Choroba whipple’a
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Choroba Whipple’a jest rzadką, wieloukładową chorobą zapalną wywołaną przez gram-dodatnią pałeczkę Tropheryma whipplei, spokrewnioną z promieniowcami i odległym krewnym Mycobacterium avium. Patogeneza choroby opiera się na specyficznej dysfunkcji układu odpornościowego gospodarza, w tym upośledzonej funkcji makrofagów jelitowych, które różnicują się do makrofagów M2, niezdolnych do całkowitej degradacji bakterii. T. whipplei zaburza cykl GTPazy Rab5, blokując przejście od wczesnych fagosomów Rab5-pozytywnych do późnych fagosomów Rab7-pozytywnych, co umożliwia przetrwanie i namnażanie się patogenu. Dodatkowo obserwuje się zmniejszoną aktywność limfocytów Th1 i zwiększoną Th2, obniżoną ekspresję CD11b na makrofagach oraz indukcję apoptozy makrofagów zależną od żywotności bakterii i syntezy białek bakteryjnych. Genetyczna predyspozycja jest potwierdzona przez zwiększoną częstość antygenu HLA-B27 oraz mutację genu IRF4, która upośledza odpowiedź immunologiczną na T. whipplei.

Patofizjologia choroby Whipple’a

Choroba Whipple’a to rzadka wieloukładowa choroba zapalna wywołana przez bakterię Tropheryma whippleigram-dodatnią pałeczkę spokrewnioną z promieniowcami (Actinomycetes). T. whipplei jest odległym krewnym kompleksu Mycobacterium avium, co częściowo wyjaśnia podobieństwo choroby Whipple’a do chorób wywoływanych przez bakterie MAC.123

Rola immunologii gospodarza

Dokładna patogeneza choroby Whipple’a pozostaje niejasna, jednak istnieje wystarczająco dużo dowodów, by sądzić, że układ odpornościowy gospodarza odgrywa kluczową rolę. U chorych odpowiedź zapalna na organizm jest osłabiona i obejmuje głównie zmienioną funkcję makrofagów oraz ich aktywację i upośledzoną odpowiedź limfocytów T typu 1.1

Czynniki gospodarza odgrywają istotną rolę patogenną, na co wskazuje dwu- do trzykrotny wzrost częstości występowania antygenu HLA-B27 wśród osób dotkniętych chorobą. To sugeruje, że predyspozycja genetyczna może umożliwiać rozwój infekcji.123

Niedawno zespół badaczy franco-amerykańskich odkrył mutację genu IRF4, która powoduje upośledzenie odpowiedzi immunologicznej na bakterię T. whipplei. Dysfunkcja tego genu sprawia, że pacjenci są podatni na zakażenie T. whipplei, co stanowi pierwszy znany genetyczny czynnik predysponujący do rozwoju choroby Whipple’a.1

Zaburzenia funkcji makrofagów

Najnowsze badania sugerują, że to specyficzna dla gospodarza dysfunkcja makrofagów jelitowych jest odpowiedzialna za przewlekłe zakażenie T. whipplei. Moos i współpracownicy wykazali, że T. whipplei, szczególnie u pacjentów z chorobą Whipple’a, wyzwala różnicowanie monocytów do makrofagów aktywowanych alternatywnie (M2). Ta podklasa makrofagów nie wykazuje defektu w fagocytozie T. whipplei, ale niezdolność do całkowitej degradacji bakterii.1

Badania wykazały, że makrofagi pacjentów z chorobą Whipple’a mają upośledzoną zdolność do degradacji antygenów bakteryjnych, co jest zgodne z przedłużającym się utrzymywaniem się resztek bakteryjnych w makrofagach jelitowych po terapii.12

T. whipplei zaburza cykl GTPazy Rab5 i jej deplecję z błon fagosomalnych, blokując przejście od wczesnych fagosomów Rab5-pozytywnych do późnych fagosomów Rab7-pozytywnych. Ingerując w aktywność Rab5, T. whipplei tworzy chimeryczny kompartment Rab5 i Rab7 niezdolny do fuzji z lizosomami, w którym patogen może przetrwać i namnażać się.1

Zaburzenia immunomodulacji

Bakteria powoduje również zaburzoną immunomodulację ze zwiększonym wydzielaniem IL-16, zmniejszoną produkcją IL-10 i dysregulacją śluzówkowych limfocytów T pomocniczych.1 U pacjentów z chorobą Whipple’a obserwuje się zmniejszoną aktywność limfocytów T pomocniczych typu 1 (Th1) i zwiększoną aktywność limfocytów T pomocniczych typu 2 (Th2).12

Makrofagi zakażone bakteriami wykazują obniżoną ekspresję CD11b, co prowadzi do nieprawidłowej prezentacji antygenów. Makrofagi te nie są w stanie przekształcić się w dojrzałe fagosomy i obniżają ekspresję tioredoksyny. Upośledzenie różnicowania komórek T-helper 1 prowadzi do niezdolności układu odpornościowego do zabicia bakterii.12

Badania wykazały zmniejszoną produkcję interleukiny-12, IL-2 i interferonu gamma, którym towarzyszy zwiększone wydzielanie IL-4. Są to główne cechy tej wadliwej odpowiedzi immunologicznej.1 U pacjentów z chorobą Whipple’a zaobserwowano również, że fagocyty układu odpornościowego (makrofagi) nie wytwarzają wystarczająco pewnych substancji sygnałowych (monokin), takich jak interleukina-12.1

Apoptoza makrofagów

T. whipplei indukuje apoptozę makrofagów poprzez szlak zewnętrzny. Indukcja apoptozy zależy od żywotności bakterii, a hamowanie syntezy białek bakteryjnych zmniejsza program apoptotyczny wywołany przez T. whipplei. Indukcji apoptozy towarzyszy również masywna degradacja zarówno pro-, jak i anty-apoptotycznych mediatorów.1

Badacze stwierdzili, że indukcja apoptozy wymaga żywotności bakterii i syntezy białek de novo, ponieważ komórki zakażone bakteriami zabijanymi termicznie lub traktowane chloramfenikolem czy streptomycyną nie ulegały apoptozie. Wykazano również, że indukcja apoptozy była związana z replikacją T. whipplei: zapobieganie apoptozie poprzez hamowanie kaspaz inicjujących 8 i 10 powodowało znaczne zmniejszenie replikacji bakterii.1

Mechanizm zakażenia i rozprzestrzeniania

T. whipplei jest zwykle przenoszona drogą pokarmową do ludzkiego organizmu. Bakteria początkowo atakuje śluzówkę jelita cienkiego, tworząc małe zmiany (uszkodzenia) w ścianie jelita. Bakterie uszkadzają również drobne, włosowate wypustki (kosmki) wyściełające jelito cienkie.12

Bakteria T. whipplei wnika do jelit głównie przez nabłonek jelita cienkiego, a następnie może dotrzeć do każdego innego narządu, w tym serca, ośrodkowego układu nerwowego, stawów, węzłów chłonnych, płuc, oczu, nerek, szpiku kostnego i skóry. Tkanki są zakażane przez naciek makrofagów zawierających T. whipplei.1

Z błony śluzowej jelit bakterie rozprzestrzeniają się poprzez naczynia limfatyczne do krezkowych i śródpiersiowych węzłów chłonnych oraz do krążenia ogólnoustrojowego. Organizmy zostały wykryte w zastawkach serca pacjentów z sercową postacią choroby Whipple’a oraz w OUN pacjentów z chorobą neurologiczną.12

Zmiany histopatologiczne

Choroba Whipple’a charakteryzuje się obecnością piankowatych makrofagów w blaszce właściwej, które są dodatnie w barwieniu PAS (kwas nadjodowy-Schiffa).1 Te piankowate makrofagi można łatwo zobaczyć naciekające tkanki przy użyciu mikroskopii świetlnej, zwłaszcza gdy do przekrojów histologicznych stosuje się barwienie PAS.1

Najbardziej nasilone i spójne zmiany występują w proksymalnym odcinku jelita cienkiego. Mikroskopia świetlna pokazuje makrofagi pozytywne w barwieniu kwasem nadjodowym-Schiffa, które zniekształcają architekturę kosmków. Gram-dodatnie, kwasoodporne ujemne pałeczki (T. whipplei) są widoczne w blaszce właściwej i w makrofagach.1

Naciek z makrofagów zakażonych bakteriami może leżeć głęboko w stosunku do błony śluzowej (potencjalnie nawet z zajęciem przezmurowym mięśni) i może pozostać niepobrana w powierzchownych biopsjach, nawet w przypadkach z dużym obciążeniem chorobą.1

Zespół zaburzonego wchłaniania

Choroba Whipple’a uszkadza kosmki jelitowe, upośledzając wchłanianie składników odżywczych. Niedobory żywieniowe są powszechne u osób z chorobą Whipple’a i mogą prowadzić do zmęczenia, osłabienia, utraty masy ciała i bólu stawów.1

Zaburzenia wchłaniania obserwowane w jelicie cienkim, związane z tym schorzeniem, wynikają z zaburzenia normalnej funkcji kosmków w wyniku nacieku blaszki właściwej jelita cienkiego.1 Zniszczenie nabłonka jelita cienkiego prowadzi do biegunki z powodu zmniejszonego wchłaniania i zwiększonego wycieku wody i substancji rozpuszczonych. Zaburzenia wchłaniania składników odżywczych są odpowiedzialne za utratę masy ciała i niedobór witamin rozpuszczalnych w tłuszczach.1

Przewlekła biegunka jest najprawdopodobniej spowodowana przewlekłym zespołem złego wchłaniania i enteropatią z utratą białka w wyniku zakażenia jelita cienkiego przez T. whipplei. Aktywne zapalenie jelit obserwowane mikroskopowo nie jest powszechnym objawem raportowanym w chorobie Whipple’a, ale może być objawem ciężkości choroby.1

Diagnostyka i leczenie

Diagnostyka molekularna

Zastosowanie reakcji łańcuchowej polimerazy (PCR) pozwoliło na identyfikację unikalnego bakteryjnego 16S rybosomalnego RNA w tkance jelitowej i limfatycznej u 5 pacjentów z chorobą Whipple’a, który był nieobecny u 10 pacjentów kontrolnych.1 Techniki PCR są coraz częściej wykorzystywane do identyfikacji bakteryjnych cząsteczek 16S rDNA i innych ukierunkowanych powtarzających się sekwencji Tropheryma whipplei.1

Rozpoznanie definitywne ustala się na podstawie dodatnich wyników histologicznych w barwieniu PAS wraz z dodatnim wynikiem PCR. Rozpoznanie w przypadkach, gdy objawy żołądkowo-jelitowe są nieobecne, może być trudne.12

Implikacje terapeutyczne

Choroba Whipple’a jest postępującą i potencjalnie śmiertelną chorobą. Nieleczona choroba ma przebieg postępujący i śmiertelny. Wiele antybiotyków jest skutecznych (np. trimetoprim/sulfametoksazol, penicylina, cefalosporyny). Leczenie antybiotykami powinno być rozpoczęte wcześnie, preferowane są leki, które dobrze przenikają przez barierę krew-mózg, zapobiegając nawrotom neurologicznym, biorąc pod uwagę częste zajęcie OUN i fakt, że jest to najczęstsza lokalizacja nawrotów.12

Nawroty są częste i mogą wystąpić po latach. Po przerwaniu antybiotykoterapii istnieje 9-15% ryzyko utajenia się T. whipplei w organizmie przez wiele lat, głównie u pacjentów z zajęciem OUN.12

Leczenie immunosupresyjne może przyczynić się do progresji zakażenia i może stanowić drugi czynnik w patogenezie choroby. Stosowanie leków immunosupresyjnych w leczeniu stawów (choroba często jest błędnie diagnozowana jako seronegatywna choroba reumatyczna) może przyspieszyć wystąpienie choroby jelitowej lub innych chorób układowych.12

Podsumowanie mechanizmów patogenezy

Podsumowując, patogeneza choroby Whipple’a obejmuje złożoną interakcję między czynnikami gospodarza a bakterią T. whipplei:

  • Predyspozycja genetyczna (związek z HLA-B27, mutacja genu IRF4)12
  • Zaburzenia funkcji makrofagów i ich niezdolność do eliminacji bakterii12
  • Zaburzenia równowagi między odpowiedzią Th1 i Th2, z przewagą Th212
  • Zmniejszona ekspresja CD11b na monocytach prowadząca do nieprawidłowej prezentacji antygenów12
  • Indukcja apoptozy makrofagów przez T. whipplei, co sprzyja replikacji bakterii12
  • Blokowanie przejścia od wczesnych do późnych fagosomów poprzez ingerencję w cykl GTPazy Rab51
  • Naciek blaszki właściwej jelita przez makrofagi zawierające T. whipplei, prowadzący do zaburzenia funkcji kosmków i zespołu złego wchłaniania12

Ta złożona patogeneza wyjaśnia rzadkość inwazyjnego zakażenia w porównaniu z rozpowszechnieniem przewlekłego nosicielstwa i możliwość reinfekcji, czasami innym szczepem.1 Defekt immunologiczny wydaje się być dość specyficzny dla T. whipplei, ponieważ pacjenci nie są ogólnie dotknięci innymi zakażeniami.1

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 SciELO Brazil – Whipple’s disease: a fatal mimic Whipple’s disease: a fatal mimic
    https://www.scielo.br/j/acrep/a/rdgGFSd8mWMHffytDSBjFHK/
    Whipples disease (WD) is an exceedingly rare systemic infection caused by the bacterium Tropheryma whipplei (T. whipplei), a fastidious, bacilliform, phylogenetically gram-positive bacteria characteristically positive for periodic acid schiff histochemical stain and diastase resistant (PAS-D+). WD presents with non-specific gastrointestinal symptoms and malabsorption. […] The chronic diarrhea is most likely due to chronic malabsorption, and protein-losing enteropathy from small bowel T. whipplei infection. The active enteritis observed microscopically is not a common finding reported in WD, but in our case may be a manifestation of the severity of disease. These GI findings in total not only explain the cause of diarrhea but may also have further contributed to hypovolemic shock, due to the massive fluid and associated protein loss.
  • #1 Whipple Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441937/
    The detailed pathogenesis remains unclear, but there is enough evidence to believe that host immunity plays an important role. […] In diseased individuals, the inflammatory response to the organism is muted. It consists primarily of altered macrophage function and activation and an impaired type 1 T-cell response. […] Host factors play an important pathogenic role as suggested by the two to threefold increase in the frequency of HLA-B27 antigen among affected individuals. […] The malabsorption seen is due to disruption of the normal villus function. If systemic disease develops, the organism can be found in many tissues.
  • #1 Discovery of a first genetic cause of Whipple’s disease – Inserm Newsroom
    https://presse.inserm.fr/en/discovery-of-a-first-genetic-cause-of-whipples-disease/58235/
    A Franco-American team involving researchers from Inserm, Universit Paris-Descartes and doctors grouped in the Institute Imagine the hospital Necker-Enfants Malades AP-HP and Rockefeller University New York discovered a genetic cause of Whipples disease, chronic intestinal pathology. […] The team found that the mutation of the gene causes IRF4 an impaired immune response to the bacteria Tropheryma whipplei at the origin of the disease. […] Dysfunction of this gene makes these patients vulnerable to infection with T. whipplei. […] It remains to find and understand the mechanism immune deficiency caused by the mutation of the gene and to find other genetic mutations that may explain the vulnerability to disease. […] This breakthrough helps explain why some patients exposed to the bacteria are sick or not, improve diagnosis, genetic counseling to families and the care of patients with the signs of the disease.
  • #1 Whipple’s Disease
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4513828/
    Recent studies suggest that a host-specific dysfunction of the intestinal macrophages is responsible for the chronic infection with T. whipplei. […] The impaired function of the macrophages seems to be responsible for the development of WD. […] Moos et al. showed that T. whipplei, specifically in WD patients, triggers a differentiation from monocytes to M2/alternative-activated macrophages. This subclass of macrophages does not show a defect in the phagocytosis of T. whipplei, but an inability to degrade the bacterium in its entirety. […] The bacterium also causes an impaired immunomodulation with an increased IL-16 secretion, a reduced IL-10 production, and a dysregulation of mucosal T helper cells.
  • #1 Whipple’s Disease | Abdominal Key
    https://abdominalkey.com/whipples-disease/
    One study showed that the monocytes of a patient with Whipples disease exhibited an impaired ability to degrade bacterial antigens, which is consistent with the prolonged persistence of bacterial remnants in intestinal macrophages after therapy observed in histologic studies of Whipples disease. […] Taken together, all these observations and laboratory findings suggest that there are immunologic factors, including quantitative deficiencies in macrophage activation, microbial phagocytosis, and the regulation of a cellular immune response, that facilitate the occurrence of Whipples disease.
  • #1 Tropheryma whipplei, the Agent of Whipple’s Disease, Affects the Early to Late Phagosome Transition and Survives in a Rab5- and Rab7-Positive Compartment | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0089367
    Tropheryma whipplei, the agent of Whipple’s disease, inhibits phago-lysosome biogenesis to create a suitable niche for its survival and replication in macrophages. […] Our data show that T. whipplei affects the transition from early to late phagosomes by blocking the Rab5-to-Rab7 switch. […] T. whipplei replicates in both macrophages and non-microbicidal cells, reaching a maximum replication rate at 12 days after infection, and resides in a phagosome unable to fuse with lysosomes. […] T. whipplei might block the conversion of its phagosome into a phago-lysosome by interfering at the transition stage from Rab5-positive early phagosomes to Rab7-positive late phagosomes. […] T. whipplei impairs the GTPase cycle of Rab5 and its depletion from the phagosomal membranes, blocking the transition from early to late phagosomes. […] By interfering with Rab5 activity, T. whipplei creates a chimeric Rab5 and Rab7 compartment unable to fuse with lysosomes in which the pathogen can survive and replicate.
  • #1 Whipple’s disease pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Whipple%27s_disease_pathophysiology
    Whipples disease is a rare systemic disease. Therefore, some aspects of pathogenesis have remained unclear. Tropheryma whipplei is usually transmitted through oral route to human hosts. There is no known causative genetic factor for Whipple’s disease. However, genetic and immunologic factors play important roles in clinical manifestation of Tropheryma whipplei infection. Individuals with positive HLA-B27 and defective cellular immunity including AIDS are at risk for Whipple’s disease. Impaired macrophage function and cellular immunity are the main factors in replication of the bacteria and disease expansion to every tissue. There is a decreased activity of the T helper cells type 1 and increased activity of the T helper cells type 2. Defective phagocytic system is responsible for replication of bacteria in macrophages and spread of bacteria to other tissues. Characteristic of Whipple’s disease is presence of foamy macrophages in the lamina propria that is periodic acid-Schiff stain positive.
  • #1 Whipple’s disease pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Whipple%27s_disease_pathophysiology
    Whipple’s disease is a rare bacterial systemic infection caused by Tropheryma whipplei. […] Tropheryma whipplei invades intestines primarily and then every other organ including the heart, CNS, joints, lymph nodes, lungs, eyes, kidneys, bone marrow, and skin. Tissues are infected by macrophage infiltration contaminated by Tropheryma whipplei. Tropheryma whipplei multiplies in macrophages and monocytes. Although there is a massive infiltration of the intestinal mucosa with the bacteria, the immunologic response is not adequate to limit the infection. Bacterium-infected macrophages express less CD11b which leads to inappropriate antigen presentation. These macrophages are unable to turn into mature phagosomes and lower the thioredoxin expression. The impairment in T-helper 1 cells differentiation leads to the inability of the immune system to kill the bacteria.
  • #1 Current Concepts of Immunopathogenesis, Diagnosis and Therapy in …: Ingenta Connect
    https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cmc/2006/00000013/00000024/art00006?crawler=true
    Whipple’s disease (WD) is a rare chronic infectious disorder caused by the rod-shaped bacterium Tropheryma whipplei. […] A defect in cellular immune response may predispose patients for an infection with T. whipplei and this might explain the rarity of the disorder despite the ubiquitous bacterial presence. […] The presumed immunological defect is likely to be quite specific for T. whipplei, since patients are not generally affected by other infections. Decreased production of Interleukin(IL)-12, IL-2 and Interferon (IFN)- accompanied by an increased secretion of IL-4 are the main features of this defective immunological response.
  • #1 Whipple’s disease – a rare infectious disease
    https://cara.care/en/digestive-disorders/lower-abdomen/whipples-disease/
    It is believed that Whipple’s disease is caused by the pathogen Tropheryma whipplei. […] A defect in the cellular immune system also probably plays a role. In particular, the T cells (T lymphocytes) seem to have limited functionality. […] It has also been shown that the so-called phagocytes of the immune system (macrophages) do not produce certain signal substances (monokines) sufficiently in Whipple sufferers. This is, for example, the signal substance Interleukin-12. […] Because the pathogen is found in the stool of two to four percent of the population – without any complaints. Therefore, experts suspect that a malfunction of the cellular immune system, more precisely the phagocytes (macrophages) and T cells play a role. Genetic predisposition could also contribute to the onset of the disease.
  • #1 Tropheryma whipplei, the Whipple’s disease bacillus, induces macrophage apoptosis through the extrinsic pathway | Cell Death & Disease
    https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis201011
    Tropheryma whipplei, the etiological agent of Whipple’s disease, is an intracellular bacterium that infects macrophages. We previously showed that infection of macrophages results in M2 polarization associated with induction of apoptosis and interleukin (IL)-16 secretion. […] Our data showed that apoptosis induction depended on bacterial viability and inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis reduced the apoptotic program elicited by T. whipplei. Induction of apoptosis was also associated with a massive degradation of both pro- and anti-apoptotic mediators. […] Collectively, these data suggest that T. whipplei induces apoptosis through the extrinsic pathway and that, beside M2 polarization of macrophages, apoptosis induction contributes to bacterial replication and represents a virulence trait of this intracellular pathogen.
  • #1 Tropheryma whipplei, the Whipple’s disease bacillus, induces macrophage apoptosis through the extrinsic pathway | Cell Death & Disease
    https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis201011
    We found that apoptosis induction required bacterial viability and de novo protein synthesis, as cells infected with heat-killed bacteria or treated with chloramphenicol or streptomycin did not undergo apoptosis. […] Induction of apoptosis was associated with a disturbance of pro- and anti-apoptotic mediators. […] In contrast, the initiator caspases 8 and 10 were required for apoptosis induction. […] Collectively, these data strongly suggest that T. whipplei-induced apoptosis follows the extrinsic pathway. […] We also showed that apoptosis induction was linked to T. whipplei replication: prevention of apoptosis by inhibiting the initiator caspases 8 and 10 resulted in a marked reduction of bacterial replication. […] Therefore, apoptosis induction and p21 overexpression might act in concert to subvert macrophage responses, at least by modulating their activation and polarization. […] In conclusion, we show that T. whipplei induces apoptosis in macrophages through a caspase 8- and caspase 3-dependent pathway, associated with IL-16 secretion and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential.
  • #1 Whipple’s disease – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/whipples-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20378946
    Whipple disease is caused by a type of bacterium called Tropheryma whipplei. The bacteria affect the mucosal lining of your small intestine first, forming small sores (lesions) within the wall of the intestine. The bacteria also damage the fine, hairlike projections (villi) that line the small intestine. […] Some researchers believe that people with the disease may have a genetic defect in their immune system response that makes them more likely to become sick when exposed to the bacteria. […] Whipple disease damages the villi, impairing nutrient absorption. Nutritional deficiencies are common in people with Whipple disease and can lead to fatigue, weakness, weight loss and joint pain. […] Whipple disease is a progressive and potentially fatal disease. Although the infection is rare, associated deaths continue to be reported. This is due in large part to late diagnoses and delayed treatment. Death often is caused by the spread of the infection to the central nervous system, which can cause irreversible damage.
  • #1 Whipple’s disease: a case report and review of literature – MedCrave online
    https://medcraveonline.com/MOJCR/whipplersquos-disease-anbspcase-report-and-review-of-literature.html
    Whipple’s disease is caused by a gram-positive infectious bacillus called Tropheryma whipplei (T. whipplei). […] Whipple’s disease is caused by a gram-positive infectious bacillus called Tropheryma Whipplei. T. whipplei is an actinomycete that can be isolated from various types of specimens, as infected heart valves, duodenal biopsy specimens, ocular vitreous fluid, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), synovial fluid, blood, mesenteric lymph node tissue, muscle tissue, and feces. […] T. whipplei has the capability of invading the mucosa of the proximal small intestine where it’s located extracellular and just below the epithelial basement membrane of the lamina propria. […] From the intestinal mucosa, bacteria are thought to spread via lymphatics into mesenteric and mediastinal lymph nodes and into the systemic circulation causing the extra-intestinal manifestations.
  • #1 Whipple’s disease: a case report and review of literature – MedCrave online
    https://medcraveonline.com/MOJCR/whipplersquos-disease-anbspcase-report-and-review-of-literature.html
    The clinical manifestations of the disease are mainly caused by infiltration of the tissues by T. whippeli where the immune system reacts by incorporating the organisms into tissue macrophages „foamy macrophages”. […] Consequent malabsorption associated with Whipples disease is believed to be secondary to the disruption of normal villous function due to infiltration of the lamina propria of the small bowel with these foamy macrophages. […] The organisms had been detected in the heart valves of patients with cardiac Whipple’s disease and in the CNS of patients with neurological disease. […] These foamy macrophages can be easily seen infiltrating this tissues using light microscopy, especially when PAS stain is used for the histological sections.
  • #1 Whipple Disease – Gastrointestinal Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/malabsorption-syndromes/whipple-disease
    In the United States, Whipple disease is rare, affecting White individuals over age 30 and more commonly over age 60; in some parts of the world, however, it is endemic. […] Affected patients may have subtle defects of cell-mediated immunity that predispose to infection with T. whipplei. […] The diagnosis of Whipple disease may be missed in patients without prominent gastrointestinal symptoms. […] Whipple disease should be suspected in middle-aged or older White individuals with arthritis and abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, or other symptoms of malabsorption. […] The most severe and consistent changes are in the proximal small bowel. […] Light microscopy shows periodic acid-Schiff positive macrophages that distort the villus architecture. […] Gram-positive, acid fast negative bacilli (T. whipplei) are seen in the lamina propria and in the macrophages.
  • #1 SciELO Brazil – Whipple’s disease: a fatal mimic Whipple’s disease: a fatal mimic
    https://www.scielo.br/j/acrep/a/rdgGFSd8mWMHffytDSBjFHK/
    The autopsy findings also highlight a particular challenge in diagnosing WD by superficial luminal endoscopic biopsy. The bacteria-laden macrophage infiltrates may lie deep to the mucosa (potentially even with transmural muscle involvement), and could potentially go unsampled in superficial biopsies, even in cases with a heavy burden of disease. […] Collectively, these findings are strong evidence for disseminated, multi-organ involvement with T. whipplei. Notably, in the intestine, there was also concurrent focal mild active enteritis also potentially induced by the infection, which may have further contributed to the patients severe diarrhea along with the malabsorptve effects of the T. whipplei organisms.
  • #1 Whipple Disease: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/183350-overview
    Whipple disease is a rare multisystem inflammatory disease. The clinical manifestations of the disease are believed to be caused by infiltration of the various body tissues by T whipplei. The patient’s immune system reacts by incorporating the organisms into tissue macrophages. […] The malabsorption observed in the small bowel that is associated with this condition is believed to be secondary to the disruption of normal villous function due to infiltration of the lamina propria of the small bowel. […] Whipple disease is believed to be due to a disordered host response to the bacterium T whipplei. […] Data that suggest that T whipplei DNA may be found in patients who are asymptomatic. […] The production of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies has been shown. The organism has been cultured from affected cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and vitreous humor of patients with Whipple disease.
  • #1 Whipple’s disease-Diarrhea with Dementia – Creative Med Doses
    https://creativemeddoses.com/topics-list/whipples-disease-diarrhea-with-dementia/
    The defective T-lymphocyte (Helper T cells/TH1 cells) function may be an important predisposing factor for the disease. This dysfunction along with macrophage phagocytosis defects leads to accumulation of bacteria in organs, which leads to inflammation and injury to the tissue involved. […] T. whipplei has a tropism for myeloid cells. It invades myeloid cells and stays there to avoid being killed. Infiltration of infected tissue by large numbers of foamy macrophages containing periodic acidSchiff (PAS) staining inclusions (representing ingested bacteria) is a characteristic and most common finding. As the disease progress, there will be villus atrophy, lymphangiectasia, crypt hyperplasia, and apoptosis of surface epithelial cells of small intestine. The epithelium destruction of small intestine leads to diarrhea due to decreased absorption and increased leak flux of water and solutes. Malabsorption of nutrients is responsible for weight loss and fat-soluble vitamin deficiency.
  • #1 Whipple’s disease – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/whipples-disease
    Whipple’s disease is caused by T. whipplei, a gram-positive bacillus related to Actinomycetes. […] Application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) allowed identification of a unique bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA in the intestinal and lymphatic tissue of 5 patients with Whipple’s disease that was absent in 10 control patients. […] Culture of the organism is extremely difficult. This had not been achieved until a 1997 report in which T. whipplei was propagated in cell culture; deactivation of peripheral blood monocytes with interleukin-4 was required for intracellular growth to occur.
  • #1 An unusual presentation of Whipples disease: adenopathies, polyarthralgia and dermatomyositis-like symptoms
    https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/em/Article/1001113
    Whipples disease (WD) is a rare systemic disease caused by gram-positive bacillus bacteria that invades multiple organs mainly the intestinal epithelium. […] WD is a rare, without antibiotic treatment deadly systemic infectious disease caused by the ubiquitary Gram-positive bacterium Tropheryma whipplei. […] The microscopic pathologic findings consist of massive infiltration of foamy macrophages containing dense PAS-positive granules. […] Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is increasingly used to identify bacterial 16S rDNA molecules and other targeted repeated sequences of Tropheryma whipplei (T. whipplei, formerly Tropheryma whippelii). […] The definitive diagnosis is established in PAS-positive histologic findings along with positive PCR. […] The use of immunosuppressive drugs for articular treatment (the illness being sometimes misdiagnosed as seronegative rheumatic disease) may accelerate the onset of intestinal or other systemic illness.
  • #1 Whipple Disease – Gastrointestinal Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/malabsorption-syndromes/whipple-disease
    Untreated disease is progressive and fatal. […] Many antibiotics are curative (eg, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, penicillin, cephalosporins). […] To confirm response to treatment, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing can be performed on stool, saliva, or other tissue. […] Relapses are common and may occur years later. […] Infection by the bacteria T. whipplei affects many organs, including the gastrointestinal tract. […] Small-bowel mucosal involvement causes malabsorption. […] Long-term antibiotic treatment is necessary, and relapses are common.
  • #1 An unusual presentation of Whipples disease: adenopathies, polyarthralgia and dermatomyositis-like symptoms
    https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/em/Article/1001113
    Immunosuppressive therapy may contribute to the progression of the infection and it may represent a second hit in the pathogenesis of the disease. […] Diagnosis in our case was difficult when gastrointestinal symptoms were absent. […] The patient had persistent elevation of inflammatory markers (ESR110, CRP124) and normocytic anemia. […] The diagnosis of WD is challenging in that it allows specific treatment and difficult due to its rarity, to the diversity of clinical manifestations and to its slow progressive course that can mimic autoinflammatory, autoimmune or malignant diseases. […] WD should be taken into account because of its wide variety of clinical manifestations and because of its potential fatal outcome in the absence of treatment.
  • #1 Rheumatological features of Whipple disease | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-91671-9
    The TW genome suggests a host-dependent lifestyle, with the requirement of external nutrients but also the use of mechanisms to escape from the host immune system. […] WD infection is thought to result from a subtle defect of host immunity, explaining the scarcity of invasive infection compared to the prevalence of chronic carriage and the possibility of reinfections, sometimes with a different strain. […] The proposed overactive immune actors involved in WD pathophysiology are presented in Fig. 1. […] In summary, WD has many presentations, with an initial immune defect in the gut. Other immune actors are also involved, with global overactivity in response to chronic antigen stimulation, and are responsible for the various WD presentations encountered.
  • #2 Whipple’s disease – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whipple%27s_disease
    T. whipplei is one of the Actinomycetes, and is a distant relative of the Mycobacterium avium complex, explaining in part why Whipple’s disease is similar to the diseases caused by MAC bacteria. […] The disease is common in farmers and those exposed to soil and animals, suggesting that the infection is acquired from these sources. […] Individuals who are most susceptible to the disease are those with decreased ability to perform intracellular degradation of ingested pathogens or particles, particularly within macrophages. Several studies indicate that defective T-lymphocyte (particularly TH1 population) function may be an important predisposing factor for the disease. […] In particular, circulating cells which are CD11b (also known as integrin alpha) expressive are reduced in susceptible individuals. CD11b has a vital role in activation of macrophages to destroy intracellularly ingested T. whipplei bacteria.
  • #2 Whipple disease – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice US
    https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/467
    Whipple disease is a chronic multisystemic disease caused by the gram-positive bacterium Tropheryma whipplei, first described by G.H. Whipple in 1907. […] A genetic predisposition for Whipple disease seems to enable the establishment of an infection. […] Schneider T, Moos V, Loddenkemper C, et al. Whipple’s disease: new aspects of pathogenesis and treatment. Lancet Infect Dis. 2008 Mar;8(3):179-90.
  • #2 Whipple’s disease pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Whipple%27s_disease_pathophysiology
    Whipples disease is a rare systemic disease. Therefore, some aspects of pathogenesis have remained unclear. Tropheryma whipplei is usually transmitted through oral route to human hosts. There is no known causative genetic factor for Whipple’s disease. However, genetic and immunologic factors play important roles in clinical manifestation of Tropheryma whipplei infection. Individuals with positive HLA-B27 and defective cellular immunity including AIDS are at risk for Whipple’s disease. Impaired macrophage function and cellular immunity are the main factors in replication of the bacteria and disease expansion to every tissue. There is a decreased activity of the T helper cells type 1 and increased activity of the T helper cells type 2. Defective phagocytic system is responsible for replication of bacteria in macrophages and spread of bacteria to other tissues. Characteristic of Whipple’s disease is presence of foamy macrophages in the lamina propria that is periodic acid-Schiff stain positive.
  • #2 Whipple’s disease pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Whipple%27s_disease_pathophysiology
    Whipple’s disease is a rare bacterial systemic infection caused by Tropheryma whipplei. […] Tropheryma whipplei invades intestines primarily and then every other organ including the heart, CNS, joints, lymph nodes, lungs, eyes, kidneys, bone marrow, and skin. Tissues are infected by macrophage infiltration contaminated by Tropheryma whipplei. Tropheryma whipplei multiplies in macrophages and monocytes. Although there is a massive infiltration of the intestinal mucosa with the bacteria, the immunologic response is not adequate to limit the infection. Bacterium-infected macrophages express less CD11b which leads to inappropriate antigen presentation. These macrophages are unable to turn into mature phagosomes and lower the thioredoxin expression. The impairment in T-helper 1 cells differentiation leads to the inability of the immune system to kill the bacteria.
  • #2 Whipple’s Disease | Abdominal Key
    https://abdominalkey.com/whipples-disease/
    Whipples disease is a chronic systemic infection caused by a Gram-positive bacterium, Tropheryma whipplei. […] Many open questions still surround its pathogenesis, but host immunologic factors are presumed to influence susceptibility to the disease. […] The exact source of infection and the sequence of events leading to bacterial multiplication and pathologic changes are still unclear. […] Current concepts hold that once T. whipplei has been acquired, it enters the proximal small intestine where the bacteria invade the mucosa. […] Evidence for this is provided by electron microscopy. […] From the intestinal mucosa, bacteria are thought to spread via lymphatics into mesenteric and mediastinal lymph nodes and into the systemic circulation. […] Several abnormalities of immune function have been observed in patients with Whipples disease, including transient (i.e., during active disease), as well as persistent (i.e., after therapy) abnormalities; the persistent abnormalities are presumed to serve as predisposing factors for development of disease.
  • #2 An unusual presentation of Whipples disease: adenopathies, polyarthralgia and dermatomyositis-like symptoms
    https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/em/Article/1001113
    Immunosuppressive therapy may contribute to the progression of the infection and it may represent a second hit in the pathogenesis of the disease. […] Diagnosis in our case was difficult when gastrointestinal symptoms were absent. […] The patient had persistent elevation of inflammatory markers (ESR110, CRP124) and normocytic anemia. […] The diagnosis of WD is challenging in that it allows specific treatment and difficult due to its rarity, to the diversity of clinical manifestations and to its slow progressive course that can mimic autoinflammatory, autoimmune or malignant diseases. […] WD should be taken into account because of its wide variety of clinical manifestations and because of its potential fatal outcome in the absence of treatment.
  • #2 Whipple’s disease: the great masquerader—a high level of suspicion is the key to diagnosis | BMC Gastroenterology | Full Text
    https://bmcgastroenterol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12876-021-01664-1
    The gastrointestinal symptoms usually appear late in the disease course with intermittent water-thin diarrhea that can become bloody, cramp-like abdominal pain, and weight loss. […] The diagnosis of WD is therefore made histopathologically with the detection of PAS-positive inclusions in histiocytes/macrophages in the lamina propria from small intestinal mucosal biopsies, but also other tissues such as articular fluid, lymph nodes, CSF and, heart valves. […] Treatment with anti-TNF-inhibitors can abolish these hallmark histopathological findings, as seen in Patient two where a first upper endoscopy missed the diagnosis, thus underlying the importance of including PCR-testing on bioptic material in any case of suspected WD. […] WD has a dismal prognosis if left untreated. It is important to treat with antibiotics that penetrate the blood-brain barrier given that T. whipplei often is present in the CSF. […] After discontinuation of antibiotic therapy, there is a 9-15% risk of T. whipplei to persist latently in the body for many years, mainly in patients with CNS involvement.
  • #2 Rheumatological features of Whipple disease | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-91671-9
    Whipple disease (WD) is a rare infectious systemic disease. […] Given the heterogeneous presentations and the presence of chronic carriage, multiple TW PCR tests on samples from specific rheumatological sites when possible should be performed, but samples from nonspecific digestive and extradigestive sites also have great value. […] A better understanding of the rheumatological presentation of the disease is necessary to make earlier diagnoses since immunosuppressive (IS) treatments, such as TNF inhibitors (TNFis), may worsen the disease course and may increase the frequency of immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). […] The improvement of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques has enabled the description of localized forms without any digestive involvement based on PCR analysis of specific nondigestive specimens.
  • #2 Discovery of a first genetic cause of Whipple’s disease – Inserm Newsroom
    https://presse.inserm.fr/en/discovery-of-a-first-genetic-cause-of-whipples-disease/58235/
    A Franco-American team involving researchers from Inserm, Universit Paris-Descartes and doctors grouped in the Institute Imagine the hospital Necker-Enfants Malades AP-HP and Rockefeller University New York discovered a genetic cause of Whipples disease, chronic intestinal pathology. […] The team found that the mutation of the gene causes IRF4 an impaired immune response to the bacteria Tropheryma whipplei at the origin of the disease. […] Dysfunction of this gene makes these patients vulnerable to infection with T. whipplei. […] It remains to find and understand the mechanism immune deficiency caused by the mutation of the gene and to find other genetic mutations that may explain the vulnerability to disease. […] This breakthrough helps explain why some patients exposed to the bacteria are sick or not, improve diagnosis, genetic counseling to families and the care of patients with the signs of the disease.
  • #2 Whipple’s Disease | Abdominal Key
    https://abdominalkey.com/whipples-disease/
    One study showed that the monocytes of a patient with Whipples disease exhibited an impaired ability to degrade bacterial antigens, which is consistent with the prolonged persistence of bacterial remnants in intestinal macrophages after therapy observed in histologic studies of Whipples disease. […] Taken together, all these observations and laboratory findings suggest that there are immunologic factors, including quantitative deficiencies in macrophage activation, microbial phagocytosis, and the regulation of a cellular immune response, that facilitate the occurrence of Whipples disease.
  • #2 Tropheryma whipplei, the Whipple’s disease bacillus, induces macrophage apoptosis through the extrinsic pathway | Cell Death & Disease
    https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis201011
    We found that apoptosis induction required bacterial viability and de novo protein synthesis, as cells infected with heat-killed bacteria or treated with chloramphenicol or streptomycin did not undergo apoptosis. […] Induction of apoptosis was associated with a disturbance of pro- and anti-apoptotic mediators. […] In contrast, the initiator caspases 8 and 10 were required for apoptosis induction. […] Collectively, these data strongly suggest that T. whipplei-induced apoptosis follows the extrinsic pathway. […] We also showed that apoptosis induction was linked to T. whipplei replication: prevention of apoptosis by inhibiting the initiator caspases 8 and 10 resulted in a marked reduction of bacterial replication. […] Therefore, apoptosis induction and p21 overexpression might act in concert to subvert macrophage responses, at least by modulating their activation and polarization. […] In conclusion, we show that T. whipplei induces apoptosis in macrophages through a caspase 8- and caspase 3-dependent pathway, associated with IL-16 secretion and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential.
  • #2 Whipple’s disease – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/whipples-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20378946
    Whipple disease is caused by a type of bacterium called Tropheryma whipplei. The bacteria affect the mucosal lining of your small intestine first, forming small sores (lesions) within the wall of the intestine. The bacteria also damage the fine, hairlike projections (villi) that line the small intestine. […] Some researchers believe that people with the disease may have a genetic defect in their immune system response that makes them more likely to become sick when exposed to the bacteria. […] Whipple disease damages the villi, impairing nutrient absorption. Nutritional deficiencies are common in people with Whipple disease and can lead to fatigue, weakness, weight loss and joint pain. […] Whipple disease is a progressive and potentially fatal disease. Although the infection is rare, associated deaths continue to be reported. This is due in large part to late diagnoses and delayed treatment. Death often is caused by the spread of the infection to the central nervous system, which can cause irreversible damage.
  • #3 Whipple’s disease – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/whipples-disease
    Whipple’s disease is caused by T. whipplei, a gram-positive bacillus related to Actinomycetes. […] Application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) allowed identification of a unique bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA in the intestinal and lymphatic tissue of 5 patients with Whipple’s disease that was absent in 10 control patients. […] Culture of the organism is extremely difficult. This had not been achieved until a 1997 report in which T. whipplei was propagated in cell culture; deactivation of peripheral blood monocytes with interleukin-4 was required for intracellular growth to occur.
  • #3 Discovery of a first genetic cause of Whipple’s disease – Inserm Newsroom
    https://presse.inserm.fr/en/discovery-of-a-first-genetic-cause-of-whipples-disease/58235/
    A Franco-American team involving researchers from Inserm, Universit Paris-Descartes and doctors grouped in the Institute Imagine the hospital Necker-Enfants Malades AP-HP and Rockefeller University New York discovered a genetic cause of Whipples disease, chronic intestinal pathology. […] The team found that the mutation of the gene causes IRF4 an impaired immune response to the bacteria Tropheryma whipplei at the origin of the disease. […] Dysfunction of this gene makes these patients vulnerable to infection with T. whipplei. […] It remains to find and understand the mechanism immune deficiency caused by the mutation of the gene and to find other genetic mutations that may explain the vulnerability to disease. […] This breakthrough helps explain why some patients exposed to the bacteria are sick or not, improve diagnosis, genetic counseling to families and the care of patients with the signs of the disease.