Materiały źródłowe

• #1

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rhesus-disease/causes/

  Rhesus disease is caused by a specific mix of blood types between a pregnant mother and her unborn baby. […] It can only occur where all of the following happen, where the: mother has a rhesus negative (RhD negative) blood type, baby has a rhesus positive (RhD positive) blood type, mother has previously been exposed to RhD positive blood and has developed an immune response to it (known as sensitisation). […] An RhD positive baby will only have rhesus disease if their RhD negative mother has been sensitised to RhD positive blood. […] If sensitisation occurs, the next time the woman is exposed to RhD positive blood her body will produce antibodies immediately. […] If she’s pregnant with an RhD positive baby, the antibodies can lead to rhesus disease when they cross the placenta and start attacking the baby’s red blood cells.

• #2

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rhesus-disease/

  Rhesus disease only happens when the mother has rhesus negative blood (RhD negative) and the baby in her womb has rhesus positive blood (RhD positive). […] Sensitisation happens when a woman with RhD negative blood is exposed to RhD positive blood, usually during a previous pregnancy with an RhD positive baby. […] If sensitisation occurs, the next time the woman is exposed to RhD positive blood, her body produces antibodies immediately. […] If she’s pregnant with an RhD positive baby, the antibodies can cross the placenta, causing rhesus disease in the unborn baby.

• #3 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  Rh disease is a type of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). […] The term „Rh disease” is commonly used to refer to HDFN due to anti-D antibodies. […] The disease ranges from mild to severe, and occurs in the second or subsequent pregnancies of Rh-D negative women when the biological father is Rh-D positive. […] HDFN due to anti-D is preventable by treating the mother during pregnancy and soon after delivery with an injection of anti-Rho(D) immune globulin. […] With successful mitigation of this disease by prevention through the use of anti-Rho(D) immune globulin, other antibodies are more commonly the cause of HDFN today. […] The mother’s immune system reacts to the Rh-positive red blood cells the same way that it would respond to something like a virus or bacteria, activating B cells.

• #4 Rh Disease | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/r/rh-disease.html

  Rh disease occurs during pregnancy. It happens when the Rh factors in the birth parents and baby’s blood don’t match. […] What causes Rh disease? Each person has a blood type (O, A, B, or AB). Everyone also has an Rh factor (positive or negative). […] There can be a problem when an Rh negative birth parent has a baby with an Rh positive father. If the baby’s Rh factor is positive, like their nonbirth parent’s, it can be an issue if the baby’s red blood cells cross to the Rh negative birth parent. […] The Rh negative birth parent’s immune system sees the baby’s Rh positive red blood cells as foreign. Your immune system responds by making antibodies to fight and destroy these foreign cells. […] If the Rh negative birth parent has been sensitized to Rh positive blood, her immune system will make antibodies to attack her baby.

• #5 Rh Disease – Stanford Medicine Children’s Health

  https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=rh-disease-90-P02498

  Rh disease occurs during pregnancy. It happens when the Rh factors in the moms and babys blood dont match. […] What causes Rh disease? […] If the Rh factor protein is on the cells, the person is Rh positive. If theres no Rh factor protein, the person is Rh negative. […] There can be a problem when an Rh negative mother has a baby with an Rh positive father. […] When this happens, the mom becomes sensitized to Rh positive blood. […] The Rh negative moms immune system sees the baby’s Rh positive red blood cells as foreign. […] Your immune system responds by making antibodies to fight and destroy these foreign cells. […] Rh sensitization normally isnt a problem with a first pregnancy. […] Most issues occur in future pregnancies with another Rh positive baby. […] If the Rh negative mother has been sensitized to Rh positive blood, her immune system will make antibodies to attack her baby.

• #6 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center

  https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=90&ContentID=P02498

  Rh disease occurs during pregnancy. It happens when the Rh factors in the birth parents and baby’s blood don’t match. […] What causes Rh disease? Each person has a blood type (O, A, B, or AB). Everyone also has an Rh factor (positive or negative). […] There can be a problem when an Rh negative birth parent has a baby with an Rh positive father. If the baby’s Rh factor is positive, like their nonbirth parent’s, it can be an issue if the baby’s red blood cells cross to the Rh negative birth parent. When that happens, the birth parent becomes sensitized to Rh positive blood. […] The Rh negative birth parent’s immune system sees the baby’s Rh positive red blood cells as foreign. Your immune system responds by making antibodies to fight and destroy these foreign cells. […] Rh sensitization normally isn’t a problem with a first pregnancy. Most issues occur in future pregnancies with another Rh positive baby.

• #7

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rhesus-disease/causes/

  Rhesus disease is caused by a specific mix of blood types between a pregnant mother and her unborn baby. […] It can only occur where all of the following happen, where the: mother has a rhesus negative (RhD negative) blood type, baby has a rhesus positive (RhD positive) blood type, mother has previously been exposed to RhD positive blood and has developed an immune response to it (known as sensitisation). […] An RhD positive baby will only have rhesus disease if their RhD negative mother has been sensitised to RhD positive blood. […] If sensitisation occurs, the next time the woman is exposed to RhD positive blood her body will produce antibodies immediately. […] If she’s pregnant with an RhD positive baby, the antibodies can lead to rhesus disease when they cross the placenta and start attacking the baby’s red blood cells.

• #8

  https://111.wales.nhs.uk/encyclopaedia/r/article/rhesusdisease/

  Rhesus disease is caused by a specific mix of blood types between a pregnant mother and her unborn baby. […] Rhesus disease can only occur in cases where all of the following happen: the mother has a rhesus negative (RhD negative) blood type, the baby has a rhesus positive (RhD positive) blood type, the mother has previously been exposed to RhD positive blood and has developed an immune response to it (known as sensitisation).

• #9 Rh Incompatibility and Other Blood Group Issues | OB-GYN

  https://health.ucdavis.edu/conditions/rh-incompatibility

  People with blood type incompatibility need treatment during pregnancy to prevent complications. […] Rh incompatibility (also called Rhesus disease) is another blood type issue that may impact your pregnancy. Most people (about 85%) are Rh-positive. But if you are Rh-negative and your unborn baby is Rh-positive, problems may develop during that pregnancy or future pregnancies. […] Left untreated, Rh or ABO incompatibility during pregnancy can be very dangerous for an unborn baby or newborn. The mothers antibodies attack the babys red blood cells and deprive the baby of oxygen, which can be life-threatening. […] If incompatible blood types mix during pregnancy, your immune system makes antibodies that attack your babys blood cells. This reaction, called Rh sensitization, is similar to how your body protects itself from illnesses or allergens. […] Most fetuses are Rh-positive. So if you are Rh-negative, your risk of Rh incompatibility is high.

• #10 Rh Disease: Causes, Prevention and Treatment | DW

  https://www.disabled-world.com/health/female/pregnancy/rhig.php

  Rh disease destroys fetal red blood cells. […] A mother who is Rh-negative and an Rh-positive father might conceive an Rh-positive baby. […] Because red blood cells containing Rh factor are foreign to the mother’s system, her body attempts to fight them by producing antibodies against them – something referred to as, 'sensitization.’ […] After a women becomes sensitized, her Rh antibodies may cross the placenta and destroy some of the red blood cells of an Rh-positive fetus. […] A woman who is sensitized; however, continues to produce Rh antibodies for the rest of her life. […] The primary reason Rh-negative women become sensitized is because they do not receive treatment when needed, such as after an unrecognized miscarriage. […] Even if a woman is healthy and has no symptoms, she may continue to produce antibodies as part of her blood. If she has any more Rh-positive babies, though might develop Rh disease.

• #11 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  Rh disease is a type of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). […] The term „Rh disease” is commonly used to refer to HDFN due to anti-D antibodies. […] The disease ranges from mild to severe, and occurs in the second or subsequent pregnancies of Rh-D negative women when the biological father is Rh-D positive. […] HDFN due to anti-D is preventable by treating the mother during pregnancy and soon after delivery with an injection of anti-Rho(D) immune globulin. […] With successful mitigation of this disease by prevention through the use of anti-Rho(D) immune globulin, other antibodies are more commonly the cause of HDFN today. […] The mother’s immune system reacts to the Rh-positive red blood cells the same way that it would respond to something like a virus or bacteria, activating B cells.

• #12 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  These activated B cells then differentiate into plasma cells, which produce anti-D antibodies. […] Once they cross this barrier into the fetal bloodstream, they bind to fetal Rh-positive cells, triggering opsonization, which marks the red blood cells for destruction. […] The resulting anemia has multiple sequelae. […] The severe anemia taxes the heart to compensate by increasing output in an effort to deliver oxygen to the tissues and results in a condition called high output cardiac failure. […] If left untreated, the result may be fetal death. […] The destruction of RBCs leads to elevated bilirubin levels (hyperbilirubinemia) as a byproduct. […] Approximately 50% of Rh-D positive infants with circulating anti-D are either unaffected or only mildly affected requiring no treatment at all and only monitoring.

• #13 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Less common causes of HDN include antibodies directed against antigens of the Kell blood group (e.g., anti-K and anti-k), Kidd blood group (e.g., anti-Jka and anti-Jkb), Duffy blood group (e.g., anti-Fya), and MNS and s blood group antibodies. […] Sensitization to an antigen occurs when the immune system encounters an antigen for the first time and mounts an immune response. In the case of HDN caused by Rh incompatibility, an Rh D-negative mother may first encounter the D antigen while being pregnant with an Rh D-positive child, or by receiving a blood transfusion of Rh D-positive blood. […] Initially, the maternal anti-D that is formed at the time of sensitization is of the IgM type, which can not cross the placenta. In subsequent pregnancies, a repeat encounter with the Rh D antigen stimulates the rapid production of type IgG anti-D, which can be transported across the placenta and enter the fetal circulation.

• #14 Rh Disease: Causes, Prevention and Treatment | DW

  https://www.disabled-world.com/health/female/pregnancy/rhig.php

  Rh disease destroys fetal red blood cells. […] A mother who is Rh-negative and an Rh-positive father might conceive an Rh-positive baby. […] Because red blood cells containing Rh factor are foreign to the mother’s system, her body attempts to fight them by producing antibodies against them – something referred to as, 'sensitization.’ […] After a women becomes sensitized, her Rh antibodies may cross the placenta and destroy some of the red blood cells of an Rh-positive fetus. […] A woman who is sensitized; however, continues to produce Rh antibodies for the rest of her life. […] The primary reason Rh-negative women become sensitized is because they do not receive treatment when needed, such as after an unrecognized miscarriage. […] Even if a woman is healthy and has no symptoms, she may continue to produce antibodies as part of her blood. If she has any more Rh-positive babies, though might develop Rh disease.

• #15

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rhesus-disease/causes/

  Rhesus disease is caused by a specific mix of blood types between a pregnant mother and her unborn baby. […] It can only occur where all of the following happen, where the: mother has a rhesus negative (RhD negative) blood type, baby has a rhesus positive (RhD positive) blood type, mother has previously been exposed to RhD positive blood and has developed an immune response to it (known as sensitisation). […] An RhD positive baby will only have rhesus disease if their RhD negative mother has been sensitised to RhD positive blood. […] If sensitisation occurs, the next time the woman is exposed to RhD positive blood her body will produce antibodies immediately. […] If she’s pregnant with an RhD positive baby, the antibodies can lead to rhesus disease when they cross the placenta and start attacking the baby’s red blood cells.

• #16

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rhesus-disease/

  Rhesus disease only happens when the mother has rhesus negative blood (RhD negative) and the baby in her womb has rhesus positive blood (RhD positive). […] Sensitisation happens when a woman with RhD negative blood is exposed to RhD positive blood, usually during a previous pregnancy with an RhD positive baby. […] If sensitisation occurs, the next time the woman is exposed to RhD positive blood, her body produces antibodies immediately. […] If she’s pregnant with an RhD positive baby, the antibodies can cross the placenta, causing rhesus disease in the unborn baby.

• #17 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #18

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rhesus-disease/

  Rhesus disease only happens when the mother has rhesus negative blood (RhD negative) and the baby in her womb has rhesus positive blood (RhD positive). […] Sensitisation happens when a woman with RhD negative blood is exposed to RhD positive blood, usually during a previous pregnancy with an RhD positive baby. […] If sensitisation occurs, the next time the woman is exposed to RhD positive blood, her body produces antibodies immediately. […] If she’s pregnant with an RhD positive baby, the antibodies can cross the placenta, causing rhesus disease in the unborn baby.

• #19 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #20 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #21 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #22 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #23 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #24 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #25 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #26 Rh Incompatibility: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/797150-overview

  The most common cause of Rh incompatibility is exposure from an Rh-negative mother by Rh-positive fetal blood during pregnancy or delivery. […] Rh incompatibility can occur by 2 main mechanisms. The most common type occurs when an Rh-negative pregnant mother is exposed to Rh-positive fetal red blood cells secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage during the course of pregnancy from spontaneous or induced abortion, trauma, invasive obstetric procedures, or normal delivery. […] Factors that influence an Rh-negative pregnant female’s chances of developing Rh incompatibility include the following: Ectopic pregnancy, Placenta previa, Placental abruption, Abdominal/pelvic trauma, In utero fetal death, Any invasive obstetric procedure (eg, amniocentesis), Lack of prenatal care, Spontaneous abortion.

• #27 Rh disease: causes, risks, symptoms and prevention | WIRhE

  https://wirhe.org/rh-disease/

  A mother can become “sensitized” to the different blood type due to blood transfusion, bone marrow transplantation, or through an accidental needle stick injury. […] Rh disease, or Rh incompatibility, occurs when the mother’s body attacks the blood cells within the developing fetus because their blood types are different. This can harm the child during pregnancy and/or after delivery. […] Rh disease is due to a genetic difference in blood type between you and your partner, and your Rh type is entirely inherited from your parents.

• #28 Rh disease: causes, risks, symptoms and prevention | WIRhE

  https://wirhe.org/rh-disease/

  A mother can become “sensitized” to the different blood type due to blood transfusion, bone marrow transplantation, or through an accidental needle stick injury. […] Rh disease, or Rh incompatibility, occurs when the mother’s body attacks the blood cells within the developing fetus because their blood types are different. This can harm the child during pregnancy and/or after delivery. […] Rh disease is due to a genetic difference in blood type between you and your partner, and your Rh type is entirely inherited from your parents.

• #29 Rh disease: causes, risks, symptoms and prevention | WIRhE

  https://wirhe.org/rh-disease/

  A mother can become “sensitized” to the different blood type due to blood transfusion, bone marrow transplantation, or through an accidental needle stick injury. […] Rh disease, or Rh incompatibility, occurs when the mother’s body attacks the blood cells within the developing fetus because their blood types are different. This can harm the child during pregnancy and/or after delivery. […] Rh disease is due to a genetic difference in blood type between you and your partner, and your Rh type is entirely inherited from your parents.

• #30 Rhesus (Rh) Factor: Incompatibility, Complications & Pregnancy

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21053-rh-factor

  Complications can occur during pregnancy if youre Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive. This is Rh incompatibility. […] During pregnancy, complications may occur if youre Rh-negative and the fetus is Rh-positive. This is called Rh factor incompatibility. Treatments are available to prevent complications of Rh incompatibility. […] Rh incompatibility occurs when a woman whos Rh-negative becomes pregnant with a fetus with Rh-positive blood. With Rh incompatibility, your immune system reacts to this difference (known as incompatibility) and creates antibodies. […] Rh incompatibility becomes a problem if you become pregnant a second time and have another Rh-positive fetus. In this case, your body will produce antibodies. These antibodies put the second fetus at risk for complications. […] Rh disease can be life-threatening for the fetus. […] Rh incompatibility can cause hemolytic anemia. Hemolytic anemia destroys the fetuss red blood cells faster than it can replace them. […] Since the development of Rh immune globulin injections, Rh disease occurs infrequently.

• #31 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  These activated B cells then differentiate into plasma cells, which produce anti-D antibodies. […] Once they cross this barrier into the fetal bloodstream, they bind to fetal Rh-positive cells, triggering opsonization, which marks the red blood cells for destruction. […] The resulting anemia has multiple sequelae. […] The severe anemia taxes the heart to compensate by increasing output in an effort to deliver oxygen to the tissues and results in a condition called high output cardiac failure. […] If left untreated, the result may be fetal death. […] The destruction of RBCs leads to elevated bilirubin levels (hyperbilirubinemia) as a byproduct. […] Approximately 50% of Rh-D positive infants with circulating anti-D are either unaffected or only mildly affected requiring no treatment at all and only monitoring.

• #32 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  The rate of hemolysis determines whether the nature of HDN is mild, moderate, or severe. […] An even greater rapid and prolonged destruction of RBCs leads to severe anemia in the fetus. […] To detect HDN, the presence of maternal anti-Rh IgG must be identified. […] The indirect Coombs test finds anti-D antibodies in the mother’s serum. If these were to come into contact with fetal RBCs they would hemolyse them and hence cause HDN. […] The risk of future sensitization can be greatly reduced by giving all unsensitized mothers anti-D Ig, which „mops up” any fetal RBCs that may have leaked into the maternal circulation, reducing the risk of first-time exposure to the D antigen.

• #33 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  The rate of hemolysis determines whether the nature of HDN is mild, moderate, or severe. […] An even greater rapid and prolonged destruction of RBCs leads to severe anemia in the fetus. […] To detect HDN, the presence of maternal anti-Rh IgG must be identified. […] The indirect Coombs test finds anti-D antibodies in the mother’s serum. If these were to come into contact with fetal RBCs they would hemolyse them and hence cause HDN. […] The risk of future sensitization can be greatly reduced by giving all unsensitized mothers anti-D Ig, which „mops up” any fetal RBCs that may have leaked into the maternal circulation, reducing the risk of first-time exposure to the D antigen.

• #34 Rh Disease

  https://livinghealthy.hawaiipacifichealth.org/Library/News/90,P02498

  Rh sensitization normally isn’t a problem with a first pregnancy. Most issues occur in future pregnancies with another Rh positive baby. During that pregnancy, your antibodies cross the placenta to fight the Rh positive cells in your baby’s body. As the antibodies destroy the cells, your baby gets sick. […] If the Rh negative birth parent has been sensitized to Rh positive blood, her immune system will make antibodies to attack her baby. […] When the antibodies enter your baby’s bloodstream, they will attack the red blood cells, causing them to break down. This can lead to problems. […] This condition can be prevented. People who are Rh negative and haven’t been sensitized can receive medicine. This medicine can stop your antibodies from reacting to your baby’s Rh positive cells.

• #35 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  These activated B cells then differentiate into plasma cells, which produce anti-D antibodies. […] Once they cross this barrier into the fetal bloodstream, they bind to fetal Rh-positive cells, triggering opsonization, which marks the red blood cells for destruction. […] The resulting anemia has multiple sequelae. […] The severe anemia taxes the heart to compensate by increasing output in an effort to deliver oxygen to the tissues and results in a condition called high output cardiac failure. […] If left untreated, the result may be fetal death. […] The destruction of RBCs leads to elevated bilirubin levels (hyperbilirubinemia) as a byproduct. […] Approximately 50% of Rh-D positive infants with circulating anti-D are either unaffected or only mildly affected requiring no treatment at all and only monitoring.

• #36 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  These activated B cells then differentiate into plasma cells, which produce anti-D antibodies. […] Once they cross this barrier into the fetal bloodstream, they bind to fetal Rh-positive cells, triggering opsonization, which marks the red blood cells for destruction. […] The resulting anemia has multiple sequelae. […] The severe anemia taxes the heart to compensate by increasing output in an effort to deliver oxygen to the tissues and results in a condition called high output cardiac failure. […] If left untreated, the result may be fetal death. […] The destruction of RBCs leads to elevated bilirubin levels (hyperbilirubinemia) as a byproduct. […] Approximately 50% of Rh-D positive infants with circulating anti-D are either unaffected or only mildly affected requiring no treatment at all and only monitoring.

• #37 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  These activated B cells then differentiate into plasma cells, which produce anti-D antibodies. […] Once they cross this barrier into the fetal bloodstream, they bind to fetal Rh-positive cells, triggering opsonization, which marks the red blood cells for destruction. […] The resulting anemia has multiple sequelae. […] The severe anemia taxes the heart to compensate by increasing output in an effort to deliver oxygen to the tissues and results in a condition called high output cardiac failure. […] If left untreated, the result may be fetal death. […] The destruction of RBCs leads to elevated bilirubin levels (hyperbilirubinemia) as a byproduct. […] Approximately 50% of Rh-D positive infants with circulating anti-D are either unaffected or only mildly affected requiring no treatment at all and only monitoring.

• #38 Cerebral Palsy Caused by Rh Disease | MyCerebralPalsyChild.org

  https://www.mycerebralpalsychild.org/causes/rh-disease/

  Rh disease is a hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) caused by an incompatibility between the Rh negative blood of the mother and the Rh positive blood of her unborn child. […] If not identified and treated by medical professionals, it can potentially lead to anemia, erythroblastosis fetalis, hydrops fetalis, severe jaundice or Kernicterus, and the development of neurological disorders such as cerebral palsy. […] Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) is a serious complication of blood type incompatibility, and can lead to severe jaundice. […] Jaundice (if severe enough or left untreated) can cause a type of brain damage known as kernicterus. […] If prenatal testing finds a blood type incompatibility, preventative measures can be taken to avoid serious complications.

• #39 The Rh Factor: How It Can Affect Your Pregnancy | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/the-rh-factor-how-it-can-affect-your-pregnancy

  Health problems usually do not occur during an Rh-negative woman’s first pregnancy with an Rh-positive fetus. This is because her body does not have a chance to develop a lot of antibodies. But if treatment is not given during the first pregnancy and the woman later gets pregnant again with an Rh-positive fetus, she can make more antibodies. More antibodies put a future fetus at risk. […] Yes, an Rh-negative woman can also make antibodies after miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, or induced abortion. If an Rh-negative woman gets pregnant after one of these events and has not received treatment, a future fetus may be at risk of problems if it is Rh positive. […] During a pregnancy, Rh antibodies made in a woman’s body can cross the placenta and attack fetal blood cells. This can cause a serious type of anemia in the fetus in which red blood cells are destroyed faster than the body can replace them. […] Rh incompatibility can also cause jaundice in a newborn.

• #40 Rhesus disease: Symptoms, causes and treatments

  https://www.motherandbaby.com/pregnancy/health-and-wellness/rhesus-disease/

  Rhesus disease happens when mum has rhesus negative blood and the baby in her womb has rhesus positive blood. Mum must have also been previously sensitised to rhesus positive blood – this happens when a rhesus positive woman is exposed to rhesus negative blood during a previous pregnancy. […] The body responds to the positive blood by producing antibodies which fight to attack foreign blood cells (the negative blood of baby) and destroy them. […] If mum has already been previously sensitised from a previous pregnancy and already developed the anti-bodies, the injections won’t work. If this is the case, the pregnancy will be closely monitored, as will the baby after they’re born. […] In very severe untreated cases, rhesus disease can result in stillbirths, brain damage, hearing loss, learning difficulties, vision loss and blindness.

• #41 Rh Hemolytic Disease(Archived) – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32809323/

  The Rhesus factor (Rh factor) is a surface antigen of erythrocytes. […] D antigen is mainly responsible for Rh disease due to its high immunogenicity. […] Rh-hemolytic disease, also known as Rh incompatibility, is a condition that occurs when a woman with Rhesus-negative blood type is exposed to Rhesus-positive blood cells, leading to the development of anti-D antibodies by a process called isoimmunization. […] After this sensitization, these maternal alloantibodies (IgG immunoglobulins) may persist for life and move freely across the placenta to the fetal circulation during subsequent pregnancies, where they lead to the destruction of fetal erythrocytes after forming antigen-antibody complexes with their surface D antigen. […] This results in alloimmune hemolytic anemia in the fetus, known as erythroblastosis fetalis. […] The severity of illness depends greatly on the number of immunoglobulins, the gestational age, and the enzymatic activity of the fetus.

• #42 Rh Hemolytic Disease(Archived) – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32809323/

  The Rhesus factor (Rh factor) is a surface antigen of erythrocytes. […] D antigen is mainly responsible for Rh disease due to its high immunogenicity. […] Rh-hemolytic disease, also known as Rh incompatibility, is a condition that occurs when a woman with Rhesus-negative blood type is exposed to Rhesus-positive blood cells, leading to the development of anti-D antibodies by a process called isoimmunization. […] After this sensitization, these maternal alloantibodies (IgG immunoglobulins) may persist for life and move freely across the placenta to the fetal circulation during subsequent pregnancies, where they lead to the destruction of fetal erythrocytes after forming antigen-antibody complexes with their surface D antigen. […] This results in alloimmune hemolytic anemia in the fetus, known as erythroblastosis fetalis. […] The severity of illness depends greatly on the number of immunoglobulins, the gestational age, and the enzymatic activity of the fetus.

• #43 Rh Hemolytic Disease(Archived) – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32809323/

  The Rhesus factor (Rh factor) is a surface antigen of erythrocytes. […] D antigen is mainly responsible for Rh disease due to its high immunogenicity. […] Rh-hemolytic disease, also known as Rh incompatibility, is a condition that occurs when a woman with Rhesus-negative blood type is exposed to Rhesus-positive blood cells, leading to the development of anti-D antibodies by a process called isoimmunization. […] After this sensitization, these maternal alloantibodies (IgG immunoglobulins) may persist for life and move freely across the placenta to the fetal circulation during subsequent pregnancies, where they lead to the destruction of fetal erythrocytes after forming antigen-antibody complexes with their surface D antigen. […] This results in alloimmune hemolytic anemia in the fetus, known as erythroblastosis fetalis. […] The severity of illness depends greatly on the number of immunoglobulins, the gestational age, and the enzymatic activity of the fetus.

• #44

  https://step2.medbullets.com/obstetrics/120372/rh-disease

  Rh hemolytic disease of the newborn is caused by Rh incompatibility […] maternal anti-Rh IgG antibodies cross the placenta and destroy fetal Rh-positive red blood cells […] Rh factor is a red blood cell antigen […] when a Rh-negative mother is pregnant with a Rh-positive fetus, the mother is exposed to Rh-positive red blood cells and leads to maternal antibody production (IgG) against the foreign Rh antigen […] as IgG can cross the placenta, subsequent pregnancy with Rh-positive fetus will result in fetal alloimmune induced hemolytic anemia […] development of antibody depends on volume of transplacental crossover of red blood cells, concurrent presence of ABO incompatibility, and extent of maternal immune response.

• #45

  https://step2.medbullets.com/obstetrics/120372/rh-disease

  Rh hemolytic disease of the newborn is caused by Rh incompatibility […] maternal anti-Rh IgG antibodies cross the placenta and destroy fetal Rh-positive red blood cells […] Rh factor is a red blood cell antigen […] when a Rh-negative mother is pregnant with a Rh-positive fetus, the mother is exposed to Rh-positive red blood cells and leads to maternal antibody production (IgG) against the foreign Rh antigen […] as IgG can cross the placenta, subsequent pregnancy with Rh-positive fetus will result in fetal alloimmune induced hemolytic anemia […] development of antibody depends on volume of transplacental crossover of red blood cells, concurrent presence of ABO incompatibility, and extent of maternal immune response.

• #46

  https://step2.medbullets.com/obstetrics/120372/rh-disease

  Rh hemolytic disease of the newborn is caused by Rh incompatibility […] maternal anti-Rh IgG antibodies cross the placenta and destroy fetal Rh-positive red blood cells […] Rh factor is a red blood cell antigen […] when a Rh-negative mother is pregnant with a Rh-positive fetus, the mother is exposed to Rh-positive red blood cells and leads to maternal antibody production (IgG) against the foreign Rh antigen […] as IgG can cross the placenta, subsequent pregnancy with Rh-positive fetus will result in fetal alloimmune induced hemolytic anemia […] development of antibody depends on volume of transplacental crossover of red blood cells, concurrent presence of ABO incompatibility, and extent of maternal immune response.

• #47 Rhesus (Rh) Factor: Incompatibility, Complications & Pregnancy

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21053-rh-factor

  Complications can occur during pregnancy if youre Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive. This is Rh incompatibility. […] During pregnancy, complications may occur if youre Rh-negative and the fetus is Rh-positive. This is called Rh factor incompatibility. Treatments are available to prevent complications of Rh incompatibility. […] Rh incompatibility occurs when a woman whos Rh-negative becomes pregnant with a fetus with Rh-positive blood. With Rh incompatibility, your immune system reacts to this difference (known as incompatibility) and creates antibodies. […] Rh incompatibility becomes a problem if you become pregnant a second time and have another Rh-positive fetus. In this case, your body will produce antibodies. These antibodies put the second fetus at risk for complications. […] Rh disease can be life-threatening for the fetus. […] Rh incompatibility can cause hemolytic anemia. Hemolytic anemia destroys the fetuss red blood cells faster than it can replace them. […] Since the development of Rh immune globulin injections, Rh disease occurs infrequently.

• #48 Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus & Newborn (HDFN): Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/hemolytic-disease-of-the-fetus-and-newborn-hdfn

  HDFN occurs when there is a mismatch between the mothers and babys blood type and/or Rh factor during pregnancy. […] HDFN occurs when there is a mismatch (incompatibility) between the mothers and babys blood type and/or Rh factor. That is why you may hear HDFN called Rh incompatibility or ABO incompatibility. […] The mismatch can happen when the mothers blood mixes with the babys blood at birth, when the placenta breaks away, during a miscarriage, or during a prenatal test. […] Typically, HDFN does not occur with the mothers first pregnancy. This is because the baby is born before many of the antibodies have developed. HDFN most often happens with future pregnancies when the mothers antibodies that were made during a previous pregnancy are able to cross the placenta and destroy the babys red blood cells.

• #49 Rh disease | Cigna

  https://www.cigna.com/knowledge-center/hw/rh-disease-tn10329

  Rh disease is the result of Rh sensitization, which causes the Rh-negative mother to make antibodies that attack the fetus’s Rh-positive red blood cells. […] The more red blood cells are destroyed, the worse the effect on the fetus. […] In severe cases, the baby may die before or after birth. […] Rh sensitization usually happens during childbirth, so a fetus in a first pregnancy may not have Rh disease. […] But each future Rh-positive fetus will be at risk, and Rh disease tends to be worse with each Rh-positive pregnancy. […] In some cases, a fetus in a first pregnancy does have Rh disease. […] This can happen if the mother was Rh sensitized during a miscarriage, abortion, or ectopic pregnancy or because of a test that causes bleeding in the uterus during pregnancy, such as an amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling.

• #50 Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn – Women’s Health Issues – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/women-s-health-issues/complications-of-pregnancy/hemolytic-disease-of-the-fetus-and-newborn

  Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn occurs when a pregnant woman’s blood type is Rh-negative and the fetus’s blood type is Rh-positive. […] Problems can occur if the fetus’s Rh-positive blood enters the bloodstream of a woman with Rh-negative blood. The woman’s immune system may identify the fetus’s red blood cells as foreign and produce antibodies, called Rh antibodies, to destroy Rh-positive blood cells. The production of these antibodies is called Rh sensitization. […] Once women are sensitized, problems are more likely with each subsequent pregnancy if the fetus’s blood is Rh-positive. In each pregnancy after sensitization, women produce Rh antibodies earlier and in larger amounts. […] If Rh antibodies cross the placenta to the fetus, they may destroy some of the fetus’s red blood cells. Such destruction is called hemolytic disease of the fetus (erythroblastosis fetalis) or of the newborn (erythroblastosis neonatorum).

• #51 Rh disease – Chicago Colorectal

  https://chicagocolorectal.com/patient-education/healthwise?DOCHWID=tn10329

  Rh disease is a serious pregnancy problem that can affect a baby (fetus) with Rh-positive blood if the mother has Rh-negative blood. […] Rh disease is the result of Rh sensitization, which causes the Rh-negative mother to make antibodies that attack the fetus’s Rh-positive red blood cells. […] In some cases, a fetus in a first pregnancy does have Rh disease. This can happen if the mother was Rh sensitized during a miscarriage, abortion, or ectopic pregnancy or because of a test that causes bleeding in the uterus during pregnancy, such as an amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. […] A blood test can show if a woman has Rh sensitization and whether her baby is at risk.

• #52 Rh disease – Chicago Colorectal

  https://chicagocolorectal.com/patient-education/healthwise?DOCHWID=tn10329

  Rh disease is a serious pregnancy problem that can affect a baby (fetus) with Rh-positive blood if the mother has Rh-negative blood. […] Rh disease is the result of Rh sensitization, which causes the Rh-negative mother to make antibodies that attack the fetus’s Rh-positive red blood cells. […] In some cases, a fetus in a first pregnancy does have Rh disease. This can happen if the mother was Rh sensitized during a miscarriage, abortion, or ectopic pregnancy or because of a test that causes bleeding in the uterus during pregnancy, such as an amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. […] A blood test can show if a woman has Rh sensitization and whether her baby is at risk.

• #53 Rh disease – Chicago Colorectal

  https://chicagocolorectal.com/patient-education/healthwise?DOCHWID=tn10329

  Rh disease is a serious pregnancy problem that can affect a baby (fetus) with Rh-positive blood if the mother has Rh-negative blood. […] Rh disease is the result of Rh sensitization, which causes the Rh-negative mother to make antibodies that attack the fetus’s Rh-positive red blood cells. […] In some cases, a fetus in a first pregnancy does have Rh disease. This can happen if the mother was Rh sensitized during a miscarriage, abortion, or ectopic pregnancy or because of a test that causes bleeding in the uterus during pregnancy, such as an amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. […] A blood test can show if a woman has Rh sensitization and whether her baby is at risk.

• #54 Rh disease – Chicago Colorectal

  https://chicagocolorectal.com/patient-education/healthwise?DOCHWID=tn10329

  Rh disease is a serious pregnancy problem that can affect a baby (fetus) with Rh-positive blood if the mother has Rh-negative blood. […] Rh disease is the result of Rh sensitization, which causes the Rh-negative mother to make antibodies that attack the fetus’s Rh-positive red blood cells. […] In some cases, a fetus in a first pregnancy does have Rh disease. This can happen if the mother was Rh sensitized during a miscarriage, abortion, or ectopic pregnancy or because of a test that causes bleeding in the uterus during pregnancy, such as an amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. […] A blood test can show if a woman has Rh sensitization and whether her baby is at risk.

• #55 Rh disease – Legacy Pediatrics

  https://legacypediatrics.com/child-health-library/healthwise?DOCHWID=tn10329

  In some cases, a fetus in a first pregnancy does have Rh disease. This can happen if the mother was Rh sensitized during a miscarriage, abortion, or ectopic pregnancy or because of a test that causes bleeding in the uterus during pregnancy, such as an amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. A blood test can show if a woman has Rh sensitization and whether her baby is at risk.

• #56 Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Neonate – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/hemolytic-disease-of-the-fetus-and-neonate

  Hemolytic disease of the fetus and neonate is hemolytic anemia in the fetus or neonate caused by transplacental transmission of maternal antibodies to fetal red blood cells. The disorder usually results from incompatibility between maternal and fetal blood groups, often Rho(D) antigens. […] Hemolytic disease of the fetus (formerly called erythroblastosis fetalis) classically results from Rho(D) incompatibility, which may develop when a woman with Rh-negative blood is impregnated by a man with Rh-positive blood and conceives a fetus with Rh-positive blood, sometimes resulting in hemolysis. […] Other causes of maternal anti-Rh antibody production include injection with needles contaminated with Rh-positive blood and inadvertent transfusion of Rh-positive blood. […] Maternal sensitization and antibody production, which are the cause of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn, can be prevented by giving the woman Rho(D) immune globulin. This preparation contains high titers of anti-Rh antibodies, which neutralize Rh-positive fetal RBCs.

• #57 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  Rh disease is a type of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDFN). […] The term „Rh disease” is commonly used to refer to HDFN due to anti-D antibodies. […] The disease ranges from mild to severe, and occurs in the second or subsequent pregnancies of Rh-D negative women when the biological father is Rh-D positive. […] HDFN due to anti-D is preventable by treating the mother during pregnancy and soon after delivery with an injection of anti-Rho(D) immune globulin. […] With successful mitigation of this disease by prevention through the use of anti-Rho(D) immune globulin, other antibodies are more commonly the cause of HDFN today. […] The mother’s immune system reacts to the Rh-positive red blood cells the same way that it would respond to something like a virus or bacteria, activating B cells.

• #58 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) used to be a major cause of fetal loss and death among newborn babies. […] It was not until the 1950s that the underlying cause of HDN was clarified; namely, the newborn’s red blood cells (RBCs) are being attacked by antibodies from the mother. The attack begins while the baby is still in the womb and is caused by an incompatibility between the mother’s and baby’s blood. […] A major cause of HDN is an incompatibility of the Rh blood group between the mother and fetus. Most commonly, hemolytic disease is triggered by the D antigen, although other Rh antigens, such as c, C, E, and e, can also cause problems. […] HDN can also be caused by an incompatibility of the ABO blood group. It arises when a mother with blood type O becomes pregnant with a fetus with a different blood type (type A, B, or AB).

• #59 Hemolytic Disease from Other Incompatibilities | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-16–the-prevention-and-management-of-rh-disease–hemolytic-disease-from-other-incompatibilities/id/417773

  HDFN predominantly occurs when the fetus or neonate inherits a red-blood-cell antigen from the father that is not present on the mother’s red blood cells. […] Most types of HDFN require maternal previous exposure, known as sensitization, to the causative red-cell antigen that the mother does not possess, in order to develop the antibodies that subsequently cross the placenta. […] Alloantibodies to non-RhD red-blood-cell antigens are thought to be present in 1.5 to 2.5 percent of all pregnancies and can be identified by screen during the pregnancy. […] Whilst RhD causes the majority of HDFN within the rhesus blood group system, there are other rhesus antigens known to frequently cause varying degrees of hemolytic disease in fetuses and newborns. […] Anti-c tends to be the most clinically significant after D and can cause severe HDFN.

• #60 Hemolytic Disease from Other Incompatibilities | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-16–the-prevention-and-management-of-rh-disease–hemolytic-disease-from-other-incompatibilities/id/417773

  HDFN predominantly occurs when the fetus or neonate inherits a red-blood-cell antigen from the father that is not present on the mother’s red blood cells. […] Most types of HDFN require maternal previous exposure, known as sensitization, to the causative red-cell antigen that the mother does not possess, in order to develop the antibodies that subsequently cross the placenta. […] Alloantibodies to non-RhD red-blood-cell antigens are thought to be present in 1.5 to 2.5 percent of all pregnancies and can be identified by screen during the pregnancy. […] Whilst RhD causes the majority of HDFN within the rhesus blood group system, there are other rhesus antigens known to frequently cause varying degrees of hemolytic disease in fetuses and newborns. […] Anti-c tends to be the most clinically significant after D and can cause severe HDFN.

• #61 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) used to be a major cause of fetal loss and death among newborn babies. […] It was not until the 1950s that the underlying cause of HDN was clarified; namely, the newborn’s red blood cells (RBCs) are being attacked by antibodies from the mother. The attack begins while the baby is still in the womb and is caused by an incompatibility between the mother’s and baby’s blood. […] A major cause of HDN is an incompatibility of the Rh blood group between the mother and fetus. Most commonly, hemolytic disease is triggered by the D antigen, although other Rh antigens, such as c, C, E, and e, can also cause problems. […] HDN can also be caused by an incompatibility of the ABO blood group. It arises when a mother with blood type O becomes pregnant with a fetus with a different blood type (type A, B, or AB).

• #62 Erythroblastosis fetalis | Causes, Symptoms & Treatment | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/erythroblastosis-fetalis

  The risk can be reduced if the mother receives injections of Rh immunoglobulin, which destroys fetal red blood cells in her bloodstream, during her first pregnancy. […] Fetal-maternal incompatibilities within the ABO blood group alone are more common than those of the Rh type, but the immune reaction is usually much less severe, unless the fetus is type A and the mother type O.

• #63 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Less common causes of HDN include antibodies directed against antigens of the Kell blood group (e.g., anti-K and anti-k), Kidd blood group (e.g., anti-Jka and anti-Jkb), Duffy blood group (e.g., anti-Fya), and MNS and s blood group antibodies. […] Sensitization to an antigen occurs when the immune system encounters an antigen for the first time and mounts an immune response. In the case of HDN caused by Rh incompatibility, an Rh D-negative mother may first encounter the D antigen while being pregnant with an Rh D-positive child, or by receiving a blood transfusion of Rh D-positive blood. […] Initially, the maternal anti-D that is formed at the time of sensitization is of the IgM type, which can not cross the placenta. In subsequent pregnancies, a repeat encounter with the Rh D antigen stimulates the rapid production of type IgG anti-D, which can be transported across the placenta and enter the fetal circulation.

• #64 Hemolytic Disease from Other Incompatibilities | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-16–the-prevention-and-management-of-rh-disease–hemolytic-disease-from-other-incompatibilities/id/417773

  Kell alloantibodies are the second most common cause of severe HDFN, after RhD-HDFN. […] The Kell antigen is by far the most clinically significant and immunogenic RBC antigen. […] The Duffy antigens have a role in the immune system whereby they function as chemokines to attract immune cells to specific areas of the body. […] The MNS system of blood group antigens consists of 42 red-cell antigens recognized by the ISBT. […] Many antibodies can cause isolated post-natal HDFN including ABO antibodies, as well as antibodies to Duffy, MNS, and other antigens.

• #65 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Less common causes of HDN include antibodies directed against antigens of the Kell blood group (e.g., anti-K and anti-k), Kidd blood group (e.g., anti-Jka and anti-Jkb), Duffy blood group (e.g., anti-Fya), and MNS and s blood group antibodies. […] Sensitization to an antigen occurs when the immune system encounters an antigen for the first time and mounts an immune response. In the case of HDN caused by Rh incompatibility, an Rh D-negative mother may first encounter the D antigen while being pregnant with an Rh D-positive child, or by receiving a blood transfusion of Rh D-positive blood. […] Initially, the maternal anti-D that is formed at the time of sensitization is of the IgM type, which can not cross the placenta. In subsequent pregnancies, a repeat encounter with the Rh D antigen stimulates the rapid production of type IgG anti-D, which can be transported across the placenta and enter the fetal circulation.

• #66 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Less common causes of HDN include antibodies directed against antigens of the Kell blood group (e.g., anti-K and anti-k), Kidd blood group (e.g., anti-Jka and anti-Jkb), Duffy blood group (e.g., anti-Fya), and MNS and s blood group antibodies. […] Sensitization to an antigen occurs when the immune system encounters an antigen for the first time and mounts an immune response. In the case of HDN caused by Rh incompatibility, an Rh D-negative mother may first encounter the D antigen while being pregnant with an Rh D-positive child, or by receiving a blood transfusion of Rh D-positive blood. […] Initially, the maternal anti-D that is formed at the time of sensitization is of the IgM type, which can not cross the placenta. In subsequent pregnancies, a repeat encounter with the Rh D antigen stimulates the rapid production of type IgG anti-D, which can be transported across the placenta and enter the fetal circulation.

• #67 Hemolytic Disease from Other Incompatibilities | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-16–the-prevention-and-management-of-rh-disease–hemolytic-disease-from-other-incompatibilities/id/417773

  Kell alloantibodies are the second most common cause of severe HDFN, after RhD-HDFN. […] The Kell antigen is by far the most clinically significant and immunogenic RBC antigen. […] The Duffy antigens have a role in the immune system whereby they function as chemokines to attract immune cells to specific areas of the body. […] The MNS system of blood group antigens consists of 42 red-cell antigens recognized by the ISBT. […] Many antibodies can cause isolated post-natal HDFN including ABO antibodies, as well as antibodies to Duffy, MNS, and other antigens.

• #68 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Less common causes of HDN include antibodies directed against antigens of the Kell blood group (e.g., anti-K and anti-k), Kidd blood group (e.g., anti-Jka and anti-Jkb), Duffy blood group (e.g., anti-Fya), and MNS and s blood group antibodies. […] Sensitization to an antigen occurs when the immune system encounters an antigen for the first time and mounts an immune response. In the case of HDN caused by Rh incompatibility, an Rh D-negative mother may first encounter the D antigen while being pregnant with an Rh D-positive child, or by receiving a blood transfusion of Rh D-positive blood. […] Initially, the maternal anti-D that is formed at the time of sensitization is of the IgM type, which can not cross the placenta. In subsequent pregnancies, a repeat encounter with the Rh D antigen stimulates the rapid production of type IgG anti-D, which can be transported across the placenta and enter the fetal circulation.

• #69 Hemolytic Disease from Other Incompatibilities | Article | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/article/heading/vol-16–the-prevention-and-management-of-rh-disease–hemolytic-disease-from-other-incompatibilities/id/417773

  Kell alloantibodies are the second most common cause of severe HDFN, after RhD-HDFN. […] The Kell antigen is by far the most clinically significant and immunogenic RBC antigen. […] The Duffy antigens have a role in the immune system whereby they function as chemokines to attract immune cells to specific areas of the body. […] The MNS system of blood group antigens consists of 42 red-cell antigens recognized by the ISBT. […] Many antibodies can cause isolated post-natal HDFN including ABO antibodies, as well as antibodies to Duffy, MNS, and other antigens.

• #70 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) used to be a major cause of fetal loss and death among newborn babies. […] It was not until the 1950s that the underlying cause of HDN was clarified; namely, the newborn’s red blood cells (RBCs) are being attacked by antibodies from the mother. The attack begins while the baby is still in the womb and is caused by an incompatibility between the mother’s and baby’s blood. […] A major cause of HDN is an incompatibility of the Rh blood group between the mother and fetus. Most commonly, hemolytic disease is triggered by the D antigen, although other Rh antigens, such as c, C, E, and e, can also cause problems. […] HDN can also be caused by an incompatibility of the ABO blood group. It arises when a mother with blood type O becomes pregnant with a fetus with a different blood type (type A, B, or AB).

• #71 Rhesus (Rh) Factor: Incompatibility, Complications & Pregnancy

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21053-rh-factor

  Complications can occur during pregnancy if youre Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive. This is Rh incompatibility. […] During pregnancy, complications may occur if youre Rh-negative and the fetus is Rh-positive. This is called Rh factor incompatibility. Treatments are available to prevent complications of Rh incompatibility. […] Rh incompatibility occurs when a woman whos Rh-negative becomes pregnant with a fetus with Rh-positive blood. With Rh incompatibility, your immune system reacts to this difference (known as incompatibility) and creates antibodies. […] Rh incompatibility becomes a problem if you become pregnant a second time and have another Rh-positive fetus. In this case, your body will produce antibodies. These antibodies put the second fetus at risk for complications. […] Rh disease can be life-threatening for the fetus. […] Rh incompatibility can cause hemolytic anemia. Hemolytic anemia destroys the fetuss red blood cells faster than it can replace them. […] Since the development of Rh immune globulin injections, Rh disease occurs infrequently.

• #72 Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and Rhesus disease of the newborn: incidence and impairment estimates for 2010 at regional and global levels | Pediatric Research

  https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2013208

  In most high-income countries, Rh disease has been eradicated by coordinated obstetrical and neonatal care. […] Countries with a neonatal mortality rate (NMR) 5 were therefore presumed to have good Rh prophylaxis and strong health systems, with very few cases of Rh disease. […] In 2010, an estimated 373,300 babies were affected with Rh hemolytic disease worldwide. […] The global estimated prevalence for Rh disease was 276/100,000 live births. […] Our estimates suggest that Rh disease accounts for the majority of the total global EHB burden. […] The very fact that we are forced to rely on data from Europe and the United States, now 70 y old, shows the low priority given to this condition.

• #73 Hemolytic Disease | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/hemolytic-disease

  Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) also called erythroblastosis fetalis is a blood disorder that occurs when the blood types of a mother and baby are incompatible. […] There are two causes, Rh incompatibility and ABO incompatibility. […] HDN due to Rh incompatibility occurs more frequently and is often called Rh disease; it is about three times more likely in Caucasian babies than in African-American babies. […] HDN occurs when the blood types of a mother and baby are incompatible. If the babys incompatible red blood cells cross over to their mother, through the placenta during pregnancy or at delivery, the immune system sees them as foreign and responds by developing proteins called antibodies to attack and break them down. […] The mothers immune system also keeps these antibodies in case the incompatible red blood cells appear again, making them sensitized. Because of this, HDN is more likely to occur during a second or subsequent pregnancy, or following a miscarriage or abortion.

• #74 Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and Rhesus disease of the newborn: incidence and impairment estimates for 2010 at regional and global levels | Pediatric Research

  https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2013208

  In most high-income countries, Rh disease has been eradicated by coordinated obstetrical and neonatal care. […] Countries with a neonatal mortality rate (NMR) 5 were therefore presumed to have good Rh prophylaxis and strong health systems, with very few cases of Rh disease. […] In 2010, an estimated 373,300 babies were affected with Rh hemolytic disease worldwide. […] The global estimated prevalence for Rh disease was 276/100,000 live births. […] Our estimates suggest that Rh disease accounts for the majority of the total global EHB burden. […] The very fact that we are forced to rely on data from Europe and the United States, now 70 y old, shows the low priority given to this condition.

• #75 Hemolytic disease of the newborn – Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

  Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) used to be a major cause of fetal loss and death among newborn babies. […] It was not until the 1950s that the underlying cause of HDN was clarified; namely, the newborn’s red blood cells (RBCs) are being attacked by antibodies from the mother. The attack begins while the baby is still in the womb and is caused by an incompatibility between the mother’s and baby’s blood. […] A major cause of HDN is an incompatibility of the Rh blood group between the mother and fetus. Most commonly, hemolytic disease is triggered by the D antigen, although other Rh antigens, such as c, C, E, and e, can also cause problems. […] HDN can also be caused by an incompatibility of the ABO blood group. It arises when a mother with blood type O becomes pregnant with a fetus with a different blood type (type A, B, or AB).

• #76 Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and Rhesus disease of the newborn: incidence and impairment estimates for 2010 at regional and global levels | Pediatric Research

  https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2013208

  In most high-income countries, Rh disease has been eradicated by coordinated obstetrical and neonatal care. […] Countries with a neonatal mortality rate (NMR) 5 were therefore presumed to have good Rh prophylaxis and strong health systems, with very few cases of Rh disease. […] In 2010, an estimated 373,300 babies were affected with Rh hemolytic disease worldwide. […] The global estimated prevalence for Rh disease was 276/100,000 live births. […] Our estimates suggest that Rh disease accounts for the majority of the total global EHB burden. […] The very fact that we are forced to rely on data from Europe and the United States, now 70 y old, shows the low priority given to this condition.

• #77 Hostile Blood: The Forgotten History of Rh Disease and its Miraculous Cure • The Blood Project

  https://www.thebloodproject.com/hostile-blood-the-forgotten-history-of-rh-disease-and-its-miraculous-cure/

  Even as Gorman and Freda moved confidently towards production of a cure, blood kept its secrets. […] The common theory that it coats fetal red blood cells that enters the mother’s system doesn’t explain why the cure appears to work even when the amount administered isn’t sufficient for the coating. […] The treatment for Rh has been available in the United States and much of the developed world since 1968. […] Yet more than 50 years on, an estimated half of the world’s women who need it lack access to Rh immune globulin. […] Treatment of Rh disease, straightforward as it is, requires consistent prenatal care that involves routine blood typing, as well as reliable and affordable access to the drug. […] In the developed world, where access to Rh immune globulin is assured, lack of accurate knowledge may fuel another threat.

• #78 Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and Rhesus disease of the newborn: incidence and impairment estimates for 2010 at regional and global levels | Pediatric Research

  https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2013208

  Rhesus (Rh) disease and extreme hyperbilirubinemia (EHB) result in neonatal mortality and long-term neurodevelopmental impairment, yet there are no estimates of their burden. […] Major risk factors include neonatal hemolysis (such as Rhesus (Rh) disease), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, infections, and an array of familial and genetic disorders. […] Failure to prevent Rh sensitization and manage neonatal hyperbilirubinemia results in 114,100 avoidable neonatal deaths and many children grow up with disabilities. […] Rh disease or Rh hemolytic disease is defined by maternal-fetal Rh (D) antigen incompatibility and the consequences associated with maternal sensitization. […] Severe hemolytic disease manifests in utero as progressive anemia and hypoalbuminemia, leading to anasarca (edema) and heart failure (hydrops fetalis), resulting in stillbirths or early neonatal deaths.

• #79 Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and Rhesus disease of the newborn: incidence and impairment estimates for 2010 at regional and global levels | Pediatric Research

  https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2013208

  Rhesus (Rh) disease and extreme hyperbilirubinemia (EHB) result in neonatal mortality and long-term neurodevelopmental impairment, yet there are no estimates of their burden. […] Major risk factors include neonatal hemolysis (such as Rhesus (Rh) disease), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, infections, and an array of familial and genetic disorders. […] Failure to prevent Rh sensitization and manage neonatal hyperbilirubinemia results in 114,100 avoidable neonatal deaths and many children grow up with disabilities. […] Rh disease or Rh hemolytic disease is defined by maternal-fetal Rh (D) antigen incompatibility and the consequences associated with maternal sensitization. […] Severe hemolytic disease manifests in utero as progressive anemia and hypoalbuminemia, leading to anasarca (edema) and heart failure (hydrops fetalis), resulting in stillbirths or early neonatal deaths.

• #80 Rh disease: causes, risks, symptoms and prevention | WIRhE

  https://wirhe.org/rh-disease/

  A mother can become “sensitized” to the different blood type due to blood transfusion, bone marrow transplantation, or through an accidental needle stick injury. […] Rh disease, or Rh incompatibility, occurs when the mother’s body attacks the blood cells within the developing fetus because their blood types are different. This can harm the child during pregnancy and/or after delivery. […] Rh disease is due to a genetic difference in blood type between you and your partner, and your Rh type is entirely inherited from your parents.

• #81 Rh Disease | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/rh-disease

  Rh disease occurs during pregnancy when there is an incompatibility between the blood types of the mother and baby. […] Every person has a blood type, (O, A, B, or AB) and an Rh factor, either positive or negative. […] Rh factors are genetically determined. […] Problems with the Rh factor occur only when the mother’s Rh factor is negative and the baby’s is positive. […] When an Rh negative mother has a baby that is Rh positive, problems can develop if the baby’s red blood cells cross to the Rh negative mother. […] The mother’s immune system sees the baby’s Rh positive red blood cells as foreign. […] The mother is now Rh sensitized. […] In a first pregnancy, Rh sensitization is not likely. […] During that pregnancy, the mother’s antibodies cross the placenta to fight the Rh positive cells in the baby’s body. […] Rh disease is also called erythroblastosis fetalis during pregnancy. […] Rh disease may include severe anemia with enlargement of the liver and spleen. […] RhIg destroys any anti-Rh antibodies that enter in the mother’s circulation before her immune system becomes sensitized.

• #82 Rh Disease

  https://healthlibrary.uwmedicine.org/Library/DiseasesConditions/Pediatric/HighRiskPregnancy/90,P02498

  Rh disease occurs during pregnancy. It happens when the Rh factors in the birth parents and babys blood dont match. […] What causes Rh disease? Each person has a blood type (O, A, B, or AB). Everyone also has an Rh factor (positive or negative). […] A baby may have the blood type and Rh factor of either parent, or a combination of both parents. […] There can be a problem when an Rh negative birth parent has a baby with an Rh positive father. If the baby’s Rh factor is positive, like their nonbirth parent’s, it can be an issue if the baby’s red blood cells cross to the Rh negative birth parent. […] The Rh negative birth parents immune system sees the baby’s Rh positive red blood cells as foreign. Your immune system responds by making antibodies to fight and destroy these foreign cells.

• #83 Rh Disease | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/r/rh-disease.html

  Rh disease occurs during pregnancy. It happens when the Rh factors in the birth parents and baby’s blood don’t match. […] What causes Rh disease? Each person has a blood type (O, A, B, or AB). Everyone also has an Rh factor (positive or negative). […] There can be a problem when an Rh negative birth parent has a baby with an Rh positive father. If the baby’s Rh factor is positive, like their nonbirth parent’s, it can be an issue if the baby’s red blood cells cross to the Rh negative birth parent. […] The Rh negative birth parent’s immune system sees the baby’s Rh positive red blood cells as foreign. Your immune system responds by making antibodies to fight and destroy these foreign cells. […] If the Rh negative birth parent has been sensitized to Rh positive blood, her immune system will make antibodies to attack her baby.

• #84 Rh Disease | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/rh-disease

  Rh disease occurs during pregnancy when there is an incompatibility between the blood types of the mother and baby. […] Every person has a blood type, (O, A, B, or AB) and an Rh factor, either positive or negative. […] Rh factors are genetically determined. […] Problems with the Rh factor occur only when the mother’s Rh factor is negative and the baby’s is positive. […] When an Rh negative mother has a baby that is Rh positive, problems can develop if the baby’s red blood cells cross to the Rh negative mother. […] The mother’s immune system sees the baby’s Rh positive red blood cells as foreign. […] The mother is now Rh sensitized. […] In a first pregnancy, Rh sensitization is not likely. […] During that pregnancy, the mother’s antibodies cross the placenta to fight the Rh positive cells in the baby’s body. […] Rh disease is also called erythroblastosis fetalis during pregnancy. […] Rh disease may include severe anemia with enlargement of the liver and spleen. […] RhIg destroys any anti-Rh antibodies that enter in the mother’s circulation before her immune system becomes sensitized.

• #85 Rh disease: causes, risks, symptoms and prevention | WIRhE

  https://wirhe.org/rh-disease/

  A mother can become “sensitized” to the different blood type due to blood transfusion, bone marrow transplantation, or through an accidental needle stick injury. […] Rh disease, or Rh incompatibility, occurs when the mother’s body attacks the blood cells within the developing fetus because their blood types are different. This can harm the child during pregnancy and/or after delivery. […] Rh disease is due to a genetic difference in blood type between you and your partner, and your Rh type is entirely inherited from your parents.

• #86 Rh disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh_disease

  These activated B cells then differentiate into plasma cells, which produce anti-D antibodies. […] Once they cross this barrier into the fetal bloodstream, they bind to fetal Rh-positive cells, triggering opsonization, which marks the red blood cells for destruction. […] The resulting anemia has multiple sequelae. […] The severe anemia taxes the heart to compensate by increasing output in an effort to deliver oxygen to the tissues and results in a condition called high output cardiac failure. […] If left untreated, the result may be fetal death. […] The destruction of RBCs leads to elevated bilirubin levels (hyperbilirubinemia) as a byproduct. […] Approximately 50% of Rh-D positive infants with circulating anti-D are either unaffected or only mildly affected requiring no treatment at all and only monitoring.

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