Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Cystitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cystitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20371306

  Most of the time, cystitis happens when there’s an infection caused by bacteria. This is called a urinary tract infection (UTI). […] Cystitis also may occur as a reaction to certain drugs or radiation therapy. Things that sometimes irritate the bladder, such as hygiene products, spermicide jelly or long-term catheter use, can also lead to cystitis. Cystitis can also happen as a complication of another illness. […] UTIs typically occur when bacteria outside the body enter the urinary tract through the urethra and begin to multiply. Most cases of cystitis are caused by a type of Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria. But other types of bacteria can cause infections, too. […] Although bacterial infections are the most common cause of cystitis, a number of noninfectious factors also may cause the bladder to become inflamed. Some examples include: Interstitial cystitis. The cause of this chronic bladder inflammation, also called painful bladder syndrome, is not clear.

• #1 Cystitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482435/

  Cystitis refers to infection of the lower urinary tract, or more specifically, the urinary bladder. It may be broadly categorized as either uncomplicated or complicated. Uncomplicated cystitis refers to lower urinary tract infection (UTI) in either men or non-pregnant women who are otherwise healthy. Acute cystitis is typically caused by a bacterial infection of the urinary bladder. Complicated cystitis, on the other hand, is associated with risk factors that increase the virulence of the infection or the potential of failing antibiotic therapy. […] Acute cystitis is typically caused by a bacterial infection of the urinary bladder. Women are particularly susceptible due to the proximity of the rectum to the urethral meatus as well as the relatively short urethral length in females. […] Acute cystitis is typically caused by a bacterial infection of the urinary bladder.

• #2 Cystitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482435/

  Cystitis refers to infection of the lower urinary tract, or more specifically, the urinary bladder. It may be broadly categorized as either uncomplicated or complicated. Uncomplicated cystitis refers to lower urinary tract infection (UTI) in either men or non-pregnant women who are otherwise healthy. Acute cystitis is typically caused by a bacterial infection of the urinary bladder. Complicated cystitis, on the other hand, is associated with risk factors that increase the virulence of the infection or the potential of failing antibiotic therapy. […] Acute cystitis is typically caused by a bacterial infection of the urinary bladder. Women are particularly susceptible due to the proximity of the rectum to the urethral meatus as well as the relatively short urethral length in females. […] Acute cystitis is typically caused by a bacterial infection of the urinary bladder.

• #2 Cystitis > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/cystitis

  Cystitis is inflammation of the bladder. It has various causes, the most common of which is bacteria. When bacteria causes cystitis, it is also called a lower urinary tract infection (UTI). […] Cystitis is usually caused by bacteria in the lower urinary tract. Most often in 95% of cases the bacteria Escherichia coli is the cause. […] Other, non-bacterial causes of cystitis include medications, chemicals, radiation, foreign bodies, interstitial cystitis, or other medical conditions.

• #3 Cystitis: Bladder Pain, Inflammation Causes, Relief

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/cystitis-8647309

  Cystitis is inflammation of your bladder or lower urinary tract. In its chronic version, it is called interstitial cystitis. When it occurs as an acute infection (occurring suddenly or with rapid onset), it is a form of a urinary tract infection (UTI). […] Treatment varies based on the cause of your problem. Infections can be treated with antibiotics. Home treatments, procedures, and certain drugs can help relieve symptoms. […] The most common cause of cystitis is bacteria, though it can also occur from a wide range of noninfectious causes such as medications or chemicals. […] Cystitis can be classified as infectious or noninfectious based on the cause of the condition. […] Infectious cystitis typically involves the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli), in 75% to 90% of all UTIs. Other bacteria that cause infectious cystitis include: Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Group B Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Enterococci.

• #3 Bladder Inflammation (Cystitis): Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21203-bladder-inflammation-cystitis

  Cystitis is inflammation of the bladder thats generally caused by a bacterial infection. Bladder infections occur when bacteria from the area between the vagina/penis and rectum (called the perineum) enter the urethra and travel into the bladder. […] A bladder infection is usually caused by bacteria entering the urethra and multiplying in your bladder. The most common type of bacteria is Escherichia coli (E. coli). […] There are factors that increase the risk of bladder infections. These include anatomical abnormalities of the urinary tract, menopause, using a catheter, using spermicides, constipation, and multiple sexual partners.

• #4 Cystitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482435/

  Accounting for approximately 75% to 95% of cases, Escherichia coli is the most common etiologic agent in uncomplicated UTIs in women, followed by Klebsiella. Other common etiologic pathogens include species of the Enterobacteriaceae family, such as Proteus mirabilis, and other bacteria, such as Staphylococcus saprophyticus and enterococcus. […] Escherichia coli is also the most common cause of complicated cystitis, but the spectrum of microbial pathogens that may cause a complicated UTI is much broader and includes organisms such as Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Serratia, Pseudomonas, enterococci, staphylococci, and even fungi. […] The overwhelming identifiable bacteria causing most cases of cystitis is Escherichia coli (from 75% to 95% of cases). Other organisms causing cystitis include Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus mirabilis.

• #5 Cystitis > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/cystitis

  Cystitis is inflammation of the bladder. It has various causes, the most common of which is bacteria. When bacteria causes cystitis, it is also called a lower urinary tract infection (UTI). […] Cystitis is usually caused by bacteria in the lower urinary tract. Most often in 95% of cases the bacteria Escherichia coli is the cause. […] Other, non-bacterial causes of cystitis include medications, chemicals, radiation, foreign bodies, interstitial cystitis, or other medical conditions.

• #6 Cystitis | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/cystitis

  Cystitis is an inflammation of the bladder and is usually caused by the bacterium E. coli. […] The most common bug or bacterium causing urinary tract infection is Escherichia coli (E. coli). […] E. coli thrives in the acidic environment of the bladder, where it multiplies and inflames the bladder lining.

• #7 Cystitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482435/

  Accounting for approximately 75% to 95% of cases, Escherichia coli is the most common etiologic agent in uncomplicated UTIs in women, followed by Klebsiella. Other common etiologic pathogens include species of the Enterobacteriaceae family, such as Proteus mirabilis, and other bacteria, such as Staphylococcus saprophyticus and enterococcus. […] Escherichia coli is also the most common cause of complicated cystitis, but the spectrum of microbial pathogens that may cause a complicated UTI is much broader and includes organisms such as Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Serratia, Pseudomonas, enterococci, staphylococci, and even fungi. […] The overwhelming identifiable bacteria causing most cases of cystitis is Escherichia coli (from 75% to 95% of cases). Other organisms causing cystitis include Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus mirabilis.

• #8 Cystitis: What is it, symptoms, types, treatment, and diagnosis

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/152997

  Acute cystitis typically occurs as a result of bacteria called Escherichia coli. Other bacterial causes include: Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Group B streptococci, Lactobacillus, S. saprophyticus, enterococci. […] In males, cystitis can also occur due to problems that restrict typical urine flow. An example of this is an enlarged prostate, which could prevent someone from being able to urinate normally. […] According to the United Kingdoms National Health Service (NHS), risk factors include: inserting, changing, or prolonged use of a urinary catheter, using a diaphragm for birth control, difficulty fully emptying the bladder, sexual activity and friction from sexual activity, radiotherapy, diabetes, due to the high sugar levels in the urine providing a good environment for the bacteria to grow.

• #9 Cystitis: causes, symptoms and treatment. Clínica Universidad de Navarra

  https://www.cun.es/en/diseases-treatments/diseases/cystitis

  After E. coli, the most common germs are: Proteus, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Pseudomona, Serratia, Staphylococcus streptococcus faecalis and especially Staphylococcus saprophyticus. […] Socio-economic conditions: Poverty or limited access to medical services may increase the risk. […] Hospital settings – prolonged hospital stays or the use of devices such as urinary catheters increase the likelihood of infection. […] Abnormalities in the urinary tract – malformations or structural alterations may predispose to infection. […] Kidney stones (lithiasis). Especially struvite stones, which promote infection and require specific treatment. […] Use of barrier contraceptives, methods such as diaphragms increase the risk of infection up to four times. […] Urinary obstruction – the most important risk factor, as it makes it difficult to expel bacteria and can damage the kidneys.

• #10 Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) and Cystitis (Bladder Infection) in Females: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233101-overview

  E coli causes 70-95% of both upper and lower UTIs. Various organisms are responsible for the remainder of infections, including S saprophyticus, Proteus species, Klebsiella species, Enterococcus faecalis, other Enterobacteriaceae, and yeast. Some species are more common in certain subgroups, such as Staphylococcus saprophyticus in young women. However, S saprophyticus can produce acute cystitis in older women and in young men and should not be automatically regarded as a contaminant in the urine cultures of these individuals. […] Most complicated UTIs are nosocomial in origin. Increasingly, UTIs in patients in healthcare institutions and in those with frequent antibiotic exposure are caused by multidrug-resistant gram-negative pathogens, such as extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) and carbapenemase producers. However, the prevalence of multidrug-resistant pathogens varies by locale.

• #11 Cystitis: causes, symptoms and treatment. Clínica Universidad de Navarra

  https://www.cun.es/en/diseases-treatments/diseases/cystitis

  After E. coli, the most common germs are: Proteus, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Pseudomona, Serratia, Staphylococcus streptococcus faecalis and especially Staphylococcus saprophyticus. […] Socio-economic conditions: Poverty or limited access to medical services may increase the risk. […] Hospital settings – prolonged hospital stays or the use of devices such as urinary catheters increase the likelihood of infection. […] Abnormalities in the urinary tract – malformations or structural alterations may predispose to infection. […] Kidney stones (lithiasis). Especially struvite stones, which promote infection and require specific treatment. […] Use of barrier contraceptives, methods such as diaphragms increase the risk of infection up to four times. […] Urinary obstruction – the most important risk factor, as it makes it difficult to expel bacteria and can damage the kidneys.

• #12 Cystitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482435/

  Accounting for approximately 75% to 95% of cases, Escherichia coli is the most common etiologic agent in uncomplicated UTIs in women, followed by Klebsiella. Other common etiologic pathogens include species of the Enterobacteriaceae family, such as Proteus mirabilis, and other bacteria, such as Staphylococcus saprophyticus and enterococcus. […] Escherichia coli is also the most common cause of complicated cystitis, but the spectrum of microbial pathogens that may cause a complicated UTI is much broader and includes organisms such as Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Serratia, Pseudomonas, enterococci, staphylococci, and even fungi. […] The overwhelming identifiable bacteria causing most cases of cystitis is Escherichia coli (from 75% to 95% of cases). Other organisms causing cystitis include Klebsiella pneumoniae and Proteus mirabilis.

• #13 Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) and Cystitis (Bladder Infection) in Females: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233101-overview

  E coli causes 70-95% of both upper and lower UTIs. Various organisms are responsible for the remainder of infections, including S saprophyticus, Proteus species, Klebsiella species, Enterococcus faecalis, other Enterobacteriaceae, and yeast. Some species are more common in certain subgroups, such as Staphylococcus saprophyticus in young women. However, S saprophyticus can produce acute cystitis in older women and in young men and should not be automatically regarded as a contaminant in the urine cultures of these individuals. […] Most complicated UTIs are nosocomial in origin. Increasingly, UTIs in patients in healthcare institutions and in those with frequent antibiotic exposure are caused by multidrug-resistant gram-negative pathogens, such as extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) and carbapenemase producers. However, the prevalence of multidrug-resistant pathogens varies by locale.

• #14 Cystitis

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cystitis/

  Cystitis is usually caused by bacteria from poo getting into the tube that carries urine out of your body (urethra). […] Women have a shorter urethra than men. This means bacteria are more likely to reach the bladder and cause an infection. […] Things that increase the chance of bacteria getting into the bladder include: having sex, wiping your bottom from back to front after going to the toilet, urinary catheters (a tube in your bladder used to drain urine), using spermicide with contraception, conditions that block the urinary tract, such as kidney stones, being pregnant, conditions that make it difficult to fully empty the bladder, such as an enlarged prostate gland in men, having been through the menopause, having diabetes, having a weakened immune system.

• #15 Cystitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/kidneys-bladder-and-prostate/cystitis

  Cystitis is usually caused by a bacterial infection. Sometimes its caused by the bladder being irritated or damaged. […] Women have a shorter urethra than men. This means bacteria are more likely to reach the bladder and cause an infection. […] Things that can cause bacteria to reach the bladder include: having sex, wiping your bottom after going to the toilet particularly if you wipe from back to front, inserting a tampon or urinary catheter (a thin tube inserted into the urethra to drain the bladder), using a diaphragm for contraception, using spermicide with contraception, a blockage in the urinary tract, such as kidney stones, pregnancy, conditions that make it difficult to empty the bladder fully, such as an enlarged prostate in men, having been through menopause, diabetes, having a weakened immune system.

• #16 Urinary tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection

  Cystitis refers to a urinary tract infection that involves the lower urinary tract (bladder). An upper urinary tract infection which involves the kidney is called pyelonephritis. […] The most common cause of infection is Escherichia coli, though other bacteria or fungi may sometimes be the cause. […] Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) cells adhered to bladder epithelial cell. Uropathogenic E. coli from the gut is the cause of 80-85% of community-acquired urinary tract infections, with Staphylococcus saprophyticus being the cause in 5-10%. […] In young sexually active women, sexual activity is the cause of 75-90% of bladder infections, with the risk of infection related to the frequency of sex. […] Women are more prone to UTIs than men because, in females, the urethra is much shorter and closer to the anus.

• #17

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/cystitis/causes/

  Cystitis is usually caused by a bacterial infection. It sometimes happens when the bladder is irritated or damaged for another reason. […] Most infections are thought to occur when bacteria in the bowel or on the skin get into the bladder via the urethra. […] Women may get cystitis more than men because their anus is closer to their urethra, which is much shorter. This means bacteria could get into the bladder more easily. […] It’s not always obvious how the bacteria get into the bladder. But some things can increase the risk of it happening, including: having sex, wiping your bottom after going to the toilet particularly if you wipe from back to front, inserting a tampon or urinary catheter (a tube that empties the bladder), using a diaphragm for contraception. […] If you cannot empty your bladder, bacteria that get inside might not be flushed out when you go to the toilet. They can then multiply more easily.

• #18 Self-help information for women suffering recurrent attacks of cystitis: Frequently asked questions | CUH

  https://www.cuh.nhs.uk/patient-information/self-help-information-for-women-suffering-recurrent-attacks-of-cystitis-frequently-asked-questions/

  Cystitis is a common problem which affects over half of the women in this country at some time in their lives. Quite a few women are subject to repeated attacks. […] The commonest cause is that bacteria enter the bladder through its entrance (the urethra). This occurs because the entrances to the urethra, vagina and anus are very close together allowing easy access to the bladder. The commonest bacteria which cause cystitis are E coli; these are found in large quantities in the bowel where they do no harm. Urine normally contains no bacteria but, if these germs do get into the bladder, they can cause cystitis. […] In a few cases, cystitis can be triggered by sexual intercourse. […] The causes of cystitis are different for different people.

• #19 Causes of cystitis: what are they and other risk factors | Dimann

  https://www.dimann.com/en/magazine-en/wellness/causes-of-cystitis/

  Most cystitis is caused by bacteria from the gut, mainly Escherichia Coli. […] Cystitis can result from an infection of the bladder caused by bacteria (80% E.Coli), viruses and, in a minority form, by candida or other mycetes. […] Infection by these pathogens is not always and only related to anatomical reasons that see the transfer of bacteria from outside or internally. […] The woman has estrogen receptors throughout her body, including the urinary tract. […] The urinary tract, therefore, is also affected by these changes resulting in an increased likelihood of being a victim of cystitis. […] The physical changes, which occur at this particular time in a woman’s life journey, make her more prone to urinary tract infections. […] During pregnancy both progesterone and estrogen levels increase, reducing the tone of the urethra and bladder.

• #20

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/cystitis/causes/

  Cystitis is usually caused by a bacterial infection. It sometimes happens when the bladder is irritated or damaged for another reason. […] Most infections are thought to occur when bacteria in the bowel or on the skin get into the bladder via the urethra. […] Women may get cystitis more than men because their anus is closer to their urethra, which is much shorter. This means bacteria could get into the bladder more easily. […] It’s not always obvious how the bacteria get into the bladder. But some things can increase the risk of it happening, including: having sex, wiping your bottom after going to the toilet particularly if you wipe from back to front, inserting a tampon or urinary catheter (a tube that empties the bladder), using a diaphragm for contraception. […] If you cannot empty your bladder, bacteria that get inside might not be flushed out when you go to the toilet. They can then multiply more easily.

• #21 Causes of cystitis: what are they and other risk factors | Dimann

  https://www.dimann.com/en/magazine-en/wellness/causes-of-cystitis/

  Withholding urine means not removing bacteria from the bladder. […] The urinary tract has a very delicate balance of bacteria that is essential for keeping the system healthy. […] Poor nutrition is a factor that can contribute to the development or worsening of cystitis. […] Sexual intercourse is not the direct cause of cystitis but, following it, irritation, micro-lesions and the passage of bacteria can occur which can trigger, in the 24-72 hours following intercourse, an attack of post-coital cystitis also known as honeymoon cystitis. […] If the immune system is weak, for example after an infection, the likelihood of cystitis incidence is higher because the bad bacteria go unnoticed. […] Cystitis can be triggered by a variety of causes, beyond the invasion of the urinary tract by pathogens:

• #22 Cystitis

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cystitis/

  Cystitis is usually caused by bacteria from poo getting into the tube that carries urine out of your body (urethra). […] Women have a shorter urethra than men. This means bacteria are more likely to reach the bladder and cause an infection. […] Things that increase the chance of bacteria getting into the bladder include: having sex, wiping your bottom from back to front after going to the toilet, urinary catheters (a tube in your bladder used to drain urine), using spermicide with contraception, conditions that block the urinary tract, such as kidney stones, being pregnant, conditions that make it difficult to fully empty the bladder, such as an enlarged prostate gland in men, having been through the menopause, having diabetes, having a weakened immune system.

• #23 Cystitis | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/kidneys-bladder-and-prostate/cystitis

  Cystitis is usually caused by a bacterial infection. Sometimes its caused by the bladder being irritated or damaged. […] Women have a shorter urethra than men. This means bacteria are more likely to reach the bladder and cause an infection. […] Things that can cause bacteria to reach the bladder include: having sex, wiping your bottom after going to the toilet particularly if you wipe from back to front, inserting a tampon or urinary catheter (a thin tube inserted into the urethra to drain the bladder), using a diaphragm for contraception, using spermicide with contraception, a blockage in the urinary tract, such as kidney stones, pregnancy, conditions that make it difficult to empty the bladder fully, such as an enlarged prostate in men, having been through menopause, diabetes, having a weakened immune system.

• #24 Cystitis – acute: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000526.htm

  Acute cystitis is an infection of the bladder or lower urinary tract. Acute means that the infection begins suddenly. […] Cystitis is caused by germs, most often bacteria. These germs enter the urethra and then the bladder and can cause an infection. The infection commonly develops in the bladder. It can also spread to the kidneys. […] Most cases are caused by Escherichia coli (E coli). It is a type of bacteria found in the intestines. […] Women tend to get infections more often than men. This happens because their urethra is shorter and closer to the anus. Women are more likely to get an infection after sexual intercourse. Using a diaphragm for birth control can also be a cause. Menopause also increases the risk for a urinary tract infection. […] The following also increase your chances of having cystitis: A tube called a urinary catheter inserted in your bladder, Blockage of the bladder or urethra, Diabetes, Enlarged prostate, narrowed urethra, or anything that blocks the flow of urine, Loss of bowel control (bowel incontinence), Older age (most often in people who live in nursing homes), Pregnancy, Problems fully emptying your bladder (urinary retention), Procedures that involve the urinary tract, Staying still (immobile) for a long period of time (for example, when you are recovering from a hip fracture).

• #25 Cystitis – acute: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000526.htm

  Acute cystitis is an infection of the bladder or lower urinary tract. Acute means that the infection begins suddenly. […] Cystitis is caused by germs, most often bacteria. These germs enter the urethra and then the bladder and can cause an infection. The infection commonly develops in the bladder. It can also spread to the kidneys. […] Most cases are caused by Escherichia coli (E coli). It is a type of bacteria found in the intestines. […] Women tend to get infections more often than men. This happens because their urethra is shorter and closer to the anus. Women are more likely to get an infection after sexual intercourse. Using a diaphragm for birth control can also be a cause. Menopause also increases the risk for a urinary tract infection. […] The following also increase your chances of having cystitis: A tube called a urinary catheter inserted in your bladder, Blockage of the bladder or urethra, Diabetes, Enlarged prostate, narrowed urethra, or anything that blocks the flow of urine, Loss of bowel control (bowel incontinence), Older age (most often in people who live in nursing homes), Pregnancy, Problems fully emptying your bladder (urinary retention), Procedures that involve the urinary tract, Staying still (immobile) for a long period of time (for example, when you are recovering from a hip fracture).

• #26 Cystitis: What is it, symptoms, types, treatment, and diagnosis

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/152997

  Acute cystitis typically occurs as a result of bacteria called Escherichia coli. Other bacterial causes include: Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Group B streptococci, Lactobacillus, S. saprophyticus, enterococci. […] In males, cystitis can also occur due to problems that restrict typical urine flow. An example of this is an enlarged prostate, which could prevent someone from being able to urinate normally. […] According to the United Kingdoms National Health Service (NHS), risk factors include: inserting, changing, or prolonged use of a urinary catheter, using a diaphragm for birth control, difficulty fully emptying the bladder, sexual activity and friction from sexual activity, radiotherapy, diabetes, due to the high sugar levels in the urine providing a good environment for the bacteria to grow.

• #27

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/cystitis/causes/

  The lining of the urethra can shrink for women who have been through or are going through the menopause. This is due to a lack of oestrogen. […] The natural balance of bacteria in the vagina may change. This can allow harmful bacteria to become more common. […] This can make the urethra more prone to infection, which could then spread to the bladder. […] You’re more likely to get cystitis if you have diabetes. This is a condition where the level of sugar in your body becomes too high. […] High levels of sugar in your pee can provide a good environment for bacteria to multiply. If bacteria then get into the bladder, they’re more likely to cause cystitis. […] Damage or irritation to the urethra and bladder can cause cystitis. […] Cystitis has also been linked to the use of the drug ketamine.

• #28 Cystitis: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment Methods

  https://www.healthwords.ai/us/explore/condition/immune-and-allergies/digestive-health/cystitis

  Cystitis means inflammation of the bladder and is usually caused by a bacterial infection. […] Cystitis is usually caused by certain bacteria, many of which occur naturally on your skin and in your gut. Owing to the close proximity of your waterworks to the bowel system, bacteria that are usually harmless in the feces or on your skin can contaminate the urinary system and cause a bladder infection. […] The chance of getting cystitis increases in pregnancy, women having sex or a change of sexual partner, those with diabetes, and the elderly. […] A lowered immune system, a catheter (an artificial tube inserted into the bladder), and any previous surgery on the urethra all increase the risk of developing cystitis in both men and women. […] Cystitis is not contagious and cannot be passed on to your partner during sex.

• #29 Cystitis: causes, symptoms, treatment and prevention

  https://www.topdoctors.co.uk/medical-articles/bacterial-and-interstitial-cystitis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment

  People who are with Lewis blood group A+B- or A-B- are genetically more prone to infection. They have rough, sticky waterproof lining in the bladder allowing bacteria to easily cling on to cause infection. […] Men who suffer from blockage of the bladder may result in poor bladder emptying leading to bacterial infection. Bacterial infection may again cause ulcers and cracks in the lining of the bladder resulting in interstitial cystitis. The usual causes of blockage of the bladder in men would be the tight ring of muscle called the bladder neck and further downstream in the urine system, the prostate gland.

• #30 Cystitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cystitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20371306

  Drug-related cystitis. Some medicines, such as certain drugs used to treat cancer (chemotherapy), can cause inflammation of the bladder as the broken-down components of the drugs exit the body. […] Radiation cystitis. Radiation treatment of the pelvic area can cause inflammatory changes in bladder tissue. […] Foreign-body cystitis. Long-term use of a catheter can make bacterial infections and tissue damage more likely. Both of these can cause bladder inflammation. […] Chemical cystitis. Some people may be extra sensitive to chemicals found in certain products. These might include bubble bath, personal hygiene spray or spermicidal jelly. An allergic-type reaction can happen within the bladder, causing inflammation. […] Cystitis associated with other conditions. Cystitis may sometimes occur as a complication of other conditions, such as diabetes, kidney stones, an enlarged prostate or spinal cord injury.

• #31 Cystitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/cystitis

  Cystitis is a bladder infection that happens when the bladder becomes inflamed. […] In most cases, the cause of cystitis is a urinary tract infection (UTI). A UTI happens when bacteria enter the bladder or urethra and begin to multiply. […] This could also happen with naturally occurring bacteria in your body that become imbalanced. These bacteria lead to an infection and cause inflammation. […] Cystitis does not always come from an infection. For example, certain medicines and hygiene products can also cause inflammation. […] Possible causes of cystitis include: urinary tract infection (UTI), taking certain drugs, exposure to radiation, ongoing use of a catheter, irritating hygiene products. […] Both acute and interstitial cystitis have a range of possible causes. The cause of cystitis determines the type.

• #32 Nonbacterial and Noninfectious Cystitis: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2056602-overview

  Nonbacterial cystitis is a catchall term that encompasses infectious cystitis from other pathogens, noninfectious cystitis (eg, hemorrhagic cystitis), and painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis (PBS/IC). PBS/IC describes a syndrome of pain and genitourinary symptoms (eg, frequency, urgency, pain, dysuria, nocturia) for which no etiology can be found. […] There are many controversies regarding nonbacterial cystitis, including possible etiologic agents, methods of diagnosis, and treatment, especially for noninfectious causes. […] Noninfectious nonbacterial cystitis includes the following forms of the disease: Radiation induced, Chemical, Autoimmune, Hypersensitivity. […] The pathophysiology of the disorder depends on its etiology. […] Cystitis may occur following radiation therapy to the pelvis for cancer treatment.

• #33 Nonbacterial and Noninfectious Cystitis: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2056602-overview

  Nonbacterial cystitis is a catchall term that encompasses infectious cystitis from other pathogens, noninfectious cystitis (eg, hemorrhagic cystitis), and painful bladder syndrome/interstitial cystitis (PBS/IC). PBS/IC describes a syndrome of pain and genitourinary symptoms (eg, frequency, urgency, pain, dysuria, nocturia) for which no etiology can be found. […] There are many controversies regarding nonbacterial cystitis, including possible etiologic agents, methods of diagnosis, and treatment, especially for noninfectious causes. […] Noninfectious nonbacterial cystitis includes the following forms of the disease: Radiation induced, Chemical, Autoimmune, Hypersensitivity. […] The pathophysiology of the disorder depends on its etiology. […] Cystitis may occur following radiation therapy to the pelvis for cancer treatment.

• #34 Nonbacterial and Noninfectious Cystitis: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2056602-overview

  Autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or Sjgren syndrome can also be associated with bladder symptoms, such as frequency or pain. […] Eosinophilic cystitis is a rare pathologic condition characterized by transmural inflammation of the bladder predominantly by eosinophils and fibrosis, with or without muscle necrosis. […] Cystitis may also be caused by chemicals and medications. […] Reports have documented cystitis arising after the recreational abuse of the anesthetic agent ketamine.

• #35 Cystitis – noninfectious: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000514.htm

  Cystitis is a problem in which pain, pressure, or burning in the bladder is present. Most often, this problem is caused by germs such as bacteria. Cystitis is called noninfectious when there is no infection. […] The exact cause of noninfectious cystitis is often not known. It is more common in women than men. […] The problem has been linked to: Use of baths and feminine hygiene sprays, Use of spermicide jellies, gels, foams, and sponges, Radiation therapy to the pelvis area, Certain types of chemotherapy drugs, History of severe or repeated bladder infections. […] Certain foods, such as spicy or acidic foods, tomatoes, artificial sweeteners, caffeine, chocolate, and alcohol, can cause bladder symptoms. […] Stress may also make symptoms worse, but stress does not cause symptoms.

• #36 What Is Cystitis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/cystitis/guide/

  Cystitis is a condition that occurs when there is an inflammation of the bladder. Its most often caused by a bacterial infection, and in this scenario, its referred to as a urinary tract infection (UTI). […] In most cases, cystitis occurs when bacteria enter the bladder and cause an infection. […] Cystitis is most commonly caused by E. coli bacteria, but a variety of other organisms cause cystitis (for example, Proteus and Klebsiella). […] Sexual intercourse is a common means of bacterial cystitis infection, particularly in women. […] Causes of noninfectious cystitis include: Interstitial Cystitis, which is also called painful bladder syndrome, is most commonly diagnosed in women. […] Drugs, in particular the chemotherapy drugs cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide, can cause cystitis.

• #37 What Is Cystitis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/cystitis/guide/

  Radiation treatment of the pelvic area can cause bladder inflammation. […] Prolonged use of a catheter can make you more prone to bacterial infections and tissue damage, both of which can lead to inflammation. […] If you’re sensitive to the chemicals in products such as bubble bath, feminine hygiene sprays, or spermicidal jellies, you may experience an allergic-type reaction in your bladder, which can cause inflammation. […] Diabetes, kidney stones, an enlarged prostate, or spinal cord injuries may lead to cystitis.

• #38 Interstitial cystitis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/interstitial-cystitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20354357

  The exact cause of interstitial cystitis isn’t known, but it’s likely that many factors contribute. For instance, people with interstitial cystitis may also have a defect in the protective lining (epithelium) of the bladder. A leak in the epithelium may allow toxic substances in urine to irritate your bladder wall. […] Other possible but unproven contributing factors include an autoimmune reaction, heredity, infection or allergy.

• #39 Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Interstitial Cystitis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1476007/

  Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a bladder syndrome of unknown etiology. The cause of IC is most likely multifactorial and includes genetic and environmental factors. […] The pathogenesis and etiology of interstitial cystitis remain incompletely defined. However, there is an emerging consensus as to the central role of epithelial dysfunction, bladder sensory nerve up-regulation, and mast cell activation in the genesis of IC. […] A sizable number of IC patients relate the onset of their symptoms to episodes of bacterial cystitis. […] Urinary antiproliferative factor (APF), recently described in IC, inhibits cell proliferation and impairs repair of damaged or denuded urothelium with resulting changes in the barrier function of the urothelium. […] IC has many features of an autoimmune diseasechronicity, exacerbations and remissions, clinical response to steroids/immunosuppressives, the high prevalence of antinuclear antibodies, and association with other autoimmune syndromes. Current evidence suggests that autoimmune phenomena (bladder antibodies, etc) are epi-phenomena that occur as a result of local bladder cellular damage.

• #40 Interstitial Cystitis Causes and Diagnoses | Northwestern Medicine

  https://www.nm.org/conditions-and-care-areas/urology/interstitial-cystitis/causes-and-diagnoses

  The exact cause of interstitial cystitis is currently not known, but researchers suspect the following conditions play a role: […] Damage to the epithelium, or lining of the bladder […] Autoimmune reaction […] Allergic reaction […] Infection […] Irritating substance in the urine […] Nerve disorder […] Heredity. […] Researchers are looking at many theories to understand the causes of IC and find the best treatments.

• #41 Interstitial cystitis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/interstitial-cystitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20354357

  The exact cause of interstitial cystitis isn’t known, but it’s likely that many factors contribute. For instance, people with interstitial cystitis may also have a defect in the protective lining (epithelium) of the bladder. A leak in the epithelium may allow toxic substances in urine to irritate your bladder wall. […] Other possible but unproven contributing factors include an autoimmune reaction, heredity, infection or allergy.

• #42 Interstitial Cystitis Causes and Diagnoses | Northwestern Medicine

  https://www.nm.org/conditions-and-care-areas/urology/interstitial-cystitis/causes-and-diagnoses

  The exact cause of interstitial cystitis is currently not known, but researchers suspect the following conditions play a role: […] Damage to the epithelium, or lining of the bladder […] Autoimmune reaction […] Allergic reaction […] Infection […] Irritating substance in the urine […] Nerve disorder […] Heredity. […] Researchers are looking at many theories to understand the causes of IC and find the best treatments.

• #43 Interstitial Cystitis (IC): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/urinary-incontinence-oab/interstitial-cystitis

  Interstitial cystitis causes urgent, often painful bathroom trips. […] Its not clear why it happens, but there are several ideas: […] A problem with bladder tissue lets things in your pee irritate your bladder. […] Inflammation causes your body to release chemicals that cause symptoms. […] Something in your urine damages your bladder. […] A nerve problem makes your bladder feel pain from things that usually dont hurt. […] Your immune system attacks the bladder. […] Another condition that causes inflammation is also affecting the bladder. […] Interstitial cystitis has no known cause. It may have multiple causes, including autoimmune problems, allergies, inflammation, or others.

• #44 Bladder pain syndrome (interstitial cystitis)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/interstitial-cystitis/

  The exact cause of BPS (interstitial cystitis) is not clear. However, there are several ideas about what might cause it. […] These include: damage to the bladder lining, which may mean pee can irritate the bladder and surrounding nerves […] a problem with the pelvic floor muscles used to control peeing […] your immune system causing an inflammatory reaction. […] Some people who have been diagnosed with BPS (interstitial cystitis), may have a long-term (chronic) urinary infection (UTI) in the bladder, which has not been picked up by current urine tests. […] BPS (interstitial cystitis) may also be associated with chronic conditions such as fibromyalgia, myalgic encephalomyelitis or chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

• #45 Causes | Interstitial Cystitis Association

  https://www.ichelp.org/understanding-ic/learn-about-ic/causes/

  The exact cause of interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) remains a mystery, but researchers have identified a number of different factors that may contribute to the development of the condition. […] Many researchers believe a trigger (caused by one more events) may initially damage the bladder or bladder lining, and ultimately lead to the development of IC/BPS. Some of these triggers may be: […] Bacterial infection (cystitis). […] It is thought that this damage to the bladder wall then allows particles in the urine, such as potassium, to leak into the bladder lining. […] Research indicates that this might be due to a protein called antiproliferative factor (APF). Studies have shown that APF is produced by the cells of patients with IC, but not by the cells of healthy people. APF prevents the growth of bladder cells and the bladder may be unable to repair itself when APF is present.

• #46 Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Interstitial Cystitis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1476007/

  Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a bladder syndrome of unknown etiology. The cause of IC is most likely multifactorial and includes genetic and environmental factors. […] The pathogenesis and etiology of interstitial cystitis remain incompletely defined. However, there is an emerging consensus as to the central role of epithelial dysfunction, bladder sensory nerve up-regulation, and mast cell activation in the genesis of IC. […] A sizable number of IC patients relate the onset of their symptoms to episodes of bacterial cystitis. […] Urinary antiproliferative factor (APF), recently described in IC, inhibits cell proliferation and impairs repair of damaged or denuded urothelium with resulting changes in the barrier function of the urothelium. […] IC has many features of an autoimmune diseasechronicity, exacerbations and remissions, clinical response to steroids/immunosuppressives, the high prevalence of antinuclear antibodies, and association with other autoimmune syndromes. Current evidence suggests that autoimmune phenomena (bladder antibodies, etc) are epi-phenomena that occur as a result of local bladder cellular damage.

• #47 Interstitial Cystitis – Painful Bladder Syndrome | Cooper University Health Care

  https://www.cooperhealth.org/services/interstitial-cystitis-painful-bladder-syndrome

  The exact cause of IC isnt known, but some possible causes include bladder trauma, pelvic floor muscle dysfunction, bacterial bladder infection (cystitis), or autoimmune disorder. […] The specific cause of IC is still not clearly known, but scientists have pinpointed several factors that may contribute to developing this condition: […] Bacterial bladder infection (cystitis) […] Many scientists believe that a trigger, such as one or more of these factors, may damage the bladder or its lining. This damage allows particles in the urine to leak into the lining, leading to further damage to the bladder and causing chronic pain.

• #48 Bladder pain syndrome (interstitial cystitis)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/interstitial-cystitis/

  The exact cause of BPS (interstitial cystitis) is not clear. However, there are several ideas about what might cause it. […] These include: damage to the bladder lining, which may mean pee can irritate the bladder and surrounding nerves […] a problem with the pelvic floor muscles used to control peeing […] your immune system causing an inflammatory reaction. […] Some people who have been diagnosed with BPS (interstitial cystitis), may have a long-term (chronic) urinary infection (UTI) in the bladder, which has not been picked up by current urine tests. […] BPS (interstitial cystitis) may also be associated with chronic conditions such as fibromyalgia, myalgic encephalomyelitis or chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

• #49  Interstitial Cystitis Network  – Interstitial Cystitis Causes

  https://www.ic-network.com/interstitial-cystitis-causes/

  For patients struggling with IC and other pain syndromes (irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), vulvodynia, prostatitis, chronic fatigue and anxiety disorder), an injured, dysregulated central nervous system is the root cause. […] Dr. Curtis Nickel believes that there is a group of patients who struggle with systemic allergies that are also affecting the bladder.

• #50 Acute Cystitis: Blow-by-Blow Guide

  https://flo.health/menstrual-cycle/health/symptoms-and-diseases/acute-cystitis

  Acute cystitis is usually the result of a urinary tract infection (UTI) caused by bacteria. […] In most cases, acute cystitis is caused by bacteria that are normally present in our gastrointestinal tract. The most common pathogens that cause acute cystitis include: Escherichia coli (86%), Staphylococcus saprophyticus (4%), Klebsiella sp. (3%), Proteus sp. (3%), Enterobacter sp. (1.4%), Citrobacter sp. (0.8%), Enterococcus sp. (0.5%). […] The human urinary tract is sterile under normal, healthy conditions. However, bacteria can migrate from the rectum, perineum, or vagina to the urinary tract and colonize it, causing a UTI. […] Once bacteria or other pathogens reach the bladder, they begin to multiply and cause inflammation, which leads to the usual symptoms of acute cystitis. […] It’s important to keep in mind that acute cystitis isn’t always caused by a UTI. There are other things which can cause acute bladder inflammation, including certain chemotherapy agents, pelvic radiotherapy, sensitivity to certain feminine hygiene products, and autoimmune conditions.

• #51 Causes of cystitis: what are they and other risk factors | Dimann

  https://www.dimann.com/en/magazine-en/wellness/causes-of-cystitis/

  Most cystitis is caused by bacteria from the gut, mainly Escherichia Coli. […] Cystitis can result from an infection of the bladder caused by bacteria (80% E.Coli), viruses and, in a minority form, by candida or other mycetes. […] Infection by these pathogens is not always and only related to anatomical reasons that see the transfer of bacteria from outside or internally. […] The woman has estrogen receptors throughout her body, including the urinary tract. […] The urinary tract, therefore, is also affected by these changes resulting in an increased likelihood of being a victim of cystitis. […] The physical changes, which occur at this particular time in a woman’s life journey, make her more prone to urinary tract infections. […] During pregnancy both progesterone and estrogen levels increase, reducing the tone of the urethra and bladder.

• #52 Causes of cystitis: what are they and other risk factors | Dimann

  https://www.dimann.com/en/magazine-en/wellness/causes-of-cystitis/

  Most cystitis is caused by bacteria from the gut, mainly Escherichia Coli. […] Cystitis can result from an infection of the bladder caused by bacteria (80% E.Coli), viruses and, in a minority form, by candida or other mycetes. […] Infection by these pathogens is not always and only related to anatomical reasons that see the transfer of bacteria from outside or internally. […] The woman has estrogen receptors throughout her body, including the urinary tract. […] The urinary tract, therefore, is also affected by these changes resulting in an increased likelihood of being a victim of cystitis. […] The physical changes, which occur at this particular time in a woman’s life journey, make her more prone to urinary tract infections. […] During pregnancy both progesterone and estrogen levels increase, reducing the tone of the urethra and bladder.

• #53 Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) and Cystitis (Bladder Infection) in Females: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233101-overview

  E coli causes 70-95% of both upper and lower UTIs. Various organisms are responsible for the remainder of infections, including S saprophyticus, Proteus species, Klebsiella species, Enterococcus faecalis, other Enterobacteriaceae, and yeast. Some species are more common in certain subgroups, such as Staphylococcus saprophyticus in young women. However, S saprophyticus can produce acute cystitis in older women and in young men and should not be automatically regarded as a contaminant in the urine cultures of these individuals. […] Most complicated UTIs are nosocomial in origin. Increasingly, UTIs in patients in healthcare institutions and in those with frequent antibiotic exposure are caused by multidrug-resistant gram-negative pathogens, such as extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) and carbapenemase producers. However, the prevalence of multidrug-resistant pathogens varies by locale.

• #54

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/cystitis/causes/

  The lining of the urethra can shrink for women who have been through or are going through the menopause. This is due to a lack of oestrogen. […] The natural balance of bacteria in the vagina may change. This can allow harmful bacteria to become more common. […] This can make the urethra more prone to infection, which could then spread to the bladder. […] You’re more likely to get cystitis if you have diabetes. This is a condition where the level of sugar in your body becomes too high. […] High levels of sugar in your pee can provide a good environment for bacteria to multiply. If bacteria then get into the bladder, they’re more likely to cause cystitis. […] Damage or irritation to the urethra and bladder can cause cystitis. […] Cystitis has also been linked to the use of the drug ketamine.

• #55 Bladder Inflammation (Cystitis): Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/urinary-incontinence-oab/what-is-cystitis

  UTIs and cystitis are more common in women who’ve been through menopause than those who haven’t. The reason is the loss of the female hormone estrogen when you stop having your period. Estrogen helps your urethra muscles stay strong and raises the level of healthy bacteria in your vagina and urethra. Low estrogen after menopause means that there’s less healthy bacteria in your urethra and vagina to fight off the unhealthy bacteria like E. coli. Low estrogen also thins out the walls of your vagina and urethra and makes them drier, which increases the risk of unhealthy bacteria getting in. […] Basically, anything that increases the risk of harmful bacteria entering the urethra increases the chance of getting cystitis or a UTI. Approximately 40% of women have had acute cystitis or a UTI versus 12% of men.

• #56 Cystitis: What is it, symptoms, types, treatment, and diagnosis

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/152997

  Males who have unprotected anal sex have a slightly higher chance of cystitis. […] People going through menopause also have a higher chance of developing cystitis. During menopause, estrogen levels drop and the lining of the urethra gets thinner. The thinner the lining becomes, the higher the chances are of infection and damage.

• #57 Cystitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482435/

  The underlying host factors largely determine the pathogenesis of complicated UTIs. Impairment of the immune system and voiding dysfunction from autonomic neuropathy may predispose patients with diabetes to develop UTIs. In renal insufficiency, accumulation of uremic toxins may reduce host defenses, and decreased renal blood flow may impair antimicrobial clearance. […] The risk factors for developing a complicated UTI include nephrolithiasis, immunocompromised status, the presence of foreign bodies such as a urinary catheter, urinary tract instrumentation, renal insufficiency, functional or anatomic abnormality of the urinary tract, urinary stents, strictures, and obstructive uropathy.

• #58 Cystitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/cystitis

  Bacterial cystitis occurs when bacteria enter your urethra or bladder and cause an infection. This can also result when normally growing bacteria in your body becomes imbalanced. The infection leads to cystitis, or inflammation in your bladder. […] Certain medications can cause your bladder to become inflamed. […] Radiation therapy is used to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors, but it can also damage healthy cells and tissues. Radiation treatment in the pelvic area can cause your bladder to become inflamed. […] Ongoing use of a catheter, a tube used to facilitate the release of urine from the bladder, can increase your risk of bacterial infection, and damage tissues in the urinary tract. Both bacteria and damaged tissues can cause inflammation. […] Certain hygiene products can irritate your bladder. […] Sometimes cystitis occurs as a symptom of other medical conditions, such as diabetes, kidney stones, HIV, enlarged prostate, spinal injuries.

• #59 Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) and Cystitis (Bladder Infection) in Females: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233101-overview

  The most important risk factor for bacteriuria is the presence of a catheter. Eighty percent of nosocomial UTIs are related to urethral catheterization, whereas 5-10% are related to genitourinary manipulation. Catheters inoculate organisms into the bladder and promote colonization by providing a surface for bacterial adhesion and causing mucosal irritation. […] Sexual intercourse contributes to increased risk, as does use of a diaphragm and/or spermicide. Routine pelvic examinations also are associated with an increased risk for UTI for 7 weeks post procedure. Women who are elderly, are pregnant, or have preexisting urinary tract structural abnormalities or obstruction carry a higher risk for UTI. […] UTIs are the most common type of infection after renal transplantation. Susceptibility is especially high in the first 2 months following transplantation. Triggering factors include vesicoureteral reflux and immunosuppression.

• #60 Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) and Cystitis (Bladder Infection) in Females: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/233101-overview

  Calculi related to UTIs most commonly occur in women who experience recurrent UTIs with Proteus, Pseudomonas, and Providencia species. Perinephric abscesses most commonly are associated with E coli, Proteus species, and S aureus but also may be secondary to Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Serratia, Pseudomonas, and Klebsiella species. More unusual causes include enterococci, Candida species, anaerobes, Actinomyces species, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Twenty-five percent of infections are polymicrobial. […] Risk factors for candiduria include diabetes mellitus, indwelling urinary catheters, and antibiotic use. Candiduria may clear spontaneously or may result in (or from) deep fungal infections.

• #61 Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Interstitial Cystitis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1476007/

  Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a bladder syndrome of unknown etiology. The cause of IC is most likely multifactorial and includes genetic and environmental factors. […] The pathogenesis and etiology of interstitial cystitis remain incompletely defined. However, there is an emerging consensus as to the central role of epithelial dysfunction, bladder sensory nerve up-regulation, and mast cell activation in the genesis of IC. […] A sizable number of IC patients relate the onset of their symptoms to episodes of bacterial cystitis. […] Urinary antiproliferative factor (APF), recently described in IC, inhibits cell proliferation and impairs repair of damaged or denuded urothelium with resulting changes in the barrier function of the urothelium. […] IC has many features of an autoimmune diseasechronicity, exacerbations and remissions, clinical response to steroids/immunosuppressives, the high prevalence of antinuclear antibodies, and association with other autoimmune syndromes. Current evidence suggests that autoimmune phenomena (bladder antibodies, etc) are epi-phenomena that occur as a result of local bladder cellular damage.

• #62 Interstitial Cystitis – Genitourinary Disorders – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/voiding-disorders/interstitial-cystitis

  Cause is unknown, but pathophysiology may involve loss of protective urothelial mucin, with penetration of urinary potassium and other substances into the bladder wall, activation of sensory nerves, and smooth muscle damage. Mast cells may mediate the process, but their role is unclear. […] Diagnosis requires exclusion of other causes for symptoms (eg, UTIs, pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic prostatitis or prostatodynia, diverticulitis), cystoscopy, and biopsy. […] Cure is rare, but up to 90% of patients improve with treatment. […] Treatments can include diet modification, bladder training, and drugs (eg, pentosan polysulfate sodium, tricyclic antidepressants, NSAIDs, dimethyl sulfoxide instillation).

• #63 Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Interstitial Cystitis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1476007/

  Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a bladder syndrome of unknown etiology. The cause of IC is most likely multifactorial and includes genetic and environmental factors. […] The pathogenesis and etiology of interstitial cystitis remain incompletely defined. However, there is an emerging consensus as to the central role of epithelial dysfunction, bladder sensory nerve up-regulation, and mast cell activation in the genesis of IC. […] A sizable number of IC patients relate the onset of their symptoms to episodes of bacterial cystitis. […] Urinary antiproliferative factor (APF), recently described in IC, inhibits cell proliferation and impairs repair of damaged or denuded urothelium with resulting changes in the barrier function of the urothelium. […] IC has many features of an autoimmune diseasechronicity, exacerbations and remissions, clinical response to steroids/immunosuppressives, the high prevalence of antinuclear antibodies, and association with other autoimmune syndromes. Current evidence suggests that autoimmune phenomena (bladder antibodies, etc) are epi-phenomena that occur as a result of local bladder cellular damage.

• #64 Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Interstitial Cystitis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1476007/

  No single pathological process is universally present in IC. IC may well have multiple etiologies that result in the symptoms of irritative voiding and pain. […] The multifactorial etiology of IC and its complex, interrelated pathogenesis involving the bladder urothelium, sensory nerves, and mast cells are being increasingly defined.

• #65 Recurrent Cystitis in Nonpregnant Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2009/0315/p503.html

  Data suggest that pelvic anatomical differences may have a role in predisposing some young women to recurrent UTI, especially those without other risk factors. In postmenopausal women, reduced estrogen levels seem to contribute to recurrent cystitis in healthy women. The vagina, bladder, and urethra respond to estrogen, and when the hormonal level in the body is reduced, the tissues of these organs become thinner, weaker, and dry. The changes in the tissues of the bladder and urethra, and the associated loss of protection against infection-causing germs, may increase the risk of UTI in postmenopausal women. […] Cystitis is also more common during pregnancy because of changes in the urinary tract. As the uterus grows, its increased weight can block the drainage of urine from the bladder, causing an infection. Women are at an increased risk of recurrent cystitis from six to 24 weeks of pregnancy.

• #66 Causes of cystitis: what are they and other risk factors | Dimann

  https://www.dimann.com/en/magazine-en/wellness/causes-of-cystitis/

  Most cystitis is caused by bacteria from the gut, mainly Escherichia Coli. […] Cystitis can result from an infection of the bladder caused by bacteria (80% E.Coli), viruses and, in a minority form, by candida or other mycetes. […] Infection by these pathogens is not always and only related to anatomical reasons that see the transfer of bacteria from outside or internally. […] The woman has estrogen receptors throughout her body, including the urinary tract. […] The urinary tract, therefore, is also affected by these changes resulting in an increased likelihood of being a victim of cystitis. […] The physical changes, which occur at this particular time in a woman’s life journey, make her more prone to urinary tract infections. […] During pregnancy both progesterone and estrogen levels increase, reducing the tone of the urethra and bladder.

• #67 Bladder Infection – Kidney and Urinary Tract Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/kidney-and-urinary-tract-disorders/urinary-tract-infections-utis/bladder-infection

  Cystitis is less common among men. […] In men, a common cause is bacterial infection of the prostate, which causes repeated episodes of cystitis and urethritis. […] If the flow of urine becomes partly blocked (obstructed) because of a stone in the bladder or urethra, an enlarged prostate (in men), or a narrowing (stricture) of the urethra, bacteria that enter the urinary tract are less likely to be flushed out with urine. […] Cystitis can also be caused by a catheter or any instrument inserted into the urinary tract that introduces bacteria into the bladder. […] Sometimes the bladder can become inflamed without an infection being present, a disorder called interstitial cystitis.

• #68 Cystitis: causes, symptoms, treatment and prevention

  https://www.topdoctors.co.uk/medical-articles/bacterial-and-interstitial-cystitis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment

  People who are with Lewis blood group A+B- or A-B- are genetically more prone to infection. They have rough, sticky waterproof lining in the bladder allowing bacteria to easily cling on to cause infection. […] Men who suffer from blockage of the bladder may result in poor bladder emptying leading to bacterial infection. Bacterial infection may again cause ulcers and cracks in the lining of the bladder resulting in interstitial cystitis. The usual causes of blockage of the bladder in men would be the tight ring of muscle called the bladder neck and further downstream in the urine system, the prostate gland.

• #69 Prevent cystitis | Causes, home remedies & tips | BIOGENA International

  https://biogena.com/en/knowledge/guide/uti-prevention_bba_82106

  While young men are usually immune to bladder infections, a clear increase can be observed in older age. The increased likelihood of infection can be attributed to an age-related enlargement of the prostate. This benign growth can lead to narrowing of the urethra, which causes difficulty in emptying the bladder completely. The remaining urine can then become an optimal breeding ground for pathogens. […] A bladder infection is no fun at all. But the good news is that it is preventable. Simple measures are often enough to mitigate most risk factors: Drinking plenty of fluids is essential for prevention as well as for the treatment of cystitis. […] Those prone to recurrent cystitis should also rethink their diet. Eat plenty of vegetables, low-sugar fruits, nuts, seeds, fatty fish, spices and high-quality vegetable oils. But try to limit foods that promote inflammation, such as fatty meats (especially pork) and sausages.

• #70 Bladder Inflammation (Cystitis): Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/urinary-incontinence-oab/what-is-cystitis

  UTIs and cystitis are more common in women who’ve been through menopause than those who haven’t. The reason is the loss of the female hormone estrogen when you stop having your period. Estrogen helps your urethra muscles stay strong and raises the level of healthy bacteria in your vagina and urethra. Low estrogen after menopause means that there’s less healthy bacteria in your urethra and vagina to fight off the unhealthy bacteria like E. coli. Low estrogen also thins out the walls of your vagina and urethra and makes them drier, which increases the risk of unhealthy bacteria getting in. […] Basically, anything that increases the risk of harmful bacteria entering the urethra increases the chance of getting cystitis or a UTI. Approximately 40% of women have had acute cystitis or a UTI versus 12% of men.

• #71 Cystitis: What is it, symptoms, types, treatment, and diagnosis

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/152997

  Males who have unprotected anal sex have a slightly higher chance of cystitis. […] People going through menopause also have a higher chance of developing cystitis. During menopause, estrogen levels drop and the lining of the urethra gets thinner. The thinner the lining becomes, the higher the chances are of infection and damage.

• #72 Recurrent Cystitis in Women: Treatment and Prevention

  https://patient.info/womens-health/lower-urinary-tract-symptoms-in-women-luts/recurrent-cystitis-in-women

  Having sex increases the chance of cystitis in some women. […] Contraceptive choice: the use of diaphragms and spermicide may make cystitis more likely. […] Hormones: your vagina, bladder and urethra respond to the chemical (hormone) called oestrogen. After the menopause, when the levels of oestrogen in the body reduce, the tissues of these organs become thinner, weaker and dry. These changes can increase the risk of recurrent cystitis. Cystitis is also more common during pregnancy because of changes in the urinary tract.

• #73

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/cystitis/causes/

  The lining of the urethra can shrink for women who have been through or are going through the menopause. This is due to a lack of oestrogen. […] The natural balance of bacteria in the vagina may change. This can allow harmful bacteria to become more common. […] This can make the urethra more prone to infection, which could then spread to the bladder. […] You’re more likely to get cystitis if you have diabetes. This is a condition where the level of sugar in your body becomes too high. […] High levels of sugar in your pee can provide a good environment for bacteria to multiply. If bacteria then get into the bladder, they’re more likely to cause cystitis. […] Damage or irritation to the urethra and bladder can cause cystitis. […] Cystitis has also been linked to the use of the drug ketamine.

• #74 Cystitis: causes, symptoms and treatment. Clínica Universidad de Navarra

  https://www.cun.es/en/diseases-treatments/diseases/cystitis

  After E. coli, the most common germs are: Proteus, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Pseudomona, Serratia, Staphylococcus streptococcus faecalis and especially Staphylococcus saprophyticus. […] Socio-economic conditions: Poverty or limited access to medical services may increase the risk. […] Hospital settings – prolonged hospital stays or the use of devices such as urinary catheters increase the likelihood of infection. […] Abnormalities in the urinary tract – malformations or structural alterations may predispose to infection. […] Kidney stones (lithiasis). Especially struvite stones, which promote infection and require specific treatment. […] Use of barrier contraceptives, methods such as diaphragms increase the risk of infection up to four times. […] Urinary obstruction – the most important risk factor, as it makes it difficult to expel bacteria and can damage the kidneys.

• #75 Cystitis causes | Medzino

  https://medzino.com/health-center/cystitis-causes/

  If you have diabetes, it may be that your urine contains more sugar than usual and this can boost the growth of bacteria in the bladder and urethra […] After Menopause, the types of bacteria that normally live in the vagina may change, and this will increase the risk of getting cystitis. […] If you have had a catheter fitted (a tube inserted into your bladder to drain urine out of the bladder), bacteria may have been introduced into the bladder by the catheter itself or the bladder or urethra may have been damaged in the process of fitting the catheter which in itself may increase the risk of getting a bacterial infection […] Stones, known as calculi, such as kidney stones or bladder stones, can become lodged and encourage urine to collect which may lead to the growth of more bacteria

• #76 Recurrent Cystitis in Women: Treatment and Prevention

  https://patient.info/womens-health/lower-urinary-tract-symptoms-in-women-luts/recurrent-cystitis-in-women

  Cystitis means inflammation of the bladder. It is usually caused by a urine infection. Some women have repeated bouts of cystitis. Doctors define a recurrent infection as either three proven separate infections in a year, or as two in six months. In many cases there is no apparent reason for a woman to get frequent attacks of cystitis. […] In most cases, there is no apparent reason why cystitis returns. There is usually no problem with your bladder or defence (immune) system that can be identified. […] It is possible there may be a slight alteration in the ability of your body to resist bacteria getting into the bladder and causing infection. A slight variation in the body’s defence may tip the balance in favour of bacteria to cause infection. […] For some women, one of the following may contribute: Bladder or kidney problems may lead to infections being more likely. For example, kidney stones, or conditions that cause urine to pool and not drain properly. Your doctor may arrange some tests if a problem is suspected.

• #77 Recurrent Cystitis in Nonpregnant Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2009/0315/p503.html

  Cystitis is caused by uropathogenic bacteria in the fecal flora that colonize the vaginal and periurethral openings and ascend the urethra into the bladder. Sexual intercourse, diaphragm-spermicide use, and a history of recurrent UTI have been shown to be strong, independent risk factors for cystitis. […] However, risk factors specific to women with recurrent cystitis have received little study. In a large, case-control study of women with and without a history of recurrent UTI (comprising 229 cases and 253 controls), frequency of sexual intercourse was the strongest risk factor for recurrence in a multivariate analysis. Other risk factors included spermicide use in the past year, new sex partner during the past year, having a first UTI at or before 15 years of age, and having a mother with a history of UTI. Urine-voiding disorders, such as those associated with prolapse, multiple sclerosis, bladder cancer, or bladder stones, are also associated with increased risk.

• #78 Cystitis: Bladder Pain, Inflammation Causes, Relief

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/cystitis-8647309

  Noninfectious cystitis includes: Chemical cystitis, Drug-induced cystitis, Foreign body cystitis, Radiation cystitis. […] Cystitis is usually caused by external bacteria that travel up the urethra into your bladder. As the bacteria reproduce and grow, they cause irritation and swelling in the mucous membrane lining of your bladder. […] Factors that increase your risk of acute cystitis include: Being female, Being sexually active, Use of spermicide, New sexual partner, History of acute cystitis. […] Factors that increase your risk of complicated cystitis include: Diabetes, Weak immune system, Pregnancy, Menopause, Bladder catheter in place or recently used, Neurogenic bladder, Renal (kidney) insufficiency, Kidney stones, Problems in the urinary tract that slow the flow of urine or bladder control, History of kidney transplant, Tumor, Endometriosis.

• #79 Recurrent Cystitis in Nonpregnant Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2009/0315/p503.html

  Cystitis is caused by uropathogenic bacteria in the fecal flora that colonize the vaginal and periurethral openings and ascend the urethra into the bladder. Sexual intercourse, diaphragm-spermicide use, and a history of recurrent UTI have been shown to be strong, independent risk factors for cystitis. […] However, risk factors specific to women with recurrent cystitis have received little study. In a large, case-control study of women with and without a history of recurrent UTI (comprising 229 cases and 253 controls), frequency of sexual intercourse was the strongest risk factor for recurrence in a multivariate analysis. Other risk factors included spermicide use in the past year, new sex partner during the past year, having a first UTI at or before 15 years of age, and having a mother with a history of UTI. Urine-voiding disorders, such as those associated with prolapse, multiple sclerosis, bladder cancer, or bladder stones, are also associated with increased risk.

• #80

  https://www.sweetcures.co.uk/blogs/health-hub/relationships-affected-by-cystitis

  Cystitis is a significant health concern, particularly for women, with estimates suggesting that most women will experience a urinary tract infection (UTI) at least once in their lifetime. […] Women may develop cystitis within a day or two after having sex. Factors such as physical movement, bacteria entering the urethra, or irritation caused by dryness or insufficient lubrication can contribute to this condition. […] The most common cause of bladder infections linked to intimacy is Escherichia coli (E. coli), responsible for approximately 90% of such cases. […] Medical experts now recognise that sex-related cystitis isn’t always caused by external bacteria, such as those from a new partner. Dormant bacteria embedded in the bladder wall can sometimes resurface, proliferating when conditions are favourable and causing infections to recur.

• #81 Hemorrhagic cystitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhagic_cystitis

  Hemorrhagic cystitis is an inflammation of the bladder defined by lower urinary tract symptoms that include dysuria, hematuria, and hemorrhage. […] Causes of hemorrhagic cystitis include chemotherapy (e.g. cyclophosphamide, Ifosfamide), radiation, or infection. Ifosfamide is the most common cause of hemorrhagic cystitis. […] Adenovirus (particularly serotypes 11 and 21 of subgroup B) is the most common cause of acute viral hemorrhagic cystitis in children, though it can result from BK virus as well. […] Although hemorrhagic cystitis post-transplantation/bone marrow transplantation is not technically infectious, a short discussion is in order for completeness. Patients undergoing therapy to suppress the immune system are at risk for hemorrhagic cystitis due to either the direct effects of chemotherapy or activation of dormant viruses in the kidney, ureter, or bladder.

• #82 Hemorrhagic Cystitis: What is It, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://dreminozbek.com/en/hemorrhagic-cystitis-what-is-it-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment/

  Hemorrhagic cystitis can be caused by several factors, including viral infections, such as adenovirus or cytomegalovirus, bacterial infections, certain medications (such as chemotherapy drugs or certain antibiotics), radiation therapy, and exposure to certain chemicals. […] Hemorrhagic cystitis can be caused by various factors, including: […] Infections: Viral infections such as adenovirus, cytomegalovirus (CMV), or BK virus, as well as bacterial infections like Escherichia coli (E. coli), can lead to inflammation and bleeding in the bladder. […] Medications: Certain medications, particularly chemotherapy drugs such as cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide, can cause hemorrhagic cystitis as a side effect. Other medications, including some antibiotics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may also contribute to bladder irritation and bleeding.

• #83 Hemorrhagic Cystitis: What is It, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://dreminozbek.com/en/hemorrhagic-cystitis-what-is-it-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment/

  Hemorrhagic cystitis can be caused by several factors, including viral infections, such as adenovirus or cytomegalovirus, bacterial infections, certain medications (such as chemotherapy drugs or certain antibiotics), radiation therapy, and exposure to certain chemicals. […] Hemorrhagic cystitis can be caused by various factors, including: […] Infections: Viral infections such as adenovirus, cytomegalovirus (CMV), or BK virus, as well as bacterial infections like Escherichia coli (E. coli), can lead to inflammation and bleeding in the bladder. […] Medications: Certain medications, particularly chemotherapy drugs such as cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide, can cause hemorrhagic cystitis as a side effect. Other medications, including some antibiotics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), may also contribute to bladder irritation and bleeding.

• #84 Hemorrhagic Cystitis: What is It, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://dreminozbek.com/en/hemorrhagic-cystitis-what-is-it-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatment/

  Radiation therapy: Radiation treatment for cancers in the pelvic region, such as bladder cancer or prostate cancer, can damage the lining of the bladder and lead to hemorrhagic cystitis. […] Chemical exposure: Exposure to certain chemicals, such as those used in industrial settings or in the production of dyes and paints, can irritate the bladder and cause inflammation and bleeding. […] Catheter use: Prolonged use of urinary catheters, particularly in hospitalized patients or those with spinal cord injuries, can increase the risk of developing hemorrhagic cystitis due to irritation and trauma to the bladder lining. […] Bladder trauma: Trauma to the bladder, such as from bladder surgery or injury, can cause inflammation and bleeding, leading to hemorrhagic cystitis. […] Autoimmune disorders: In rare cases, autoimmune conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or autoimmune hemolytic anemia may cause inflammation and damage to the bladder, resulting in hemorrhagic cystitis. […] Rare genetic disorders: Certain rare genetic disorders, such as hemorrhagic cystitis associated with adenovirus infection in immunocompromised individuals, can also lead to this condition.

• #85 Cystitis > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/cystitis

  Cystitis is inflammation of the bladder. It has various causes, the most common of which is bacteria. When bacteria causes cystitis, it is also called a lower urinary tract infection (UTI). […] Cystitis is usually caused by bacteria in the lower urinary tract. Most often in 95% of cases the bacteria Escherichia coli is the cause. […] Other, non-bacterial causes of cystitis include medications, chemicals, radiation, foreign bodies, interstitial cystitis, or other medical conditions.

• #86 Bladder Inflammation (Cystitis): Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21203-bladder-inflammation-cystitis

  Cystitis is inflammation of the bladder thats generally caused by a bacterial infection. Bladder infections occur when bacteria from the area between the vagina/penis and rectum (called the perineum) enter the urethra and travel into the bladder. […] A bladder infection is usually caused by bacteria entering the urethra and multiplying in your bladder. The most common type of bacteria is Escherichia coli (E. coli). […] There are factors that increase the risk of bladder infections. These include anatomical abnormalities of the urinary tract, menopause, using a catheter, using spermicides, constipation, and multiple sexual partners.

• #87 Cystitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/cystitis

  Cystitis is a bladder infection that happens when the bladder becomes inflamed. […] In most cases, the cause of cystitis is a urinary tract infection (UTI). A UTI happens when bacteria enter the bladder or urethra and begin to multiply. […] This could also happen with naturally occurring bacteria in your body that become imbalanced. These bacteria lead to an infection and cause inflammation. […] Cystitis does not always come from an infection. For example, certain medicines and hygiene products can also cause inflammation. […] Possible causes of cystitis include: urinary tract infection (UTI), taking certain drugs, exposure to radiation, ongoing use of a catheter, irritating hygiene products. […] Both acute and interstitial cystitis have a range of possible causes. The cause of cystitis determines the type.

• #88 Interstitial cystitis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/interstitial-cystitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20354357

  The exact cause of interstitial cystitis isn’t known, but it’s likely that many factors contribute. For instance, people with interstitial cystitis may also have a defect in the protective lining (epithelium) of the bladder. A leak in the epithelium may allow toxic substances in urine to irritate your bladder wall. […] Other possible but unproven contributing factors include an autoimmune reaction, heredity, infection or allergy.

• #89 Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Interstitial Cystitis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1476007/

  Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a bladder syndrome of unknown etiology. The cause of IC is most likely multifactorial and includes genetic and environmental factors. […] The pathogenesis and etiology of interstitial cystitis remain incompletely defined. However, there is an emerging consensus as to the central role of epithelial dysfunction, bladder sensory nerve up-regulation, and mast cell activation in the genesis of IC. […] A sizable number of IC patients relate the onset of their symptoms to episodes of bacterial cystitis. […] Urinary antiproliferative factor (APF), recently described in IC, inhibits cell proliferation and impairs repair of damaged or denuded urothelium with resulting changes in the barrier function of the urothelium. […] IC has many features of an autoimmune diseasechronicity, exacerbations and remissions, clinical response to steroids/immunosuppressives, the high prevalence of antinuclear antibodies, and association with other autoimmune syndromes. Current evidence suggests that autoimmune phenomena (bladder antibodies, etc) are epi-phenomena that occur as a result of local bladder cellular damage.

• #90 What Is Cystitis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/cystitis/guide/

  Cystitis is a condition that occurs when there is an inflammation of the bladder. Its most often caused by a bacterial infection, and in this scenario, its referred to as a urinary tract infection (UTI). […] In most cases, cystitis occurs when bacteria enter the bladder and cause an infection. […] Cystitis is most commonly caused by E. coli bacteria, but a variety of other organisms cause cystitis (for example, Proteus and Klebsiella). […] Sexual intercourse is a common means of bacterial cystitis infection, particularly in women. […] Causes of noninfectious cystitis include: Interstitial Cystitis, which is also called painful bladder syndrome, is most commonly diagnosed in women. […] Drugs, in particular the chemotherapy drugs cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide, can cause cystitis.

• #91 What Is Cystitis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/cystitis/guide/

  Radiation treatment of the pelvic area can cause bladder inflammation. […] Prolonged use of a catheter can make you more prone to bacterial infections and tissue damage, both of which can lead to inflammation. […] If you’re sensitive to the chemicals in products such as bubble bath, feminine hygiene sprays, or spermicidal jellies, you may experience an allergic-type reaction in your bladder, which can cause inflammation. […] Diabetes, kidney stones, an enlarged prostate, or spinal cord injuries may lead to cystitis.

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