, 2021, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in Guinea announced that cases of Ebola virus disease (EVD) had been confirmed in NZrkor Prefecture, a forested rural region in southeast Guinea.

• #56 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  The DRC government declared a new Ebola outbreak in Mbandaka, quateur Province of western DRC on June 1, 2020. […] The DRC government declared its 10th Ebola outbreak on August 1, 2018, in North Kivu province of eastern DRC. […] The outbreak was declared over by the World Health Organization (WHO) on June 25, 2020. […] The outbreak occurred in multiple villages in the vicinity of Boende town but was limited to the quateur province in the western part of the country. […] The West African Ebola epidemic was the largest in history. […] Identification of cases was difficult because of weak surveillance and fragile public health infrastructure. […] By August 2014, WHO declared the situation a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). […] The outbreak was declared over in June 2016.

• #57 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  Ebola disease was first identified in 1976 after an outbreak in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo. Since then, these viruses have emerged periodically from the unknown animal that carries them and infected people in several African countries. […] The Ebola virus, Sudan virus, and Bundibugyo virus are the three viruses responsible for most large outbreaks in Africa. […] The Ebola virus is the deadliest and without treatment, up to 90% of cases are fatal. It caused the 2014-2016 outbreak in West Africa, the largest Ebola disease outbreak to date, with more than 28,600 cases reported. […] On September 20, 2022, the Ministry of Health confirmed an outbreak of Ebola (Sudan virus) in Mubende District, in western Uganda. […] This marks the sixth Ebola outbreak in Uganda. Five of the six have been caused by the species Sudan ebolavirus.

• #58 Outbreak History | Ebola | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/ebola/outbreaks/index.html

  Ebola disease was first identified in 1976 after an outbreak in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo. Since then, these viruses have emerged periodically from the unknown animal that carries them and infected people in several African countries. […] The Ebola virus, Sudan virus, and Bundibugyo virus are the three viruses responsible for most large outbreaks in Africa. […] The Ebola virus is the deadliest and without treatment, up to 90% of cases are fatal. It caused the 2014-2016 outbreak in West Africa, the largest Ebola disease outbreak to date, with more than 28,600 cases reported. […] On September 20, 2022, the Ministry of Health confirmed an outbreak of Ebola (Sudan virus) in Mubende District, in western Uganda. […] This marks the sixth Ebola outbreak in Uganda. Five of the six have been caused by the species Sudan ebolavirus.

• #59 Ebola disease – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology

  In contrast to this, the Sudan virus has a lower case fatality rate of 39% to 65% in previous outbreaks, with the largest outbreak occurring in 2000 in Uganda (425 cases). […] There has only been one outbreak caused by Bundibugyo virus (Orthoebolavirus bundibugyoense): in 2007 in western Uganda, and this outbreak had a case fatality rate of 25%. […] 2022: an outbreak in Uganda started on September 20, 2022 and was declared over on January 11, 2023, with a total of 142 confirmed cases and 55 deaths (case fatality rate 39%). […] The WHO declares an outbreak is over when no confirmed or probable cases are detected for a period of 42 days (i.e., twice the maximum incubation period) since the last potential exposure to the last case occurred; however, WHO recommends heightened surveillance and response activities during the 42-day period and for at least 6 months after.

• #60 What’s New

  https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/EbolaVirusDisease.aspx

  On January 11, 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the 2022 Uganda Ebola outbreak over, and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) discontinued monitoring of travelers returning from Uganda. A total of 142 cases including 55 deaths were reported from nine districts in Uganda during September-November 2022. The outbreak was declared over after 42 days (twice the incubation period for Ebola infection) have passed since the last case was reported.

• #61 Ebola disease – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology

  In contrast to this, the Sudan virus has a lower case fatality rate of 39% to 65% in previous outbreaks, with the largest outbreak occurring in 2000 in Uganda (425 cases). […] There has only been one outbreak caused by Bundibugyo virus (Orthoebolavirus bundibugyoense): in 2007 in western Uganda, and this outbreak had a case fatality rate of 25%. […] 2022: an outbreak in Uganda started on September 20, 2022 and was declared over on January 11, 2023, with a total of 142 confirmed cases and 55 deaths (case fatality rate 39%). […] The WHO declares an outbreak is over when no confirmed or probable cases are detected for a period of 42 days (i.e., twice the maximum incubation period) since the last potential exposure to the last case occurred; however, WHO recommends heightened surveillance and response activities during the 42-day period and for at least 6 months after.

• #62 Ebola disease – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/1210/epidemiology

  In contrast to this, the Sudan virus has a lower case fatality rate of 39% to 65% in previous outbreaks, with the largest outbreak occurring in 2000 in Uganda (425 cases). […] There has only been one outbreak caused by Bundibugyo virus (Orthoebolavirus bundibugyoense): in 2007 in western Uganda, and this outbreak had a case fatality rate of 25%. […] 2022: an outbreak in Uganda started on September 20, 2022 and was declared over on January 11, 2023, with a total of 142 confirmed cases and 55 deaths (case fatality rate 39%). […] The WHO declares an outbreak is over when no confirmed or probable cases are detected for a period of 42 days (i.e., twice the maximum incubation period) since the last potential exposure to the last case occurred; however, WHO recommends heightened surveillance and response activities during the 42-day period and for at least 6 months after.

• #63

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease

  Ebola disease is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. […] Outbreak control relies on a package of interventions including intensive supportive care of patients, infection prevention and control, disease surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory services, safe and dignified burials, vaccination if relevant, and social mobilization. […] While there are licensed vaccines and therapeutics for Ebola virus disease, there is no approved vaccine or treatment for other Ebola diseases, such as SVD or BVD. Candidate products are in development. […] Community engagement is key to successfully controlling any outbreak. Outbreak control relies on using a range of interventions, such as clinical care, surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory services, infection prevention and control in health facilities, safe and dignified burials, vaccination (only for Ebola virus disease) and social mobilization. […] WHO works with countries to prevent Ebola outbreaks by maintaining surveillance and supporting at-risk countries to develop preparedness plans.

• #64 Ebola virus disease Fact Sheet | Africa Health Organisation

  https://aho.org/fact-sheets/ebola-virus-disease-fact-sheet/

  Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. […] The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. […] Community engagement is key to successfully controlling outbreaks. Good outbreak control relies on applying a package of interventions, namely case management, infection prevention and control practices, surveillance and contact tracing, a good laboratory service, safe burials and social mobilisation. […] AHO aims to prevent Ebola outbreaks by maintaining surveillance for Ebola virus disease and supporting at-risk countries to developed preparedness plans. […] When an outbreak is detected AHO responds by supporting surveillance, community engagement, case management, laboratory services, contact tracing, infection control, logistical support and training and assistance with safe burial practices.

• #65 Surveillance and updates for Ebola and Marburg fevers

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/ebola-and-marburg-fevers/surveillance-and-disease-data

  Surveillance report […] Ebola and Marburg virus diseases – Annual Epidemiological Report for 2019 […] Surveillance report […] Ebola and Marburg fevers – Annual Epidemiological Report for 2018 […] Surveillance report […] Ebola and Marburg fevers – Annual Epidemiological Report for 2017 […] Surveillance report […] Ebola and Marburg fevers – Annual Epidemiological Report for 2016 […] Surveillance report […] Ebola and Marburg fevers – Annual Epidemiological Report for 2015 […] […] […] Disease data from ECDC Surveillance Atlas – Ebola and Marburg virus diseases […] […] […] Risk assessment […] Ebola virus disease outbreak in Guinea, 2021 […] […] […] Epidemiological update […] Ebola outbreak in Uganda, as of 11 January 2023

• #66 Surveillance and updates for Ebola and Marburg fevers

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/ebola-and-marburg-fevers/surveillance-and-disease-data

  Epidemiological update […] Ebola virus disease in Nzrkor Guinea […] Epidemiological update […] Outbreak of Ebola virus disease in North Kivu Democratic Republic of the Congo 2021 […] Epidemiological update […] Epidemiological update: Ebola virus disease outbreak in North Kivu and Ituri Provinces, Democratic Republic of the Congo […] Epidemiological update […] Epidemiological update: Ebola virus disease outbreak in North Kivu and Ituri Provinces, Democratic Republic of the Congo […] […] […] On 20 September 2022, the Ministry of Health in Uganda, together with the WHO/Africa, confirmed an outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) due to Sudan ebolavirus in Uganda. […] On 14 February 2021, an Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak was declared in the rural area of Gouk in NZerekore region, Guinea, by national health authorities. […] The 12th outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) lasted from 7 February 2021 to 3 May 2021.

• #67 Ebola Virus Disease – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/ebola-virus-disease

  Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. […] The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. […] The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks. […] Good outbreak control relies on applying a package of interventions, namely case management, infection prevention and control practices, surveillance and contact tracing, a good laboratory service, safe and dignified burials and social mobilization. […] Given the possibility that other imported cases will be introduced into the Americas, and to prevent further spread of the virus, PAHO is working with countries in the region to strengthen their preparedness to detect and quickly respond to a possible imported case of Ebola.

• #68 Ebola (Ebola virus disease) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/ebola-ebola-virus-disease/

  Ebola disease is an often-deadly illness caused by a group of viruses known as orthoebolaviruses. […] The viruses that cause Ebola disease have been found in wild animals (such as fruit bats, monkeys, chimpanzees, and gorillas) in certain parts of Africa and Asia. Outbreaks of Ebola disease in people have occurred in geographic locations where infected animals live. […] Ebola viruses can spread to people who have contact with an infected animals blood, body fluids, or tissues. Ebola viruses then spread from person-to-person through direct contact with blood or body fluids of a person who is sick with or has died from Ebola. […] Contacts of people with Ebola disease should monitor their health closely for 21 days after their exposure. […] The FDA approved the Ebola vaccine rVSV-ZEBOV (called Ervebo) on December 19, 2019. This is the first FDA-approved vaccine for Ebola virus disease caused by Orthoebolavirus zairense. […] Ebola viruses and other viruses that cause hemorrhagic fever are considered possible bioterrorism agents because these viruses could be intentionally released, spread from person-to-person, and cause severe disease or death.

• #69 Ebola Virus Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560579/

  Due to its high case-fatality rate, the virus is a feared biowarfare agent. […] Effective IPC is paramount to controlling the spread of EVD. […] The ability to screen patients for symptoms and signs consistent with EVD, practical training on IPC, facilities to isolate patients with EVD and those under investigation, and swift reporting of patients suspected of having Ebola to public health agencies are crucial to an effective IPC effort to control the disease. […] Both suspected and confirmed cases of Ebola virus disease are reported to local or state health officials as appropriate to the location. […] International travel bans and exit screenings upon departure from countries with active Ebola outbreaks have previously been implemented to prevent further spread. […] Public Health education includes recognition of the signs and symptoms of EVD and understanding of the transmission of Ebola virus (ie, bodily fluids, sexual contact, objects, cadavers).

• #70 Ebola disease prevention, monitoring and surveillance recommendations – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/catmat/ebola-virus-disease-preventive-measures-monitoring-surveillance-travellers.html

  During the 2014-2016 rVSVG-ZEBOV-GP Ebola vaccine (Ervebo) trials, immediate vaccination of close contacts had a 100% effectiveness at preventing EVD and is therefore expected to improve outbreak response in the future. […] The likelihood of exposure and infection with an orthoebolavirus is generally very low for travellers. […] The routes for potential exposure are the same as for residents living in areas of risk, with certain groups, for example, healthcare workers providing direct care to patients, being at substantially increased likelihood for exposure, especially if delivering care in an area suffering an outbreak. […] Specific recommendations for monitoring and surveillance of returning travellers are established by the Quarantine Act and by provincial and territorial public health authorities. […] These recommendations apply only to individuals returning from EBOD-affected areas, defined as specific sub-national regions where cases are documented.

• #71 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Developing a surveillance system during a public health emergency is always challenging but is especially so in countries with limited public health infrastructure. Surveillance for Ebola virus disease (Ebola) in the West African countries heavily affected by Ebola (Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone) faced numerous impediments, including insufficient numbers of trained staff, community reticence to report cases and contacts, limited information technology resources, limited telephone and Internet service, and overwhelming numbers of infected persons. […] Accurate, timely surveillance data are critical during public health emergencies because these data can provide the information needed for appropriate resource allocation, assessment of the success of response, and planning for staffing and resource needs. This was especially true during the 2014-2016 Ebola virus disease (Ebola) epidemic in West Africa. During the epidemic, CDC, along with many other organizations, overcame challenges to conducting effective surveillance in the three countries that were heavily affected (Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone) and had limited public health infrastructure.

• #72 Evaluation of Ebola virus disease surveillance system capability to promptly detect a new outbreak in Liberia | BMJ Global Health

  https://gh.bmj.com/content/8/8/e012369

  The SP simulations revealed large gaps between expected and actual practice in managing a patient warranting investigation for EVD. […] Major challenges affecting the systems operations across all levels included limited access to resources to support surveillance activities, persistent stock out of sample collection materials and attrition of trained staff. […] These findings suggest that while Liberia has made substantial progress in EVD surveillance, there are several areas for improvement if a future EVD outbreak is to be detected promptly.

• #73 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  The current Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa has revealed serious shortcomings in national and international capacity to detect, monitor, and respond to infectious disease outbreaks as they occur. […] Surveillancedefined in the 2005 International Health regulations as the systematic, ongoing collection, collation and analysis of data for public health purposes and the timely dissemination of public health information for assessment and public health response as necessaryis a critical component of outbreak management. […] Inadequate surveillance and/or reporting systems, a major issue for EVD in West Africa, may lead to delayed detection and substantial under-reporting. […] One solution to these problems is the development and deployment of rapid, point-of-care (POC) diagnostic tests, linked to modern information technology.

• #74 Evaluation of Ebola virus disease surveillance system capability to promptly detect a new outbreak in Liberia | BMJ Global Health

  https://gh.bmj.com/content/8/8/e012369

  The SP simulations revealed large gaps between expected and actual practice in managing a patient warranting investigation for EVD. […] Major challenges affecting the systems operations across all levels included limited access to resources to support surveillance activities, persistent stock out of sample collection materials and attrition of trained staff. […] These findings suggest that while Liberia has made substantial progress in EVD surveillance, there are several areas for improvement if a future EVD outbreak is to be detected promptly.

• #75 Ebola Virus Disease Surveillance in Two High-Transmission Districts of Sierra Leone During the 2013–2015 Outbreak: Surveillance Methods, Implications for Maternal and Child Health, and Recommendations | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-97637-2_27

  Breakdowns in surveillance in communities and in health care facilities, along with lack of food and health services for those in quarantine, negatively impacted the health of mothers, their children, and the overall population. Additionally, it adversely affected outbreak control and the community’s trust and engagement on which it depended. Surveillance officers had to skillfully navigate these complex and dynamic circumstances in order to be effective.

• #76

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease

  Ebola disease is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. […] Outbreak control relies on a package of interventions including intensive supportive care of patients, infection prevention and control, disease surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory services, safe and dignified burials, vaccination if relevant, and social mobilization. […] While there are licensed vaccines and therapeutics for Ebola virus disease, there is no approved vaccine or treatment for other Ebola diseases, such as SVD or BVD. Candidate products are in development. […] Community engagement is key to successfully controlling any outbreak. Outbreak control relies on using a range of interventions, such as clinical care, surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory services, infection prevention and control in health facilities, safe and dignified burials, vaccination (only for Ebola virus disease) and social mobilization. […] WHO works with countries to prevent Ebola outbreaks by maintaining surveillance and supporting at-risk countries to develop preparedness plans.

• #77 Lessons from Ebola: improving infectious disease surveillance to inform outbreak management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5819730/

  Mathematical modelling is an established tool in infectious disease epidemiology. […] Real-time projections of case numbers using mathematical models have been provided during many epidemics in the past three decades, including EVD. […] Risk mapping has been applied to a range of diseases, including EVD in Africa. […] The EVD risk map incorporated a set of predictors including elevation, an index of vegetation cover, other environmental variables, and estimated composite distribution data for three bat species suspected to be reservoirs of Ebola virus. […] Strengthening surveillance and response capacity around the world would require investment estimated at tens of billions of dollars per annum, but is likely to be cost-effective.

• #78 Successful Implementation of a Multicountry Clinical Surveillance and Data Collection System for Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa: Findings and Lessons Learned | Global Health: Science and Practice

  https://www.ghspjournal.org/content/4/3/394

  Our data confirmed that high-risk factors for contracting EVD include contact with a sick person and attendance at a funeral. […] Standardized data collection forms should be developed and adopted in advance of disease outbreaks. […] In the future, additional solutions for collecting data in high-risk zones safely and efficiently should be considered, such as the use of electronic medical records. […] Time and effort could be saved with standardized data forms, standardized databases, and closer oversight and quality assurance while data are being collected in the field.

• #79 Epidemiology and Prevention of Ebola Virus Disease: Current Challenges and Effective Strategies

  https://www.walshmedicalmedia.com/open-access/epidemiology-and-prevention-of-ebola-virus-disease-current-challenges-and-effective-strategies-133492.html

  A strong surveillance system is essential for rapid outbreak detection and containment. Key components include: Strengthening laboratory capacity for quick diagnosis, Establishing community-based reporting systems, Using genomic sequencing to track viral transmission patterns. International organizations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), play a vital role in coordinating global surveillance efforts. […] EVD remains a significant global health threat, particularly in regions with limited resources and weak healthcare systems. While progress has been made in vaccination, surveillance and treatment, challenges such as delayed detection, healthcare infrastructure gaps and cultural barriers persist. A comprehensive approach, involving early outbreak detection, strong healthcare infrastructure, public engagement and ongoing research, is essential for preventing future epidemics. Strengthening international collaboration and preparedness efforts will play an important role in reducing the impact of EVD worldwide.

• #80

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease

  Ebola disease is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. […] Outbreak control relies on a package of interventions including intensive supportive care of patients, infection prevention and control, disease surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory services, safe and dignified burials, vaccination if relevant, and social mobilization. […] While there are licensed vaccines and therapeutics for Ebola virus disease, there is no approved vaccine or treatment for other Ebola diseases, such as SVD or BVD. Candidate products are in development. […] Community engagement is key to successfully controlling any outbreak. Outbreak control relies on using a range of interventions, such as clinical care, surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory services, infection prevention and control in health facilities, safe and dignified burials, vaccination (only for Ebola virus disease) and social mobilization. […] WHO works with countries to prevent Ebola outbreaks by maintaining surveillance and supporting at-risk countries to develop preparedness plans.

• #81 Ebola disease prevention, monitoring and surveillance recommendations – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/catmat/ebola-virus-disease-preventive-measures-monitoring-surveillance-travellers.html

  During the 2014-2016 rVSVG-ZEBOV-GP Ebola vaccine (Ervebo) trials, immediate vaccination of close contacts had a 100% effectiveness at preventing EVD and is therefore expected to improve outbreak response in the future. […] The likelihood of exposure and infection with an orthoebolavirus is generally very low for travellers. […] The routes for potential exposure are the same as for residents living in areas of risk, with certain groups, for example, healthcare workers providing direct care to patients, being at substantially increased likelihood for exposure, especially if delivering care in an area suffering an outbreak. […] Specific recommendations for monitoring and surveillance of returning travellers are established by the Quarantine Act and by provincial and territorial public health authorities. […] These recommendations apply only to individuals returning from EBOD-affected areas, defined as specific sub-national regions where cases are documented.

• #82 Ebola Surveillance — Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6503a6.htm

  Developing a surveillance system during a public health emergency is always challenging but is especially so in countries with limited public health infrastructure. Surveillance for Ebola virus disease (Ebola) in the West African countries heavily affected by Ebola (Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone) faced numerous impediments, including insufficient numbers of trained staff, community reticence to report cases and contacts, limited information technology resources, limited telephone and Internet service, and overwhelming numbers of infected persons. […] Accurate, timely surveillance data are critical during public health emergencies because these data can provide the information needed for appropriate resource allocation, assessment of the success of response, and planning for staffing and resource needs. This was especially true during the 2014-2016 Ebola virus disease (Ebola) epidemic in West Africa. During the epidemic, CDC, along with many other organizations, overcame challenges to conducting effective surveillance in the three countries that were heavily affected (Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone) and had limited public health infrastructure.

• #83 Ebola Virus Disease | Snohomish County Health Department, WA

  https://www.snohd.org/153/Ebola-Virus-Disease

  Ebola virus disease, also called ebola or EVD, is a rare, deadly illness that typically infects humans and other primates, such as monkeys. There are occasional outbreaks, usually on the continent of Africa. […] Those at highest risk of infection are healthcare workers who do not use proper infection control while caring for someone infected with ebola, as well as family and friends who are in close contact with someone who is infected with ebola. […] Ebola spreads through direct contact with the blood, other bodily fluids, or body tissue from infected people or animals. […] Ebola requires direct contact to spread. The key to controlling the spread of illness is to identify possible cases early and isolate them from others. Then, the people theyve had contact with while contagious must be contacted so they can be monitored for illness.

• #84 Ebola Virus Disease – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/ebola-virus-disease

  Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. […] The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. […] The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks. […] Good outbreak control relies on applying a package of interventions, namely case management, infection prevention and control practices, surveillance and contact tracing, a good laboratory service, safe and dignified burials and social mobilization. […] Given the possibility that other imported cases will be introduced into the Americas, and to prevent further spread of the virus, PAHO is working with countries in the region to strengthen their preparedness to detect and quickly respond to a possible imported case of Ebola.

• #85 Epidemiology and Prevention of Ebola Virus Disease: Current Challenges and Effective Strategies

  https://www.walshmedicalmedia.com/open-access/epidemiology-and-prevention-of-ebola-virus-disease-current-challenges-and-effective-strategies-133492.html

  A strong surveillance system is essential for rapid outbreak detection and containment. Key components include: Strengthening laboratory capacity for quick diagnosis, Establishing community-based reporting systems, Using genomic sequencing to track viral transmission patterns. International organizations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), play a vital role in coordinating global surveillance efforts. […] EVD remains a significant global health threat, particularly in regions with limited resources and weak healthcare systems. While progress has been made in vaccination, surveillance and treatment, challenges such as delayed detection, healthcare infrastructure gaps and cultural barriers persist. A comprehensive approach, involving early outbreak detection, strong healthcare infrastructure, public engagement and ongoing research, is essential for preventing future epidemics. Strengthening international collaboration and preparedness efforts will play an important role in reducing the impact of EVD worldwide.

• #86 Ebola virus disease: from epidemiology to prophylaxis | Military Medical Research | Full Text

  https://mmrjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40779-015-0035-4

  The outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) continues to spread through West Africa. […] The main strategies to control the EVD outbreak have been mainly public health endeavors focusing on epidemiological surveillance, contact tracing, and quarantine. […] The Ebola treatment units encounter two challenging tasks: to optimize the use of available medical resources and to avoid nosocomial infections. […] Epidemiological data have demonstrated that health care providers are facing an increased occupational risk of Ebola infection. […] Although it is necessary to speed up the pace of developing effective vaccine and therapeutics for the prevention and treatment of EVD, public health prophylaxis is the most important issue at present to control the spread of this disease cost-effectively. […] International cooperation, especially the cooperation between medical and military systems is critical to prevent and control the epidemic of EVD.

• #87 Epidemiology and Prevention of Ebola Virus Disease: Current Challenges and Effective Strategies

  https://www.walshmedicalmedia.com/open-access/epidemiology-and-prevention-of-ebola-virus-disease-current-challenges-and-effective-strategies-133492.html

  A strong surveillance system is essential for rapid outbreak detection and containment. Key components include: Strengthening laboratory capacity for quick diagnosis, Establishing community-based reporting systems, Using genomic sequencing to track viral transmission patterns. International organizations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), play a vital role in coordinating global surveillance efforts. […] EVD remains a significant global health threat, particularly in regions with limited resources and weak healthcare systems. While progress has been made in vaccination, surveillance and treatment, challenges such as delayed detection, healthcare infrastructure gaps and cultural barriers persist. A comprehensive approach, involving early outbreak detection, strong healthcare infrastructure, public engagement and ongoing research, is essential for preventing future epidemics. Strengthening international collaboration and preparedness efforts will play an important role in reducing the impact of EVD worldwide.

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