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• #1 Approach to the patient with aphasia – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/approach-to-the-patient-with-aphasia

  Language is a distinctive human facility for communication through symbols. Aphasia is the loss of ability to produce and/or understand language. This usually manifests as a difficulty speaking or understanding spoken language, but reading and writing are also usually impacted. Aphasia can also impact the use of manual sign language and Braille. […] A large, complex neurocognitive network, usually located in the left hemisphere, subserves the capacity for human language. […] The language network comprises areas of perisylvian cortex, including the classical language areas of Broca and Wernicke. While these are not anatomically discrete areas, important neural networks subserving critical language function have been identified: Broca’s area or Brodmann area 44 in the posterior inferior frontal gyrus innervates adjacent motor neurons subserving the mouth and larynx and controls the output of spoken language.

• #2 Aphasia

  https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/aphasia/?srsltid=AfmBOor7BRhcz06ad2aXyI4GDCQC9lfcZ4NoVu3QzPUv-mlD5yzcYl_b

  Aphasia is an acquired neurogenic language disorder resulting from an injury to the brain, typically the left hemisphere, that affects the functioning of core elements of the language network. […] Aphasia may also result from neurodegenerative disease. For example, primary progressive aphasia is a subtype of frontotemporal dementia in which language capabilities become progressively impaired. […] Aphasia is caused by damage to the language network of the brain. Aphasia typically results from left-hemisphere damage. However, in rare instances, aphasia can occur with a right-hemisphere lesion. This happens most often in people who are left-handed because left-handed individuals are more likely to have language networks that are bilateral or that are located in the right hemisphere. […] Common causes of aphasia include the following: stroke, traumatic brain injury, brain tumors, brain surgery, brain infections.

• #3 Aphasia

  https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/aphasia/?srsltid=AfmBOor7BRhcz06ad2aXyI4GDCQC9lfcZ4NoVu3QzPUv-mlD5yzcYl_b

  Aphasia is an acquired neurogenic language disorder resulting from an injury to the brain, typically the left hemisphere, that affects the functioning of core elements of the language network. […] Aphasia may also result from neurodegenerative disease. For example, primary progressive aphasia is a subtype of frontotemporal dementia in which language capabilities become progressively impaired. […] Aphasia is caused by damage to the language network of the brain. Aphasia typically results from left-hemisphere damage. However, in rare instances, aphasia can occur with a right-hemisphere lesion. This happens most often in people who are left-handed because left-handed individuals are more likely to have language networks that are bilateral or that are located in the right hemisphere. […] Common causes of aphasia include the following: stroke, traumatic brain injury, brain tumors, brain surgery, brain infections.

• #4 Aphasia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559315/

  Aphasia is caused by lesions in the brain’s language areas, typically located in the dominant hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere for most individuals. Key areas include the Wernicke and Broca areas and arcuate fasciculus. According to the modern dual-stream neuroanatomic model of aphasia, damage to the dorsal stream, primarily within the frontoparietal regions, leads to nonfluent, effortful aphasia. In contrast, lesions affecting the ventral stream in the temporal areas result in fluent aphasia with comprehension deficits. […] Acute ischemic stroke is the most common cause of aphasia, with the dominant left MCA being the most frequently affected vascular territory. When the entire dominant MCA territory is involved, global aphasia typically results. Occlusion of the anterosuperior branch of the MCA typically leads to nonfluent Broca aphasia, also known as dorsal stream aphasia, characterized by predominant difficulties in language production while comprehension remains intact. In contrast, occlusion of the posteroinferior branch results in fluent Wernicke aphasia, or ventral stream aphasia, which is associated with notable comprehension deficits. Patients with this condition often experience difficulties with repetition, reading, and writing.

• #5 Aphasia: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/5502-aphasia

  Aphasia affects areas of the brain that control your ability to speak and the words you use or how you understand them. Brocas area, which controls speaking ability, and Wernickes area, which controls word selection and understanding, are commonly affected by aphasia. […] Damage to the language center of your brain (areas of your brain involved in language) causes aphasia. The most common causes of aphasia include: Stroke, Traumatic brain injury (TBI), Brain tumor, A brain infection, Brain inflammation, Progressive neurological conditions like dementia and Alzheimers disease. […] The location of the damage in your brain determines the type of aphasia you have. There are two main parts of your brain that involve language, including: Brocas area: This is in your frontal lobe. Its on the left side, in front of your temple. It controls the muscles you use to speak. Wernickes area: This is in your temporal lobe. Its on your left side, just above your ear. It controls your ability to understand and select the right words to use when you talk. […] These two areas of the brain work together to help you speak. Wernickes area processes your understanding of words and picks which ones you use. Then, it sends signals to Brocas area. Once Brocas area knows what words to use, it sends the signals to the muscles you use when you speak.

• #6 Aphasia | Calgary Guide

  https://calgaryguide.ucalgary.ca/aphasia-wernickes-and-brocas-pathogenesis-and-clinical-findings/aphasia/

  Aphasia (Wernickes and Brocas): Pathogenesis and clinical findings […] Damage to language-dominant cerebral hemisphere (the left hemisphere, for the majority of humans): Damage affecting Brocas Area in the Inferior frontal gyrus (area 44 45) […] Damage affecting Wernickes Area in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus (area 22) […] Impaired function of Brocas Area output or generation of speech/ text […] Impaired function of Wernickes Area […] Impaired comprehension (i.e. cannot understand speech or text) […] Aphasia: acquired deficit in language comprehension or generation/output usually due to disruption of neurons in the cerebral cortex.

• #7 Aphasia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1135944-overview

  Aphasia may occur secondary to brain injury or degeneration and involves the left cerebral hemisphere to a greater extent than the right. […] Most aphasias and related disorders are due to stroke, head injury, cerebral tumors, or degenerative diseases. The neuroanatomic substrate of language comprehension and production is complex, including auditory input and language decoding in the superior temporal lobe, analysis in the parietal lobe, and expression in the frontal lobe, descending via the corticobulbar tracts to the internal capsule and brainstem, with modulatory effects of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum. […] Aphasia syndromes have been described based on patterns of abnormal language expression, repetition, and comprehension. These classical syndromes have been roughly correlated with specific left hemisphere locations, though clear overlaps and individual differences make the aphasia syndromes limited in specificity.

• #8 Aphasia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559315/

  Aphasia is caused by lesions in the brain’s language areas, typically located in the dominant hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere for most individuals. Key areas include the Wernicke and Broca areas and arcuate fasciculus. According to the modern dual-stream neuroanatomic model of aphasia, damage to the dorsal stream, primarily within the frontoparietal regions, leads to nonfluent, effortful aphasia. In contrast, lesions affecting the ventral stream in the temporal areas result in fluent aphasia with comprehension deficits. […] Acute ischemic stroke is the most common cause of aphasia, with the dominant left MCA being the most frequently affected vascular territory. When the entire dominant MCA territory is involved, global aphasia typically results. Occlusion of the anterosuperior branch of the MCA typically leads to nonfluent Broca aphasia, also known as dorsal stream aphasia, characterized by predominant difficulties in language production while comprehension remains intact. In contrast, occlusion of the posteroinferior branch results in fluent Wernicke aphasia, or ventral stream aphasia, which is associated with notable comprehension deficits. Patients with this condition often experience difficulties with repetition, reading, and writing.

• #9 Aphasia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/aphasia/symptoms-causes/syc-20369518

  Aphasia usually happens suddenly after a stroke or a head injury. But it can also come on gradually from a slow-growing brain tumor or a disease that causes progressive, permanent damage (degenerative). The severity of aphasia depends on a number of things, including the cause and the extent of the brain damage. […] The most common cause of aphasia is brain damage resulting from a stroke the blockage or rupture of a blood vessel in the brain. Loss of blood to the brain leads to brain cell death or damage in areas that control language. […] Brain damage caused by a severe head injury, a tumor, an infection or a degenerative process also can cause aphasia. In these cases, the aphasia usually occurs with other types of cognitive problems, such as memory problems or confusion. […] Primary progressive aphasia is the term used for language difficulty that develops gradually. This is due to the gradual degeneration of brain cells located in the language networks. Sometimes this type of aphasia will progress to a more generalized dementia.

• #10 Aphasia

  https://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/aphasia/?srsltid=AfmBOoooQwf2hbKlBUKmroCnWEu0sGDzhPnggFQjTp_DkoDUu3vv8_aI

  Aphasia is a language disorder that affects how you communicate. It is caused by damage to the language centers of the brain, usually in the left side of the brain, that control understanding, speaking, and using signed languages. […] Aphasia is most often caused by a stroke. However, any change to the brain can cause aphasia. This may include traumatic brain injury. Other causes may include brain infections, brain tumors, and other brain disorders that may worsen over time.

• #11 Aphasia

  https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/aphasia/?srsltid=AfmBOor7BRhcz06ad2aXyI4GDCQC9lfcZ4NoVu3QzPUv-mlD5yzcYl_b

  Aphasia is an acquired neurogenic language disorder resulting from an injury to the brain, typically the left hemisphere, that affects the functioning of core elements of the language network. […] Aphasia may also result from neurodegenerative disease. For example, primary progressive aphasia is a subtype of frontotemporal dementia in which language capabilities become progressively impaired. […] Aphasia is caused by damage to the language network of the brain. Aphasia typically results from left-hemisphere damage. However, in rare instances, aphasia can occur with a right-hemisphere lesion. This happens most often in people who are left-handed because left-handed individuals are more likely to have language networks that are bilateral or that are located in the right hemisphere. […] Common causes of aphasia include the following: stroke, traumatic brain injury, brain tumors, brain surgery, brain infections.

• #12 Aphasia | NIDCD

  https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/aphasia

  Aphasia is a disorder that results from damage (usually from a stroke or traumatic brain injury) to areas of the brain that are responsible for language. […] Stroke is the leading cause of aphasia. According to the National Aphasia Association, approximately one third of stroke survivors have aphasia. […] Aphasia can appear suddenly, following brain surgery or after a head injury, or it can develop gradually from the effects of a brain tumor (and associated treatments). Other causes of aphasia include brain infections. […] Different terminology is used to describe progressive causes of aphasia. When people have dementia (e.g., Alzheimers disease, frontotemporal dementia, or other types of dementia) that includes significant cognitive or behavioral changes, they may also develop aphasia as their disease progresses and begins to affect the language areas of the brain.

• #13 Aphasia vs. Apraxia: What is the Difference?

  https://connectedspeechpathology.com/blog/aphasia-vs-apraxia-what-is-the-difference

  Aphasia is a language disorder characterized by difficulties with speaking, understanding written or spoken language, reading, and writing. […] Aphasia primarily results from damage to specific areas of the brain responsible for language processing. The most common causes include: […] Stroke is a leading cause of aphasia. A stroke occurs when a blood clot blocks or a blood vessel ruptures in the brain. This deprives brain cells of oxygen and nutrients and can cause damage to the language centers. […] Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI) resulting from accidents, falls, or other forms of head trauma can lead to aphasia. The severity and type of aphasia can vary based on the nature and extent of the injury. […] Brain tumors, whether benign or malignant, can exert pressure on areas of the brain responsible for language. The tumor can interfere with language processing as it grows, leading to aphasia symptoms.

• #14 Aphasia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia

  Aphasia, also known as dysphasia, is an impairment in a person’s ability to comprehend or formulate language because of damage to specific brain regions. The major causes are stroke and head trauma; prevalence is hard to determine, but aphasia due to stroke is estimated to be 0.10.4% in developed countries. Aphasia can also be the result of brain tumors, epilepsy, autoimmune neurological diseases, brain infections, or neurodegenerative diseases (such as dementias). […] With aphasia, one or more modes of communication in the brain have been damaged and are therefore functioning incorrectly. Aphasia is not caused by damage to the brain resulting in motor or sensory deficits, thus producing abnormal speech that is, aphasia is not related to the mechanics of speech, but rather the individual’s language cognition.

• #15 Aphasia – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/aphasia/symptoms-causes/syc-20369518

  Aphasia usually happens suddenly after a stroke or a head injury. But it can also come on gradually from a slow-growing brain tumor or a disease that causes progressive, permanent damage (degenerative). The severity of aphasia depends on a number of things, including the cause and the extent of the brain damage. […] The most common cause of aphasia is brain damage resulting from a stroke the blockage or rupture of a blood vessel in the brain. Loss of blood to the brain leads to brain cell death or damage in areas that control language. […] Brain damage caused by a severe head injury, a tumor, an infection or a degenerative process also can cause aphasia. In these cases, the aphasia usually occurs with other types of cognitive problems, such as memory problems or confusion. […] Primary progressive aphasia is the term used for language difficulty that develops gradually. This is due to the gradual degeneration of brain cells located in the language networks. Sometimes this type of aphasia will progress to a more generalized dementia.

• #16 Aphasia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559315/

  Aphasia is caused by lesions in the brain’s language areas, typically located in the dominant hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere for most individuals. Key areas include the Wernicke and Broca areas and arcuate fasciculus. According to the modern dual-stream neuroanatomic model of aphasia, damage to the dorsal stream, primarily within the frontoparietal regions, leads to nonfluent, effortful aphasia. In contrast, lesions affecting the ventral stream in the temporal areas result in fluent aphasia with comprehension deficits. […] Acute ischemic stroke is the most common cause of aphasia, with the dominant left MCA being the most frequently affected vascular territory. When the entire dominant MCA territory is involved, global aphasia typically results. Occlusion of the anterosuperior branch of the MCA typically leads to nonfluent Broca aphasia, also known as dorsal stream aphasia, characterized by predominant difficulties in language production while comprehension remains intact. In contrast, occlusion of the posteroinferior branch results in fluent Wernicke aphasia, or ventral stream aphasia, which is associated with notable comprehension deficits. Patients with this condition often experience difficulties with repetition, reading, and writing.

• #17

  https://step1.medbullets.com/neurology/113017/aphasia

  A lesion affecting Broca area (inferior frontal lobe) is often secondary to an infarct involving the superior division of the left middle cerebral artery (MCA) […] A lesion affecting Wernicke area (superior temporal lobe) is often secondary to an infarct involving the inferior division of the left MCA […] A lesion affecting the arcuate fasciculus can be secondary to any lesion involving the peri-Sylvian area […] Global aphasia can be secondary to a proximal MCA occlusion affecting both superior and inferior division of the MCA […] Transcortical motor aphasia can be secondary to an anterior cerebral artery (ACA)-MCA watershed infarct […] Transcortical sensory aphasia can be secondary to a posterior cerebral artery (PCA)-MCA watershed infarct […] Transcortical mixed aphasia can be secondary to both an ACA-MCA and PCA-MCA infarct.

• #18 A hospital-based study of post-stroke aphasia: frequency, risk factors, and topographic representation | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text

  https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-019-0128-1

  Atrial fibrillation represents a high-risk factor for ischemic strokes with aphasia. Global and motor aphasia are the major subtypes. The lesion locations are predictive of aphasia subtypes. […] Stroke is the most common cause of aphasia due to damage to the language network of the brain. […] The aim of this study is to estimate the frequency and risk factors of post-stroke aphasia, following the first-ever ischemic stroke, and to study the relations of type of aphasia and lesions location of stroke Egypt. […] In the present study, the incidence of aphasia following first ever ischemic stroke cases was 20% which was similar to others. […] Patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) tended to present more often with aphasia (22.2 vs. 7.6%) and were more severely impaired. […] In the present study, global aphasia was the most common (50.5%) followed by motor (27.8%) and sensory aphasia (11.1%).

• #19 Aphasia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559315/

  Conduction aphasia is most commonly associated with gray matter involvement in the Spt region, a part of the dorsal stream. Transcortical aphasia arises from disruptions in the connections between the brain’s association areas and the peri-Sylvian language region. Alexia with agraphia, marked by an inability to read and write, results from a lesion in the dominant angular gyrus, posterior inferior temporal region, and adjacent supramarginal gyrus of the parietal lobe. Alexia without agraphia is caused by a small lesion affecting the dominant occipital lobe and the adjacent splenium of the corpus callosum.

• #20 A hospital-based study of post-stroke aphasia: frequency, risk factors, and topographic representation | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text

  https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-019-0128-1

  Most patients with global aphasia in our study had extensive cortical and subcortical damage in the whole region supplied by the MCA. […] Patients in our study with sensory aphasia had lesions involving mainly the left temporal lobe, with some cases having involvement of the inferior parietal lobe. Damage of the Wernicke area (superior temporal gyrus) is most probably responsible for the sensory aphasia in those patients. […] We also had three cases of conductive aphasia with a picture of extensive small vessel ischemic changes and involvement of the periventricular and deep white matter (WM) of both frontal and parietal lobes bilaterally. […] Despite remarkable differences between western languages and Arabic, the frequency and risk factors of post-stroke aphasia as well as lesion localization are similar. Global and motor aphasia were the major subtypes. […] Our data are consistent with other reports in most of the cases which showed that the lesion locations were compatible with and predictive of the type of aphasia.

• #21 Vascular Aphasias | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/72351

  Aphasia represents an acquired central disorder of language that impairs a persons ability to understand and/or produce spoken and written language, caused by lesions situated usually in the dominant (left) cerebral hemisphere, in right-handed persons. Aphasia has a prevalence of 2530% in acute ischemic stroke (vascular aphasia). […] The main determinant of the type of vascular aphasia is the infarct location (especially left middle cerebral artery territory). Recent studies at the hyperacute stage of ischemic stroke have observed features of aphasia, have reanalyzed its neuroanatomy using new imaging techniques, and have shown that aphasias have a parallel course to that of cortico-subcortical hypoperfusion. Thus, the reversal of hypoperfusion, following recanalization (spontaneous or secondary to thrombolysis or thrombectomy), is associated with resolution of aphasia.

• #22 Vascular Aphasias | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/72351

  The assessment of aphasias in clinical practice is based on classical analysis of oral production and comprehension. The language disturbances are frequently combined into aphasic syndromes which are components of different vascular syndromes that may evolve/involve rapidly at the acute stage of ischemic stroke. […] Aphasia is caused by a localized brain damage. Using a combination of different neuroimaging techniques, it has been suggested that core language functions are perisylvian leftlateralized regions in the majority of patients (95% right-handers and 75% left-handers, respectively). […] The main determinant of the type of vascular aphasia is the infarct location. Recent studies concerning the hyperacute stage of ischemic stroke have demonstrated that aphasic symptoms have a similar evolution to that of cortical hypoperfusion; thus, improvement in cortical perfusion (following spontaneous or therapeutic recanalization) generates recovery of aphasia.

• #23 Aphasia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1135944-overview

  Aphasia may occur secondary to brain injury or degeneration and involves the left cerebral hemisphere to a greater extent than the right. […] Most aphasias and related disorders are due to stroke, head injury, cerebral tumors, or degenerative diseases. The neuroanatomic substrate of language comprehension and production is complex, including auditory input and language decoding in the superior temporal lobe, analysis in the parietal lobe, and expression in the frontal lobe, descending via the corticobulbar tracts to the internal capsule and brainstem, with modulatory effects of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum. […] Aphasia syndromes have been described based on patterns of abnormal language expression, repetition, and comprehension. These classical syndromes have been roughly correlated with specific left hemisphere locations, though clear overlaps and individual differences make the aphasia syndromes limited in specificity.

• #24 Aphasia vs. Apraxia: What is the Difference?

  https://connectedspeechpathology.com/blog/aphasia-vs-apraxia-what-is-the-difference

  Aphasia is a language disorder characterized by difficulties with speaking, understanding written or spoken language, reading, and writing. […] Aphasia primarily results from damage to specific areas of the brain responsible for language processing. The most common causes include: […] Stroke is a leading cause of aphasia. A stroke occurs when a blood clot blocks or a blood vessel ruptures in the brain. This deprives brain cells of oxygen and nutrients and can cause damage to the language centers. […] Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI) resulting from accidents, falls, or other forms of head trauma can lead to aphasia. The severity and type of aphasia can vary based on the nature and extent of the injury. […] Brain tumors, whether benign or malignant, can exert pressure on areas of the brain responsible for language. The tumor can interfere with language processing as it grows, leading to aphasia symptoms.

• #25 What is Aphasia? – The National Aphasia Association

  https://aphasia.org/what-is-aphasia/

  Aphasia is an impairment of language, affecting the production or comprehension of speech and the ability to read or write. Aphasia is always due to injury to the brain-most commonly from a stroke, particularly in older individuals. […] Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA) is a neurological syndrome in which language capabilities become slowly and progressively impaired. PPA results from deterioration of brain tissue important for speech and language. […] The most common cause of aphasia is stroke (about 25-40% of stroke survivors acquire aphasia). It can also result from head injury, brain tumor or other neurological causes. […] When a person acquires aphasia it is usually due to damage on the left side of the brain, which controls movements on the right side of the body.

• #26 Aphasia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia

  Primary progressive aphasia (PPA), while its name can be misleading, is actually a form of dementia that has some symptoms closely related to several forms of aphasia. It is characterized by a gradual loss in language functioning while other cognitive domains are mostly preserved, such as memory and personality. […] Epilepsy can also include transient aphasia as a prodromal or episodic symptom. However, the repeated seizure activity within language regions may also lead to chronic, and progressive aphasia.

• #27 Primary progressive aphasia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/primary-progressive-aphasia/symptoms-causes/syc-20350499

  Primary progressive aphasia is caused by a shrinking of certain areas of the brain, known as lobes. In primary progressive aphasia, the frontal, temporal or parietal lobes are affected. When areas of the brain shrink, it’s called atrophy. The atrophy caused by primary progressive aphasia mainly happens on the left side of the brain. The areas affected are responsible for speech and language. […] Atrophy is linked to the presence of certain proteins in the brain. The proteins may reduce brain activity or function.

• #28

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11910-021-01097-z

  The term primary progressive aphasia (PPA) refers to a diverse group of dementias that present with prominent and early problems with speech and language. […] New findings elucidating the pathophysiology of PPA represent a major step forward in our understanding of these diseases, with implications for diagnosis, care, management, and therapies. […] Here, we argue that these problems might be addressed by an improved pathophysiological understanding of PPA. […] The major molecular histopathological associations differ between the major syndromes of PPA: nfvPPA is most often associated with primary tauopathies, svPPA is closely associated with TDP-43 (type C) pathology, and lvPPA with Alzheimer pathology, leading to the proposal that the PPA may constitute molecular nexopathies. […] Emerging evidence suggests that specific language network vulnerabilities caused by genetic, developmental, and/or lifestyle factors may determine why some people develop a PPA phenotype in the context of a specific proteinopathy.

• #29

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11910-021-01097-z

  The term primary progressive aphasia (PPA) refers to a diverse group of dementias that present with prominent and early problems with speech and language. […] New findings elucidating the pathophysiology of PPA represent a major step forward in our understanding of these diseases, with implications for diagnosis, care, management, and therapies. […] Here, we argue that these problems might be addressed by an improved pathophysiological understanding of PPA. […] The major molecular histopathological associations differ between the major syndromes of PPA: nfvPPA is most often associated with primary tauopathies, svPPA is closely associated with TDP-43 (type C) pathology, and lvPPA with Alzheimer pathology, leading to the proposal that the PPA may constitute molecular nexopathies. […] Emerging evidence suggests that specific language network vulnerabilities caused by genetic, developmental, and/or lifestyle factors may determine why some people develop a PPA phenotype in the context of a specific proteinopathy.

• #30 Aphasia – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/function-and-dysfunction-of-the-cerebral-lobes/aphasia

  Patients with Broca aphasia can comprehend and conceptualize relatively well, but their ability to form words is impaired. […] Treatment of certain lesions can be very effective (eg, corticosteroids if a mass lesion causes vasogenic edema). The effectiveness of treating aphasia itself is unclear, but most clinicians think that treatment by qualified speech therapists helps and that patients treated soon after onset improve the most. […] Recovery is influenced by the following: Cause, Size and location of lesions, Extent of language impairment, Response to therapy, To a lesser degree, the age, education, and general health of the patient.

• #31 Expressive aphasia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressive_aphasia

  Expressive aphasia (also known as Broca’s aphasia) is a type of aphasia characterized by partial loss of the ability to produce language (spoken, manual, or written), although comprehension generally remains intact. […] It is caused by acquired damage to the frontal regions of the brain, such as Broca’s area. […] Understanding lateralization of brain function is important for understanding which areas of the brain cause expressive aphasia when damaged. […] Mechanisms for recovery differ from patient to patient. Some mechanisms for recovery occur spontaneously after damage to the brain, whereas others are caused by the effects of language therapy. […] FMRI studies have shown that recovery can be partially attributed to the activation of tissue around the damaged area and the recruitment of new neurons in these areas to compensate for the lost function. […] It has been stated by some researchers that the recruitment and recovery of neurons in the left hemisphere opposed to the recruitment of similar neurons in the right hemisphere is superior for long-term recovery and continued rehabilitation.

• #32 Types of aphasia | Stroke Association

  https://www.stroke.org.uk/stroke/effects/aphasia/types-of-aphasia

  There are different types of aphasia, and someone can have more than one type. […] Another type of aphasia is primary progressive aphasia (PPA), which unlike the other types of aphasia is degenerative, meaning it gets worse over time. […] Expressive aphasia, also called non-fluent aphasia or Brocas aphasia, is due to damage in the Brocas area of the brain. […] Receptive aphasia, also called Wernickes or fluent aphasia, is due to damage to the Wernickes area in the brain. […] Global aphasia is the most severe form of aphasia, and its due to damage in several language areas of the brain including Brocas and Wernickes. […] Primary progressive aphasia (PPA) is a condition where language capabilities become slowly and progressively worse, leading to a gradual loss of the ability to: Read. Write. Speak. Understand what other people are saying. […] Deterioration can happen slowly, over a period of years. The person may have other symptoms later on. […] It’s important to get an accurate diagnosis for PPA. […] There is no cure for PPA. However, a person can still communicate effectively with the right tools, support and a PPA support group.

• #33 Aphasia | Cognitive Impairment, Speech Therapy & Brain Injury | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/aphasia-pathology

  aphasia, defect in the expression and comprehension of language caused by damage to the temporal and the frontal lobes of the brain. Aphasia can be caused by a head injury, a tumour, a stroke, or an infection. Symptoms vary with the location and extent of the brain tissues involved. […] Damage to the frontal lobe may result in Broca aphasia. Individuals with this form of aphasia are able to comprehend speech but have great difficulty expressing their thoughts. […] Individuals with Wernicke aphasia, which may result from damage to the temporal lobe, speak in long, garbled sentences (word salad) and have poor speech comprehension. […] Global aphasia may result from extensive brain damage. Individuals with global aphasia exhibit symptoms of both Broca and Wernicke aphasia. […] Speech therapy may be useful to treat aphasia. In some instances, improvement may be due to assumption of some language functions by other areas of the brain; recovery is usually incomplete, however.

• #34 Aphasia – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/function-and-dysfunction-of-the-cerebral-lobes/aphasia

  Aphasia is language dysfunction that may involve impaired comprehension or expression of words or nonverbal equivalents of words. It results from dysfunction of the language centers in the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia or of the white matter pathways that connect them. […] Damage to any part of this roughly triangular area (eg, by infarct, tumor, trauma, or degeneration) interferes with some aspect of language function. […] Aphasia usually results from disorders that do not cause progressive damage (eg, stroke, head trauma, encephalitis); in such cases, aphasia does not worsen. It sometimes results from a progressive disorder (eg, enlarging brain tumor, dementia); in such cases, aphasia progressively worsens. […] Aphasia is broadly divided into receptive and expressive aphasia. […] Patients with Wernicke aphasia speak normal words fluently, often including meaningless phonemes, but do not know their meaning or relationships.

• #35 Wernicke’s Aphasia: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/brain/what-is-wernickes-aphasia

  Wernickes aphasia is a language disorder that makes it hard for you to understand words and communicate. […] This disorder is caused by damage to the part of your brain that controls language. It leads to a loss of language ability and can be very frustrating. […] Wernickes aphasia is caused by damage to the part of your brain that controls language. It leads to a loss of language ability. […] Wernickes aphasia is another name for receptive aphasia. It happens when the area of your brain that controls language called the Wernicke area is damaged. […] Wernickes aphasia causes you to speak in a jumbled word salad that others cant understand. […] Wernickes aphasia is caused by damage to your brain. It is usually on the left side. This aphasia results from loss of blood flow to your brain or other damage caused by: Stroke, Encephalitis, or brain inflammation, Head injury, Brain infection. […] Progressive damage in your brain leads to worsening aphasia in some cases. These can include a growing brain tumor or dementia. Your aphasia might also get worse as your illness advances.

• #36 Fluent Aphasia: Understanding Symptoms & Management

  https://www.flintrehab.com/fluent-aphasia/?srsltid=AfmBOorHtphXC9-OAdGQ7lPABUVoRBPHCNa9PfdWO8iKxjt3M-TOaT7R

  Aphasia is an umbrella term describing a number of cognitive communication disorders. Individuals with aphasia may have difficulties with a number of components of language, including the ability to express oneself through spoken language, comprehend what others are saying, read, and write. […] Wernickes aphasia is a type of aphasia caused by damage to Wernickes area of the brain. This region, typically located toward the back of the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere of the brain, is primarily involved with the understanding of spoken and written words. […] Therefore, when this part of the brain sustains damage due to a neurological condition like stroke or brain injury, individuals may have difficulties with reading and understanding what others say. Furthermore, those with fluent aphasia may not be able produce comprehendible speech. Although they are able to speak fluently, they have lost the ability to connect words with their meaning.

• #37 Aphasia | Cognitive Impairment, Speech Therapy & Brain Injury | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/aphasia-pathology

  aphasia, defect in the expression and comprehension of language caused by damage to the temporal and the frontal lobes of the brain. Aphasia can be caused by a head injury, a tumour, a stroke, or an infection. Symptoms vary with the location and extent of the brain tissues involved. […] Damage to the frontal lobe may result in Broca aphasia. Individuals with this form of aphasia are able to comprehend speech but have great difficulty expressing their thoughts. […] Individuals with Wernicke aphasia, which may result from damage to the temporal lobe, speak in long, garbled sentences (word salad) and have poor speech comprehension. […] Global aphasia may result from extensive brain damage. Individuals with global aphasia exhibit symptoms of both Broca and Wernicke aphasia. […] Speech therapy may be useful to treat aphasia. In some instances, improvement may be due to assumption of some language functions by other areas of the brain; recovery is usually incomplete, however.

• #38 Yale University

  https://brain-language.yale.edu/aphasia-type/conduction-aphasia

  Conduction aphasia, also called associative aphasia, is a relatively rare form of aphasia. An acquired language disorder, it is characterized by intact auditory comprehension, fluent (yet paraphasic) speech production, but poor speech repetition. […] The classical explanation for conduction aphasia is that of a disconnection between the brain areas responsible for speech comprehension (Wernickes area) and speech production (Brocas area), due specifically to damage to the arcuate fasciculus, a deep white matter tract. Recent research has challenged this notion on the basis that patients with conduction aphasia more often have lesions in the supramarginal gyrus or deep parietal matter. […] However, conduction aphasia remains a controversial topic from the understanding of its neurologic foundations.

• #39 Conduction Aphasia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/conduction-aphasia

  Conduction aphasia is a language disorder that affects your ability to repeat spoken words or phrases. […] Brain damage to the connection point between the language processing areas of your brain causes conduction aphasia. […] Conduction aphasia can happen when there’s a lesion (damage) to the area of your brain between Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area (language processing centers of your brain). This connection point, known as the arcuate fasciculus, is responsible for processing the language you hear and producing speech.

• #40 Speech, Language and Aphasia | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/speech-language-and-aphasia/1878876

  Loss of language due to a dysfunction of the central mechanism in the brain is called aphasia. […] Minor disorders of the same is called dysphasia. […] Dysfunction of the peripheral mechanism of speech leading to defective articulation is termed dysarthria. […] Loss of voice due to dysfunction of the voice producing mechanism is called dysphonia. […] Loss of ability to read: alexia. […] Loss of ability to write: agraphia. […] Repetition deficits arise following damage to the arcuate fasciculus of the dominant hemisphere. […] Aphasia is an acquired communication disorder that impairs a person’s ability to process language. […] It can cause problems with speaking, listening, reading, and writing. […] The type and severity of aphasia depends on the location of brain damage, usually in the left hemisphere.

• #41 Yale University

  https://brain-language.yale.edu/aphasia-type/conduction-aphasia

  Conduction aphasia, also called associative aphasia, is a relatively rare form of aphasia. An acquired language disorder, it is characterized by intact auditory comprehension, fluent (yet paraphasic) speech production, but poor speech repetition. […] The classical explanation for conduction aphasia is that of a disconnection between the brain areas responsible for speech comprehension (Wernickes area) and speech production (Brocas area), due specifically to damage to the arcuate fasciculus, a deep white matter tract. Recent research has challenged this notion on the basis that patients with conduction aphasia more often have lesions in the supramarginal gyrus or deep parietal matter. […] However, conduction aphasia remains a controversial topic from the understanding of its neurologic foundations.

• #42 Types of aphasia | Stroke Association

  https://www.stroke.org.uk/stroke/effects/aphasia/types-of-aphasia

  There are different types of aphasia, and someone can have more than one type. […] Another type of aphasia is primary progressive aphasia (PPA), which unlike the other types of aphasia is degenerative, meaning it gets worse over time. […] Expressive aphasia, also called non-fluent aphasia or Brocas aphasia, is due to damage in the Brocas area of the brain. […] Receptive aphasia, also called Wernickes or fluent aphasia, is due to damage to the Wernickes area in the brain. […] Global aphasia is the most severe form of aphasia, and its due to damage in several language areas of the brain including Brocas and Wernickes. […] Primary progressive aphasia (PPA) is a condition where language capabilities become slowly and progressively worse, leading to a gradual loss of the ability to: Read. Write. Speak. Understand what other people are saying. […] Deterioration can happen slowly, over a period of years. The person may have other symptoms later on. […] It’s important to get an accurate diagnosis for PPA. […] There is no cure for PPA. However, a person can still communicate effectively with the right tools, support and a PPA support group.

• #43

  https://step1.medbullets.com/neurology/113017/aphasia

  A lesion affecting Broca area (inferior frontal lobe) is often secondary to an infarct involving the superior division of the left middle cerebral artery (MCA) […] A lesion affecting Wernicke area (superior temporal lobe) is often secondary to an infarct involving the inferior division of the left MCA […] A lesion affecting the arcuate fasciculus can be secondary to any lesion involving the peri-Sylvian area […] Global aphasia can be secondary to a proximal MCA occlusion affecting both superior and inferior division of the MCA […] Transcortical motor aphasia can be secondary to an anterior cerebral artery (ACA)-MCA watershed infarct […] Transcortical sensory aphasia can be secondary to a posterior cerebral artery (PCA)-MCA watershed infarct […] Transcortical mixed aphasia can be secondary to both an ACA-MCA and PCA-MCA infarct.

• #44

  https://step1.medbullets.com/neurology/113017/aphasia

  A lesion affecting Broca area (inferior frontal lobe) is often secondary to an infarct involving the superior division of the left middle cerebral artery (MCA) […] A lesion affecting Wernicke area (superior temporal lobe) is often secondary to an infarct involving the inferior division of the left MCA […] A lesion affecting the arcuate fasciculus can be secondary to any lesion involving the peri-Sylvian area […] Global aphasia can be secondary to a proximal MCA occlusion affecting both superior and inferior division of the MCA […] Transcortical motor aphasia can be secondary to an anterior cerebral artery (ACA)-MCA watershed infarct […] Transcortical sensory aphasia can be secondary to a posterior cerebral artery (PCA)-MCA watershed infarct […] Transcortical mixed aphasia can be secondary to both an ACA-MCA and PCA-MCA infarct.

• #45 Transcortical Motor Aphasia: How to Identify & Treat It

  https://www.flintrehab.com/transcortical-motor-aphasia/?srsltid=AfmBOorNgBx9B_VcaGBmKRhmuBFcPoD66-ZNxY4q3uhPKFnTuqRfeORU

  Transcortical motor aphasia is a type of language disorder that can be present following a stroke or other neurological injury. […] This type of aphasia occurs when a stroke or brain injury damages the nerve fibers that send information back and forth between Brocas area and other areas of the brain that participate in speech production. […] When these important language areas in the brain cannot communicate, the individual may struggle with multiple aspects of language. […] One of the key characteristics speech therapists look for when diagnosing transcortical motor aphasia is the ability to repeat speech. […] Treatment for transcortical aphasia is similar to treatment for other types of aphasia. […] Neuroplasticity refers to the brains ability to form new neural pathways in response to repetition.

• #46 Aphasia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia

  Neurodevelopmental forms of auditory processing disorder (APD) are differentiable from aphasia in that aphasia is by definition caused by acquired brain injury, but acquired epileptic aphasia has been viewed as a form of APD. […] Aphasia is most often caused by stroke, where about a quarter of patients who experience an acute stroke develop aphasia. However, any disease or damage to the parts of the brain that control language can cause aphasia. Some of these can include brain tumors, traumatic brain injury, epilepsy and progressive neurological disorders. In rare cases, aphasia may also result from herpesviral encephalitis. […] Substantial damage to tissue anywhere within the region shown in blue (on the figure in the infobox above) can potentially result in aphasia. Aphasia can also sometimes be caused by damage to subcortical structures deep within the left hemisphere, including the thalamus, the internal and external capsules, and the caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia.

• #47 069 A putative mechanism for subcortical aphasia | BMJ Neurology Open

  https://neurologyopen.bmj.com/content/3/Suppl_1/A25.2

  Objectives The role of subcortical structures in language function are still poorly understood. We aim to provide a putative mechanism for subcortical aphasia through a structural and functional imaging-based case discussion. […] We believe this is an important educational case for neurologists regarding the presentation of aphasia due to isolated subcortical lesions and raises some interesting hypotheses regarding a putative mechanism for subcortical aphasia due to dominant hemisphere cortical inactivation.

• #48 069 A putative mechanism for subcortical aphasia | BMJ Neurology Open

  https://neurologyopen.bmj.com/content/3/Suppl_1/A25.2

  Objectives The role of subcortical structures in language function are still poorly understood. We aim to provide a putative mechanism for subcortical aphasia through a structural and functional imaging-based case discussion. […] We believe this is an important educational case for neurologists regarding the presentation of aphasia due to isolated subcortical lesions and raises some interesting hypotheses regarding a putative mechanism for subcortical aphasia due to dominant hemisphere cortical inactivation.

• #49 A hospital-based study of post-stroke aphasia: frequency, risk factors, and topographic representation | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text

  https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-019-0128-1

  Most patients with global aphasia in our study had extensive cortical and subcortical damage in the whole region supplied by the MCA. […] Patients in our study with sensory aphasia had lesions involving mainly the left temporal lobe, with some cases having involvement of the inferior parietal lobe. Damage of the Wernicke area (superior temporal gyrus) is most probably responsible for the sensory aphasia in those patients. […] We also had three cases of conductive aphasia with a picture of extensive small vessel ischemic changes and involvement of the periventricular and deep white matter (WM) of both frontal and parietal lobes bilaterally. […] Despite remarkable differences between western languages and Arabic, the frequency and risk factors of post-stroke aphasia as well as lesion localization are similar. Global and motor aphasia were the major subtypes. […] Our data are consistent with other reports in most of the cases which showed that the lesion locations were compatible with and predictive of the type of aphasia.

• #50 Dementia with aphasia and mirror phenomenon: examination of the mechanism using neuroimaging and neuropsychological findings: a case report | BMC Neurology | Full Text

  https://bmcneurol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12883-020-01994-9

  The mirror phenomenon is the phenomenon of interacting with ones mirrored self-image by misidentifying ones own reflection in the mirror as another person, by talking or handing something to the image. […] Here, we report a case of Wernickes aphasia with acquired stuttering (AS) that exhibited a specific speech pattern after the appearance of the mirror phenomenon during the course of dementia with aphasia. […] The pathology of AS may involve the closed-loop motor system (cerebral cortexthalamusbasal gangliacortex), and a study involving positron emission tomography (PET) based on the findings of the hypometabolic regions of patients with AS suggested the existence of a phonological loop in the anterior region of the left frontal lobe and temporal lobe. […] Wernickes aphasia might have appeared in this patient because of a functional decline of the posterior region, including Wernickes area, of the left brain.

• #51 Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/17/3778

  The aim of rehabilitating patients with aphasia is to enable communication with the environment, compensate behavioral deficits manifested by changing the programs of a given activity, and improve the effectiveness of patient behavior. […] Currently, there is no single universally accepted algorithm for treating aphasia. All available therapies, without clear differences in their effectiveness, should be adjusted to the individual needs of the patients. […] The main purpose of pharmacological intervention in PSA is to improve and facilitate neuroplasticity, but evidence advocating pharmacological stimulation of neuroplasticity is limited. […] The release of striated dopamine from the ventral tegmental area (mesocortical system) and the ventral portion of the pars compacta of substantia nigra (nigrostriatal system) results in speech generation.

• #52

  https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2018/06150/changes_in_the_corpus_callosum_during_the_recovery.75.aspx

  The corpus callosum, which is the most important fiber pathway linking the bilateral hemispheres, plays a key role in information access, as well as the functional coordination and reorganization between the bilateral hemispheres. However, whether the corpus callosum will undergo structural changes during the recovery of aphasia is still unclear. […] The fibrous structure between the corpus callosum and cortical language areas may be reconstructed during the recovery of aphasia. In addition, and the corpus callosum may play an important role in the occurrence and recovery of aphasia after stroke. […] The corpus callosum may undergo structural and functional changes during the recovery of aphasia, which can thereby promote the structural and functional reorganization of the language network. Our findings indicate that, during the recovery of aphasia, the corpus callosum has undergone a structural change, which may lead to the re-establishment of the excitement balance between the bilateral brain hemispheres as well as the effective reorganization of the impaired language network. This may account for one of the important mechanisms for improving the spontaneous speech and repetition ability of patients.

• #53

  https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2018/06150/changes_in_the_corpus_callosum_during_the_recovery.75.aspx

  The corpus callosum, which is the most important fiber pathway linking the bilateral hemispheres, plays a key role in information access, as well as the functional coordination and reorganization between the bilateral hemispheres. However, whether the corpus callosum will undergo structural changes during the recovery of aphasia is still unclear. […] The fibrous structure between the corpus callosum and cortical language areas may be reconstructed during the recovery of aphasia. In addition, and the corpus callosum may play an important role in the occurrence and recovery of aphasia after stroke. […] The corpus callosum may undergo structural and functional changes during the recovery of aphasia, which can thereby promote the structural and functional reorganization of the language network. Our findings indicate that, during the recovery of aphasia, the corpus callosum has undergone a structural change, which may lead to the re-establishment of the excitement balance between the bilateral brain hemispheres as well as the effective reorganization of the impaired language network. This may account for one of the important mechanisms for improving the spontaneous speech and repetition ability of patients.

• #54

  https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2018/06150/changes_in_the_corpus_callosum_during_the_recovery.75.aspx

  The corpus callosum, which is the most important fiber pathway linking the bilateral hemispheres, plays a key role in information access, as well as the functional coordination and reorganization between the bilateral hemispheres. However, whether the corpus callosum will undergo structural changes during the recovery of aphasia is still unclear. […] The fibrous structure between the corpus callosum and cortical language areas may be reconstructed during the recovery of aphasia. In addition, and the corpus callosum may play an important role in the occurrence and recovery of aphasia after stroke. […] The corpus callosum may undergo structural and functional changes during the recovery of aphasia, which can thereby promote the structural and functional reorganization of the language network. Our findings indicate that, during the recovery of aphasia, the corpus callosum has undergone a structural change, which may lead to the re-establishment of the excitement balance between the bilateral brain hemispheres as well as the effective reorganization of the impaired language network. This may account for one of the important mechanisms for improving the spontaneous speech and repetition ability of patients.

• #55

  https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2018/06150/changes_in_the_corpus_callosum_during_the_recovery.75.aspx

  In conclusion, the recovery mechanism of the speech function in our patient remains unclear. Nevertheless, our results have preliminarily suggested that, during the recovery of aphasia, the fibrous structure between the corpus callosum and cortical language areas may be reconstructed. In addition, the corpus callosum may play an important role in the occurrence and recovery of aphasia after stroke.

• #56 Spontaneous Recovery and Intervention in Aphasia | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79101

  The recovery process of the central nervous system observed in the first few days to weeks after the onset of aphasia is thought to involve the disappearance of cerebral edema, the absorption of necrotic tissue, angiogenesis, the development of the collateral circulation, and the resolution of hematomas, leading to the repair of damaged tissue. […] The recovery process of the central nervous system for a few weeks after the onset is believed to involve reduction of brain edema, necrotic tissue absorption, hematoma absorption, and formation of collateral circulation. […] The mechanism for central nervous system recovery may possibly involve the recovery of damaged functional areas, reorganization of neurons in the remaining areas, or compensation by the contralateral hemisphere. […] These previous reports suggest that the mechanism of recovery involved in central nervous system reorganization may differ depending on the time from the onset.

• #57 Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/17/3778

  Aphasia is one of the most common clinical features of functional impairment after a stroke. Approximately 21–40% of stroke patients sustain permanent aphasia, which progressively worsens one’s quality of life and rehabilitation outcomes. […] Aphasia is a language disorder with a broad clinical picture most often caused by damage to the dominant hemisphere of the brain. […] Recovery after stroke depends on the intensity of the neuroplasticity processes that begin immediately after an ischemia/reperfusion incident. The ischemic cascade causes changes to gene expression, leading to increased brain excitability, angiogenesis, increased concentration of growth factors, activation of synaptogenesis and neuritogenesis, and remodeling of axons. […] Each stroke phase is characterized by the activation of different molecular mechanisms, allowing the preservation and/or restoration of the functions of the damaged area.

• #58 Current Approaches to the Treatment of Post-Stroke Aphasia

  https://www.j-stroke.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5853/jos.2020.05015

  Aphasia, impairment of language after stroke or other neurological insult, is a common and often devastating condition that affects nearly every social activity and interaction. […] Several recent publications have reviewed the mechanisms of aphasia recovery, and in some cases the mechanisms of therapy revealed by changes in task-related brain activations or changes in functional connectivity within functional networks. […] A plausible mechanism is that language recovery depends on neuroplasticity—neural networks must be modified either by changing connectivity between undamaged nodes of the residual language network or by incorporating new nodes or other networks to assume the functions of the damaged ones. […] There is evidence from both humans and animals that behavioral interventions such as mass practice can bring about this type of reorganization through long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

• #59 Expressive aphasia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressive_aphasia

  Expressive aphasia (also known as Broca’s aphasia) is a type of aphasia characterized by partial loss of the ability to produce language (spoken, manual, or written), although comprehension generally remains intact. […] It is caused by acquired damage to the frontal regions of the brain, such as Broca’s area. […] Understanding lateralization of brain function is important for understanding which areas of the brain cause expressive aphasia when damaged. […] Mechanisms for recovery differ from patient to patient. Some mechanisms for recovery occur spontaneously after damage to the brain, whereas others are caused by the effects of language therapy. […] FMRI studies have shown that recovery can be partially attributed to the activation of tissue around the damaged area and the recruitment of new neurons in these areas to compensate for the lost function. […] It has been stated by some researchers that the recruitment and recovery of neurons in the left hemisphere opposed to the recruitment of similar neurons in the right hemisphere is superior for long-term recovery and continued rehabilitation.

• #60 Expressive aphasia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressive_aphasia

  Expressive aphasia (also known as Broca’s aphasia) is a type of aphasia characterized by partial loss of the ability to produce language (spoken, manual, or written), although comprehension generally remains intact. […] It is caused by acquired damage to the frontal regions of the brain, such as Broca’s area. […] Understanding lateralization of brain function is important for understanding which areas of the brain cause expressive aphasia when damaged. […] Mechanisms for recovery differ from patient to patient. Some mechanisms for recovery occur spontaneously after damage to the brain, whereas others are caused by the effects of language therapy. […] FMRI studies have shown that recovery can be partially attributed to the activation of tissue around the damaged area and the recruitment of new neurons in these areas to compensate for the lost function. […] It has been stated by some researchers that the recruitment and recovery of neurons in the left hemisphere opposed to the recruitment of similar neurons in the right hemisphere is superior for long-term recovery and continued rehabilitation.

• #61 Spontaneous Recovery and Intervention in Aphasia | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79101

  The recovery process of the central nervous system observed in the first few days to weeks after the onset of aphasia is thought to involve the disappearance of cerebral edema, the absorption of necrotic tissue, angiogenesis, the development of the collateral circulation, and the resolution of hematomas, leading to the repair of damaged tissue. […] The recovery process of the central nervous system for a few weeks after the onset is believed to involve reduction of brain edema, necrotic tissue absorption, hematoma absorption, and formation of collateral circulation. […] The mechanism for central nervous system recovery may possibly involve the recovery of damaged functional areas, reorganization of neurons in the remaining areas, or compensation by the contralateral hemisphere. […] These previous reports suggest that the mechanism of recovery involved in central nervous system reorganization may differ depending on the time from the onset.

• #62 Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/17/3778

  The aim of rehabilitating patients with aphasia is to enable communication with the environment, compensate behavioral deficits manifested by changing the programs of a given activity, and improve the effectiveness of patient behavior. […] Currently, there is no single universally accepted algorithm for treating aphasia. All available therapies, without clear differences in their effectiveness, should be adjusted to the individual needs of the patients. […] The main purpose of pharmacological intervention in PSA is to improve and facilitate neuroplasticity, but evidence advocating pharmacological stimulation of neuroplasticity is limited. […] The release of striated dopamine from the ventral tegmental area (mesocortical system) and the ventral portion of the pars compacta of substantia nigra (nigrostriatal system) results in speech generation.

• #63 Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/17/3778

  There are few, well-estimated drugs in clinical trials. Those with the most significant data that suggest improvement in the prognosis of PSA are donepezil and memantine. […] Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a non-invasive and painless form of therapy, widely used in the neurorehabilitation in post-stroke patients. […] Numerous studies have shown the improvement of linguistic functions in patients with aphasia, as well as the activation of neuroplasticity, confirming the effectiveness of this strategy.

• #64 Current Approaches to the Treatment of Post-Stroke Aphasia

  https://www.j-stroke.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5853/jos.2020.05015

  The mechanisms underlying the effects of tDCS on function are not entirely clear, although studies have shown that application of weak (1 to 4 mA) continuous electrical current to the scalp induces a subthreshold polarization of cortical neurons beneath the stimulated area. […] The polarization is too weak to generate an action potential, but primes the network that is stimulated by the concurrent behavioral task, altering their excitability. […] In this way, tDCS paired with a behavioral task can augment short- and long-term synaptic plasticity. […] The mainstay of post-stroke aphasia therapy has always been, and continues to be, behavioral SLT. […] Behavioral SLT has also been augmented with medications or noninvasive brain stimulation methods that facilitate neural plasticity. […] Future studies will likely investigate the combination of pharmaceutical and noninvasive brain stimulation approaches to augment SLT.

• #65 Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/17/3778

  There are few, well-estimated drugs in clinical trials. Those with the most significant data that suggest improvement in the prognosis of PSA are donepezil and memantine. […] Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a non-invasive and painless form of therapy, widely used in the neurorehabilitation in post-stroke patients. […] Numerous studies have shown the improvement of linguistic functions in patients with aphasia, as well as the activation of neuroplasticity, confirming the effectiveness of this strategy.

• #66 Speech Language Pathology and Aphasia (Post-Stroke) | Job Description and Certification

  https://www.speechpathologygraduateprograms.org/aphasia-post-stroke/

  The discovery of brain plasticity, for example, rose in part from research into the natural recovery of language skills in aphasic patients, but the understanding of how it was happening has helped SLPs make better use of the phenomena. […] Therapies like Gestural Facilitation of Naming (GES) and Response Elaboration Training (RET) use repetitive cognitive training models to encourage the development of new neural pathways to provide language abilities. […] Researchers are also looking into drug therapies, to see if drugs that effect the chemical neurotransmitters in the brain can help repair language functions. […] Another, even stranger, approach that is being looked at involves using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to jump start brain activity in the damaged areas.

• #67 Current Approaches to the Treatment of Post-Stroke Aphasia

  https://www.j-stroke.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5853/jos.2020.05015

  The mechanisms underlying the effects of tDCS on function are not entirely clear, although studies have shown that application of weak (1 to 4 mA) continuous electrical current to the scalp induces a subthreshold polarization of cortical neurons beneath the stimulated area. […] The polarization is too weak to generate an action potential, but primes the network that is stimulated by the concurrent behavioral task, altering their excitability. […] In this way, tDCS paired with a behavioral task can augment short- and long-term synaptic plasticity. […] The mainstay of post-stroke aphasia therapy has always been, and continues to be, behavioral SLT. […] Behavioral SLT has also been augmented with medications or noninvasive brain stimulation methods that facilitate neural plasticity. […] Future studies will likely investigate the combination of pharmaceutical and noninvasive brain stimulation approaches to augment SLT.

• #68 Aphasia – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/function-and-dysfunction-of-the-cerebral-lobes/aphasia

  Patients with Broca aphasia can comprehend and conceptualize relatively well, but their ability to form words is impaired. […] Treatment of certain lesions can be very effective (eg, corticosteroids if a mass lesion causes vasogenic edema). The effectiveness of treating aphasia itself is unclear, but most clinicians think that treatment by qualified speech therapists helps and that patients treated soon after onset improve the most. […] Recovery is influenced by the following: Cause, Size and location of lesions, Extent of language impairment, Response to therapy, To a lesser degree, the age, education, and general health of the patient.

• #69 Aphasia – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/function-and-dysfunction-of-the-cerebral-lobes/aphasia

  Patients with Broca aphasia can comprehend and conceptualize relatively well, but their ability to form words is impaired. […] Treatment of certain lesions can be very effective (eg, corticosteroids if a mass lesion causes vasogenic edema). The effectiveness of treating aphasia itself is unclear, but most clinicians think that treatment by qualified speech therapists helps and that patients treated soon after onset improve the most. […] Recovery is influenced by the following: Cause, Size and location of lesions, Extent of language impairment, Response to therapy, To a lesser degree, the age, education, and general health of the patient.

• #70 Current Approaches to the Treatment of Post-Stroke Aphasia

  https://www.j-stroke.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5853/jos.2020.05015

  Aphasia, impairment of language after stroke or other neurological insult, is a common and often devastating condition that affects nearly every social activity and interaction. […] Several recent publications have reviewed the mechanisms of aphasia recovery, and in some cases the mechanisms of therapy revealed by changes in task-related brain activations or changes in functional connectivity within functional networks. […] A plausible mechanism is that language recovery depends on neuroplasticity—neural networks must be modified either by changing connectivity between undamaged nodes of the residual language network or by incorporating new nodes or other networks to assume the functions of the damaged ones. […] There is evidence from both humans and animals that behavioral interventions such as mass practice can bring about this type of reorganization through long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

• #71 Transcortical Motor Aphasia: How to Identify & Treat It

  https://www.flintrehab.com/transcortical-motor-aphasia/?srsltid=AfmBOorNgBx9B_VcaGBmKRhmuBFcPoD66-ZNxY4q3uhPKFnTuqRfeORU

  Transcortical motor aphasia is a type of language disorder that can be present following a stroke or other neurological injury. […] This type of aphasia occurs when a stroke or brain injury damages the nerve fibers that send information back and forth between Brocas area and other areas of the brain that participate in speech production. […] When these important language areas in the brain cannot communicate, the individual may struggle with multiple aspects of language. […] One of the key characteristics speech therapists look for when diagnosing transcortical motor aphasia is the ability to repeat speech. […] Treatment for transcortical aphasia is similar to treatment for other types of aphasia. […] Neuroplasticity refers to the brains ability to form new neural pathways in response to repetition.

• #72 Transcortical Motor Aphasia: How to Identify & Treat It

  https://www.flintrehab.com/transcortical-motor-aphasia/?srsltid=AfmBOorNgBx9B_VcaGBmKRhmuBFcPoD66-ZNxY4q3uhPKFnTuqRfeORU

  Therefore, even if a stroke affects the brain regions that normally control language, its still possible for other areas to compensate. […] With these new or stronger neural pathways in place, you can begin to regain speech function. […] Constraint-Induced Language Therapy (CILT) is an effective rehab tool that can help people with severe transcortical motor aphasia regain their speaking skills. […] This rehabilitation method can feel intense but has been shown to be an effective strategy for improving language skills after aphasia. […] PACE therapy is a variation of a basic picture-naming drill that incorporates elements of conversation into the exercise. […] Transcortical motor aphasia is a severe type of aphasia that can impair a persons speech and communication skills. […] However, there is hope for recovery through neuroplasticity.

• #73 Speech Language Pathology and Aphasia (Post-Stroke) | Job Description and Certification

  https://www.speechpathologygraduateprograms.org/aphasia-post-stroke/

  The discovery of brain plasticity, for example, rose in part from research into the natural recovery of language skills in aphasic patients, but the understanding of how it was happening has helped SLPs make better use of the phenomena. […] Therapies like Gestural Facilitation of Naming (GES) and Response Elaboration Training (RET) use repetitive cognitive training models to encourage the development of new neural pathways to provide language abilities. […] Researchers are also looking into drug therapies, to see if drugs that effect the chemical neurotransmitters in the brain can help repair language functions. […] Another, even stranger, approach that is being looked at involves using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to jump start brain activity in the damaged areas.

• #74 Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/17/3778

  The aim of rehabilitating patients with aphasia is to enable communication with the environment, compensate behavioral deficits manifested by changing the programs of a given activity, and improve the effectiveness of patient behavior. […] Currently, there is no single universally accepted algorithm for treating aphasia. All available therapies, without clear differences in their effectiveness, should be adjusted to the individual needs of the patients. […] The main purpose of pharmacological intervention in PSA is to improve and facilitate neuroplasticity, but evidence advocating pharmacological stimulation of neuroplasticity is limited. […] The release of striated dopamine from the ventral tegmental area (mesocortical system) and the ventral portion of the pars compacta of substantia nigra (nigrostriatal system) results in speech generation.

• #75 Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/10/17/3778

  The aim of rehabilitating patients with aphasia is to enable communication with the environment, compensate behavioral deficits manifested by changing the programs of a given activity, and improve the effectiveness of patient behavior. […] Currently, there is no single universally accepted algorithm for treating aphasia. All available therapies, without clear differences in their effectiveness, should be adjusted to the individual needs of the patients. […] The main purpose of pharmacological intervention in PSA is to improve and facilitate neuroplasticity, but evidence advocating pharmacological stimulation of neuroplasticity is limited. […] The release of striated dopamine from the ventral tegmental area (mesocortical system) and the ventral portion of the pars compacta of substantia nigra (nigrostriatal system) results in speech generation.

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