Materiały źródłowe

• #1 The Pathophysiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3836287/

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an often severe and disabling condition, affecting up to 2% of the population. […] Very little is known about the etiology or pathophysiology of BDD, as few studies have addressed this directly. This review of the pathophysiology of BDD explores what has been elucidated thus far from research on the genetics, neuroanatomy, neuropsychology, and psychopharmacology of BDD, as well as secondary BDD symptoms resulting from brain damage and medical illnesses. […] There is likely a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks underlying the pathophysiology of BDD. A combination of dysfunctions in frontal-subcortical circuits, temporal, parietal, and limbic structures, and possibly involving hemispheric imbalances in information processing, may produce both the characteristic symptoms and neurocognitive deficits seen in BDD.

• #2 The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder | CoLab

  https://colab.ws/articles/10.1016%2Fj.bodyim.2007.11.002

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an often severe and disabling condition, affecting up to 2% of the population. […] Despite its prevalence and clinical significance, very little is known about the pathophysiology of BDD. […] However, clues to its possible neurobiological substrates and abnormalities in information processing are starting to emerge. […] There is likely a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks underlying the pathophysiology of BDD. […] A combination of dysfunctions in frontal-subcortical circuits, temporal, parietal, and limbic structures, and possibly involving hemispheric imbalances in information processing, may produce both the characteristic symptoms and neurocognitive deficits seen in BDD. […] An improved understanding of the pathophysiology of BDD will be crucial to guide the development of better treatments.

• #3 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), also known in some contexts as dysmorphophobia, is a mental disorder defined by an overwhelming preoccupation with a perceived flaw in one’s physical appearance. In BDD’s delusional variant, the flaw is imagined. When an actual visible difference exists, its importance is disproportionately magnified in the mind of the individual. Whether the physical issue is real or imagined, ruminations concerning this perceived defect become pervasive and intrusive, consuming substantial mental bandwidth for extended periods each day. This excessive preoccupation not only induces severe emotional distress but also disrupts daily functioning and activities. The DSM-5 places BDD within the obsessive-compulsive spectrum, distinguishing it from disorders such as anorexia nervosa.

• #4 The Pathophysiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3836287/

  The pathophysiology of BDD likely involves a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks. Hemispheric imbalance may also play a crucial role. […] Dysfunction in frontal-striatal circuits may also be involved in the pathophysiology of BDD. […] In idiopathic BDD, the specific structures involved are likely to be those that mediate body image, self-recognition, and perceptual distortions, such as the right PHG, dorsal occipital cortex, temporo-parieto-occipital junction, fusiform gyrus, IPL, IFG, and DLPFC. […] A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyper-responsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD.

• #5 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9888-body-dysmorphic-disorder

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition that causes you to view your own physical appearance unfairly. The thoughts and feelings related to your appearance can consume you and affect your thoughts and actions. […] Experts dont fully understand how or why BDD happens, but they suspect it involves multiple factors, including: […] Genetics: Youre much more likely between three and eight times more to develop BDD if a first-degree relative (meaning a child, biological parent or biological sibling) has it. […] Brain structure, chemistry and activity differences: People with BDD often have brain areas that are too active or work differently than expected. Those differences make it hard to control thoughts and actions related to the condition. […] Cultural influences and popular media: Different cultures have different standards of beauty and appearance. Popular media, culture or a combination of the two can influence how BDD affects your thoughts or behaviors. […] A history of childhood abuse, neglect or bullying: A history of adverse childhood experiences means youre more likely to develop BDD. A history of being bullied or teased can also increase your risk of developing it.

• #6 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder

  As with most mental disorders, BDD’s cause is likely intricate, altogether biopsychosocial, through an interaction of multiple factors, including genetic, developmental, psychological, social, and cultural. BDD usually develops during early adolescence, although many patients note earlier trauma, abuse, neglect, teasing, or bullying. In many cases, social anxiety earlier in life precedes BDD. Though twin studies on BDD are few, one estimated its heritability at 43%. Yet other factors may be introversion, negative body image, perfectionism, heightened aesthetic sensitivity, and childhood abuse and neglect. […] The development of body dysmorphia can stem from trauma caused by parents/guardians, family, or close friends. In a study published in 2021 about the prevalence of childhood maltreatment among adults with body dysmorphia, researchers found that more than 75% of respondents had experienced some form of abuse as children. Indeed, the researchers found that adults who had a history of emotional neglect as children were especially vulnerable to BDD, though other forms of abuse, including physical and sexual abuse, were also identified as significant risk factors.

• #7 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9888-body-dysmorphic-disorder

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition that causes you to view your own physical appearance unfairly. The thoughts and feelings related to your appearance can consume you and affect your thoughts and actions. […] Experts dont fully understand how or why BDD happens, but they suspect it involves multiple factors, including: […] Genetics: Youre much more likely between three and eight times more to develop BDD if a first-degree relative (meaning a child, biological parent or biological sibling) has it. […] Brain structure, chemistry and activity differences: People with BDD often have brain areas that are too active or work differently than expected. Those differences make it hard to control thoughts and actions related to the condition. […] Cultural influences and popular media: Different cultures have different standards of beauty and appearance. Popular media, culture or a combination of the two can influence how BDD affects your thoughts or behaviors. […] A history of childhood abuse, neglect or bullying: A history of adverse childhood experiences means youre more likely to develop BDD. A history of being bullied or teased can also increase your risk of developing it.

• #8 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/body-dysmorphia/

  It’s not known exactly what causes body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), but it might be associated with: […] genetics you may be more likely to develop BDD if you have a relative with BDD, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) or depression […] a chemical imbalance in the brain […] a traumatic experience in the past you may be more likely to develop BDD if you were teased, bullied or abused when you were a child.

• #9 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  There have not been many genetic studies in BDD. […] However, there is evidence that BDD is heritable. […] A study of female twins found that genes accounted for about 44% of the propensity for dysmorphic worries. […] Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] Several different types of studies have demonstrated that the brains of individuals with BDD perceive visual information differently than those without BDD. […] The findings suggest that individuals with BDD engage in more detailed processing systems (generally left-sided) relative to those involved in holistic and configural processing (generally right-sided), even for images that contain little detail.

• #10 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Body dysmorphic disorder develops from psychological, social, and biological factors. High-quality studies investigating the pathogenesis of BDD are limited and small. Neuroimaging findings discovered in studies could be etiologic findings or sequelae from the disease process. One preliminary candidate gene study of 57 subjects with BDD matched with 58 healthy controls demonstrated that the GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) receptor gene occurred more frequently in subjects with BDD than in the controls. The heritability of BDD, investigated through twin studies, revealed an estimated 43% genetic contribution for BDD. The remaining contributors are psychological and environmental. A history of physical or sexual abuse may contribute to the development of BDD. Individuals who report lower levels of perceived parental care in childhood or a history of parental neglect have a higher prevalence of BDD than controls.

• #11 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Body dysmorphic disorder develops from psychological, social, and biological factors. High-quality studies investigating the pathogenesis of BDD are limited and small. Neuroimaging findings discovered in studies could be etiologic findings or sequelae from the disease process. One preliminary candidate gene study of 57 subjects with BDD matched with 58 healthy controls demonstrated that the GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) receptor gene occurred more frequently in subjects with BDD than in the controls. The heritability of BDD, investigated through twin studies, revealed an estimated 43% genetic contribution for BDD. The remaining contributors are psychological and environmental. A history of physical or sexual abuse may contribute to the development of BDD. Individuals who report lower levels of perceived parental care in childhood or a history of parental neglect have a higher prevalence of BDD than controls.

• #12 New perspectives in the treatment of body… | F1000Research

  https://f1000research.com/articles/7-361

  A total of 8% of patients with BDD have a family member with similar disease, and this represents four times the prevalence in the general population. […] The evidence suggests that BDD is heritable and that it might share a genetic predisposition with OCD spectrum disorders, which in turn could explain their co-occurrence.

• #13 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): Symptoms, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/309254

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition in which a person worries excessively about a perceived flaw in their physical appearance. […] The condition has little to do with real physical appearance but rather an individuals body self-image, or how they see themselves. […] Doctors do not really know what causes BDD, but there are some possible reasons why it might happen. […] One small study has suggested that specific genetic factors may play a role. […] BDD often affects people who have a diagnosis of OCD or who have a relative with OCD. […] In a 2004 study where people did tasks involving drawing figures and viewing images, people with BDD were more likely to overfocus on details and perceive distortions than those without BDD. […] Scientists have found low serotonin levels in some people with BDD, but it is not clear what role serotonin plays, if any.

• #14 The Pathophysiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3836287/

  The pathophysiology of BDD likely involves a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks. Hemispheric imbalance may also play a crucial role. […] Dysfunction in frontal-striatal circuits may also be involved in the pathophysiology of BDD. […] In idiopathic BDD, the specific structures involved are likely to be those that mediate body image, self-recognition, and perceptual distortions, such as the right PHG, dorsal occipital cortex, temporo-parieto-occipital junction, fusiform gyrus, IPL, IFG, and DLPFC. […] A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyper-responsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD.

• #15 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  The current understanding of the pathophysiology of BDD is limited. No specific biomarkers are currently available. Some biological findings have been identified as potential clues to identify the illness. Overlapping features discovered from studies of OCD have also provided some insight. Neuroanatomic findings for BDD are inconsistent. Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects.

• #16 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. […] White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects. […] Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. […] Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area.

• #17 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  The current understanding of the pathophysiology of BDD is limited. No specific biomarkers are currently available. Some biological findings have been identified as potential clues to identify the illness. Overlapping features discovered from studies of OCD have also provided some insight. Neuroanatomic findings for BDD are inconsistent. Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects.

• #18 Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Characteristics, Psychopathology, Clinical Associations, and Influencing Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/60898

  One study detected that orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex volumes of BDD patients were significantly smaller than healthy individuals. […] Neuroanatomic evidence in the limbic system was also found, more specifically in the amygdalas, between BDD, anxiety, and self-evaluating visual process. […] Interestingly, only the right amygdala volume has shown a significant correlation with BDD symptom severity, which suggests a different lateral involvement of these brain regions. […] Another biological factor under consideration is that people with BDD seem to have a chemical imbalance of the neurotransmitter serotonin, because they often respond well to the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class of antidepressants.

• #19 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. […] White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects. […] Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. […] Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area.

• #20 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  The current understanding of the pathophysiology of BDD is limited. No specific biomarkers are currently available. Some biological findings have been identified as potential clues to identify the illness. Overlapping features discovered from studies of OCD have also provided some insight. Neuroanatomic findings for BDD are inconsistent. Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects.

• #21 Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Characteristics, Psychopathology, Clinical Associations, and Influencing Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/60898

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is defined by a recurring and persistent concern characterized by psychic suffering caused by a possible physical imperfection in appearance. […] It is a severe psychiatric condition, duly confirmed by neuroanatomical findings, very peculiar repetitive behaviors, and specific personalities. […] The etiology is associated to a perfectionist pre-morbid personality, teasing in school, or a traumatic event. […] Some variations were found in brain structure and function. Research suggests that BDD patients may have some alteration in the white substance of the brain, leading to a functional impairment due to disorganization in the tract which connects the vision with emotional issues and memory. […] Nowadays, BDD has been included in the range of obsessive compulsive disorders (OCDs), because the neuroanatomic findings presented new evidences about BDD, pointing biological features to its etiopathogeny.

• #22 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. […] White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects. […] Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. […] Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area.

• #23 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks (Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, inverted faces task, embedded figures task) reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area. One additional fMRI study found patients with BDD had hypoactivity in the dorsal visual and parietal networks compared to healthy controls. […] Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #24 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. […] White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects. […] Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. […] Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area.

• #25 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) – PsychDB

  https://www.psychdb.com/ocd/body-dysmorphic

  BDD is associated with abnormalities of the visual processing and frontostriatal systems. fMRI studies have suggested hypoactivation in the occipital cortex for low spatial frequency faces, which may indicate either primary visual system abnormalities for configural face elements or top-down modulation of visual processing.[13] […] Individuals with BDD have delusional appearance beliefs (i.e. – completely fixed beliefs that their view of their perceived defects is accurate), which is diagnosed as BDD, with absent insight/delusional beliefs, and not as delusional disorder. Appearance-related ideas or delusions of reference are common in BDD but unlike schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, it involves prominent appearance pre-occupations and related repetitive behaviors. Conversely disorganized behaviours and other psychotic symptoms are absent (except for appearance beliefs, which may be delusional).

• #26 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  This may explain increased attention to miniscule defects, and the subsequent inability to see them as inconsequential relative to the body as a whole. […] In sum, there is evidence in BDD of abnormal holistic and configural visual processing. […] The brains of people with BDD may not provide adequate visual “templates” for them to integrate and contextualize details such as minor flaws or imperfections, which could contribute to distortions in perceptions. […] This might result in poor insight about their illness, and a desire to pursue cosmetic solutions to try to fix (mis)perceived physical appearance problems. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD.

• #27 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  Inefficient connections between these brain regions may underlie impairments in visual, emotional, and possibly other types of information processing. […] Interactions between these aberrantly functioning brain systems, as well as possible abnormalities in neurotransmitter/neurochemical systems may contribute to many of the symptoms in BDD.

• #28 Abnormal Brain Network Organization in Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Neuropsychopharmacology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201318

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is characterized by preoccupation with misperceived defects of appearance, causing significant distress and disability. […] Previous studies suggest abnormalities in information processing characterized by greater local relative to global processing. […] Results suggest disturbances in whole brain structural topological organization in BDD, in addition to correlations between clinical symptoms and network organization. […] There is also evidence of abnormal connectivity between regions involved in lower-order visual processing and higher-order visual and emotional processing, as well as interhemispheric visual information transfer. […] Thus, structural network topology may provide indirect information about functional organization in BDD. […] We hypothesized that the whole brain network organization in individuals with BDD would reflect highly localized information processing.

• #29 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  There have not been many genetic studies in BDD. […] However, there is evidence that BDD is heritable. […] A study of female twins found that genes accounted for about 44% of the propensity for dysmorphic worries. […] Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] Several different types of studies have demonstrated that the brains of individuals with BDD perceive visual information differently than those without BDD. […] The findings suggest that individuals with BDD engage in more detailed processing systems (generally left-sided) relative to those involved in holistic and configural processing (generally right-sided), even for images that contain little detail.

• #30 Abnormal Brain Network Organization in Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Neuropsychopharmacology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201318

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is characterized by preoccupation with misperceived defects of appearance, causing significant distress and disability. […] Previous studies suggest abnormalities in information processing characterized by greater local relative to global processing. […] Results suggest disturbances in whole brain structural topological organization in BDD, in addition to correlations between clinical symptoms and network organization. […] There is also evidence of abnormal connectivity between regions involved in lower-order visual processing and higher-order visual and emotional processing, as well as interhemispheric visual information transfer. […] Thus, structural network topology may provide indirect information about functional organization in BDD. […] We hypothesized that the whole brain network organization in individuals with BDD would reflect highly localized information processing.

• #31 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  There have not been many genetic studies in BDD. […] However, there is evidence that BDD is heritable. […] A study of female twins found that genes accounted for about 44% of the propensity for dysmorphic worries. […] Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] Several different types of studies have demonstrated that the brains of individuals with BDD perceive visual information differently than those without BDD. […] The findings suggest that individuals with BDD engage in more detailed processing systems (generally left-sided) relative to those involved in holistic and configural processing (generally right-sided), even for images that contain little detail.

• #32 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  This may explain increased attention to miniscule defects, and the subsequent inability to see them as inconsequential relative to the body as a whole. […] In sum, there is evidence in BDD of abnormal holistic and configural visual processing. […] The brains of people with BDD may not provide adequate visual “templates” for them to integrate and contextualize details such as minor flaws or imperfections, which could contribute to distortions in perceptions. […] This might result in poor insight about their illness, and a desire to pursue cosmetic solutions to try to fix (mis)perceived physical appearance problems. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD.

• #33 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks (Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, inverted faces task, embedded figures task) reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area. One additional fMRI study found patients with BDD had hypoactivity in the dorsal visual and parietal networks compared to healthy controls. […] Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #34 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks (Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, inverted faces task, embedded figures task) reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area. One additional fMRI study found patients with BDD had hypoactivity in the dorsal visual and parietal networks compared to healthy controls. […] Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #35 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. […] White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects. […] Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. […] Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area.

• #36 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  This may explain increased attention to miniscule defects, and the subsequent inability to see them as inconsequential relative to the body as a whole. […] In sum, there is evidence in BDD of abnormal holistic and configural visual processing. […] The brains of people with BDD may not provide adequate visual “templates” for them to integrate and contextualize details such as minor flaws or imperfections, which could contribute to distortions in perceptions. […] This might result in poor insight about their illness, and a desire to pursue cosmetic solutions to try to fix (mis)perceived physical appearance problems. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD.

• #37 Bringing Awareness to Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)

  https://practicingclinicians.com/the-exchange/bringing-awareness-to-body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd-

  BDD is described as a preoccupation with nonexistent or slight defects in physical appearance, leading to the perception that one is unattractive or has deformities when, in fact, they have normal features. […] Interestingly, neuroimaging and other studies have shown that patients with BDD may have abnormal visual processing, tending to focus on details of the face or body parts, rather than seeing „the whole picture.” […] Fortunately, studies have shown that patients with BDD can be helped with approaches such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and/or cognitive-behavioral therapy.

• #38 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a psychiatric illness in which people misperceive defects in their appearance, disrupting their ability to function in their daily lives, with disturbing preoccupations, ritualistic behaviors, and emotional distress. […] Although the clinical symptoms of BDD are well-described, little is known about the causes or how the symptoms develop and progress over time. […] Researchers in recent years have begun to build knowledge about how BDD sufferers’ brains function. […] Neurochemical studies in BDD thus far have focused on the brain chemical serotonin and the hormone oxytocin. […] Only one study has directly examined serotonergic functioning in individuals with BDD compared with healthy controls. […] It found indirect evidence of abnormal serotonin function in those with BDD, as reflected by decreased serotonin binding densities.

• #39 Body dysmorphic disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/body-dysmorphic-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20353938

  Body dysmorphic disorder is a mental health condition in which you can’t stop thinking about one or more perceived defects or flaws in your appearance a flaw that appears minor or can’t be seen by others. […] It’s not known specifically what causes body dysmorphic disorder. Like many other mental health conditions, body dysmorphic disorder may result from a combination of issues, such as a family history of the disorder, negative evaluations or experiences about your body or self-image, and abnormal brain function or abnormal levels of the brain chemical called serotonin.

• #40 The Mirror Lies: Body Dysmorphic Disorder | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0715/p217.html

  Body dysmorphic disorder is an increasingly recognized somatoform disorder, clinically distinct from obsessive-compulsive disorder, eating disorders, and depression. Patients with body dysmorphic disorder are preoccupied with an imagined deficit in the appearance of one or more body parts, causing clinically significant stress, impairment, and dysfunction. […] Many theories have been proposed to explain the possible root causes of BDD, but no definitive etiology has been identified to date. Some popular theories include unrealistic societal standards and expectations, parental pressure, poor self-esteem, and neurotransmitter imbalances. […] One proposed model is similar to other psychiatric diagnoses that include genetic, cultural, and psychological factors that manifest after a triggering event.

• #41 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a psychiatric illness in which people misperceive defects in their appearance, disrupting their ability to function in their daily lives, with disturbing preoccupations, ritualistic behaviors, and emotional distress. […] Although the clinical symptoms of BDD are well-described, little is known about the causes or how the symptoms develop and progress over time. […] Researchers in recent years have begun to build knowledge about how BDD sufferers’ brains function. […] Neurochemical studies in BDD thus far have focused on the brain chemical serotonin and the hormone oxytocin. […] Only one study has directly examined serotonergic functioning in individuals with BDD compared with healthy controls. […] It found indirect evidence of abnormal serotonin function in those with BDD, as reflected by decreased serotonin binding densities.

• #42 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  Multiple treatment studies using medications called serotonin reuptake inhibitors showed that they significantly decrease BDD symptoms. […] Yet, although these observations suggest that serotonin might play a role in BDD, it does not prove that BDD patients have low serotonin levels or that abnormal serotonin levels cause BDD, since medications that affect the serotonergic system may simply lead to symptom reduction rather than “correcting” an underlying abnormal process. […] Oxytocin is a hormone released by the brain that has multiple functions including affecting social interactions. […] One study found elevated serum oxytocin levels in those with BDD compared with healthy controls. […] Thus, overall, there are early indications of possible neurochemical abnormalities in BDD. […] However, few studies have been conducted, and more research is needed to verify what, if any, neurochemical abnormalities are present in BDD and what the findings mean for people with BDD.

• #43 Body dysmorphic disorder: Epidemiology and pathogenesis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/body-dysmorphic-disorder-epidemiology-and-pathogenesis/print

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is characterized by excessive preoccupation with nonexistent or slight defects in physical appearance, such that patients believe they look abnormal, unattractive, ugly, or deformed, when in reality they look normal. […] This topic reviews the epidemiology and pathogenesis of BDD. […] By contrast, pharmacotherapy (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or clomipramine) and/or cognitive-behavioral therapy tailored specifically to BDD are often efficacious.

• #44 The Mirror Lies: Body Dysmorphic Disorder | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0715/p217.html

  One small study found that serotonin transporter promoter genes tend to be shorter in persons with BDD compared with the general population. […] Newer medications were tried when the central role of serotoninergic neurotransmission in the manifestation of obsessive thinking and compulsive behavior became clearer. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been shown to effectively treat OCD. […] The SSRIs were shown to reduce symptoms and subjective distress in 63 to 73 percent of patients. […] The limitations of SSRIs are evident, but they may provide relief in combination with psychotherapy. Promising psychotherapeutic approaches include cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), which appears to be a particularly useful adjunct to pharmacotherapy.

• #45 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | 5-Minute Clinical Consult

  https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/1688453/all/Body_Dysmorphic_Disorder

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an obsessive compulsive and related disorder in which individuals have pervasive and intrusive feelings regarding an imagined or slight flaw in his or her appearance causing impairment in daily functioning. […] Complex etiology but assumed to be multifactorial involving genetic, biologic, and environmental factors. […] Studies have shown various differences in brain anatomy in patients with and without BDD. This includes volume changes in the orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate cortex and asymmetry of the caudate. Studies also show hyperactivity of the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral heads of the caudate nuclei. These changes are thought to represent a similar pathophysiologic mechanism to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). […] Dopamine D2/3 receptor availability is lower in patients with BDD compared to healthy patients.

• #46 Underlying Body Dysmorphic Disorder in Patients With Zoom Dysmorphia

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/underlying-body-dysmorphic-disorder-in-patients-with-zoom-dysmorphia

  BDD is believed to be due to a combination of biological, environmental, and psychological factors. In patients with BDD, neuroimaging reveals abnormal structure and function of occipitotemporal and frontolimbic regions as well as reduced dopamine D2/D3 receptor availability, suggesting pathophysiology related to dopamine pathways that enables potential drug targets. […] BDD is typically associated with past trauma, and these patients may demonstrate low self-esteem, depressive symptoms, anxiety, and heightened rejection sensitivity. […] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, classifies BDD under OCD, largely because of the compulsive behaviors performed in response to physical concerns. […] The following criteria must be met for clinical diagnosis of BDD: 1. The patient has a preoccupation with one or more perceived deficits or flaws in physical appearance that are not observable or are slight to others. 2. The patient performs repetitive behaviors or mental acts (e.g., comparing one’s appearance to that of others) in response to the appearance concerns at some point during the disorder. 3. The preoccupation causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning. 4. The preoccupation is not better explained by concerns meeting diagnostic criteria for eating disorders. […] Various targeted treatments are available to patients diagnosed with BDD.

• #47 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  Multiple treatment studies using medications called serotonin reuptake inhibitors showed that they significantly decrease BDD symptoms. […] Yet, although these observations suggest that serotonin might play a role in BDD, it does not prove that BDD patients have low serotonin levels or that abnormal serotonin levels cause BDD, since medications that affect the serotonergic system may simply lead to symptom reduction rather than “correcting” an underlying abnormal process. […] Oxytocin is a hormone released by the brain that has multiple functions including affecting social interactions. […] One study found elevated serum oxytocin levels in those with BDD compared with healthy controls. […] Thus, overall, there are early indications of possible neurochemical abnormalities in BDD. […] However, few studies have been conducted, and more research is needed to verify what, if any, neurochemical abnormalities are present in BDD and what the findings mean for people with BDD.

• #48 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks (Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, inverted faces task, embedded figures task) reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area. One additional fMRI study found patients with BDD had hypoactivity in the dorsal visual and parietal networks compared to healthy controls. […] Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #49 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. […] Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. […] Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #50 (PDF) The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder

  https://www.academia.edu/27822048/The_pathophysiology_of_body_dysmorphic_disorder

  A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyperresponsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD. […] There is evidence of neurobiological abnormalities associated with symptoms in BDD, although research to date is still limited. […] We propose a model in which visual perceptual abnormalities, along with frontostriatal and limbic system dysfunction, may combine to contribute to the symptoms of impaired insight, obsessive thoughts, and compulsive behaviors expressed in BDD. […] The cognitive assessment demonstrated deficits in executive functioning and facial affect perception, but not in general social cognition. […] The findings implicate frontal-amygdala and temporal-parietal pathology in BDD although neuroimaging studies are needed to confirm this speculation.

• #51 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks (Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, inverted faces task, embedded figures task) reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area. One additional fMRI study found patients with BDD had hypoactivity in the dorsal visual and parietal networks compared to healthy controls. […] Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #52 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. […] Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. […] Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #53 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Results from both functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and visual processing tasks (Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure test, inverted faces task, embedded figures task) reveal local or detail-oriented visual processing is enhanced while holistic or global visual processing is diminished in patients with BDD. Patients with BDD asked to view certain faces while undergoing a fMRI revealed abnormal patterns of hyperactivity in the left orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral head of the caudate, combined with hypoactivity in the occipital cortex, a visual processing area. One additional fMRI study found patients with BDD had hypoactivity in the dorsal visual and parietal networks compared to healthy controls. […] Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #54 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. […] Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. […] Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #55 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | 5-Minute Clinical Consult

  https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/1688453/all/Body_Dysmorphic_Disorder

  A cognitive behavioral model describes reinforcement-based operant conditioning and social learning pertaining to attractiveness that leads to development of maladaptive appearance-related behaviors, beliefs, and values, especially traits of perfectionism. Attractiveness is very important to patients with BDD, but they feel unattractive, leading to poor self-esteem.

• #56 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://www.mentalhealth.com/library/body-dysmorphic-disorder

  There are implications that levels of chemicals in the brain can impact the likelihood of developing BDD. Several studies have found a relationship between serotonin levels and BDD, although the exact relationship is not currently clear. […] People with BDD have been found to be more likely to have personality traits such as perfectionism and neuroticism, suggesting that these traits may play a role in the development of the condition. […] As BDD often begins in adolescence, there are suggestions that the hormonal and bodily changes experienced at this time may be a contributory factor in the development of BDD, although further research is needed to clarify this relationship.

• #57 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/body-dysmorphic-disorder-pro

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is characterised by a preoccupation with an imagined defect in one’s appearance, or in the case of a slight physical anomaly, the person’s concern is markedly excessive. BDD is characterised by timeconsuming behaviours such as mirror gazing, comparing particular features to those of others, excessive camouflaging tactics to hide the defect, skin picking and reassurance seeking. Symptoms often begin in adolescence. […] Low self-esteem is an important hallmark of BDD beyond the influence of depressive symptoms. It appears that negative evaluation in BDD is not limited to appearance but also extends to other domains of self-image. […] The recommended treatments for BDD are cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and antidepressants, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Both CBT and pharmacotherapy have been shown to be effective for BDD in both adult populations, and for young people.

• #58 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Subjects with BDD have a decreased ability to recognize the emotions of others through facial expressions, an emotional processing deficit. One study found that patients with BDD are likelier to misinterpret neutral facial expressions in photographs as angry. […] Executive function may also be impaired. Specific areas of difficulty are response inhibition, planning, and decision-making. […] Deficits in executive function combined with neuroimaging findings suggest that subjects with BDD have frontal lobe dysfunction compared to healthy controls.

• #59 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | 5-Minute Clinical Consult

  https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/1688453/all/Body_Dysmorphic_Disorder

  A cognitive behavioral model describes reinforcement-based operant conditioning and social learning pertaining to attractiveness that leads to development of maladaptive appearance-related behaviors, beliefs, and values, especially traits of perfectionism. Attractiveness is very important to patients with BDD, but they feel unattractive, leading to poor self-esteem.

• #60 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Body dysmorphic disorder develops from psychological, social, and biological factors. High-quality studies investigating the pathogenesis of BDD are limited and small. Neuroimaging findings discovered in studies could be etiologic findings or sequelae from the disease process. One preliminary candidate gene study of 57 subjects with BDD matched with 58 healthy controls demonstrated that the GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) receptor gene occurred more frequently in subjects with BDD than in the controls. The heritability of BDD, investigated through twin studies, revealed an estimated 43% genetic contribution for BDD. The remaining contributors are psychological and environmental. A history of physical or sexual abuse may contribute to the development of BDD. Individuals who report lower levels of perceived parental care in childhood or a history of parental neglect have a higher prevalence of BDD than controls.

• #61 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9888-body-dysmorphic-disorder

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition that causes you to view your own physical appearance unfairly. The thoughts and feelings related to your appearance can consume you and affect your thoughts and actions. […] Experts dont fully understand how or why BDD happens, but they suspect it involves multiple factors, including: […] Genetics: Youre much more likely between three and eight times more to develop BDD if a first-degree relative (meaning a child, biological parent or biological sibling) has it. […] Brain structure, chemistry and activity differences: People with BDD often have brain areas that are too active or work differently than expected. Those differences make it hard to control thoughts and actions related to the condition. […] Cultural influences and popular media: Different cultures have different standards of beauty and appearance. Popular media, culture or a combination of the two can influence how BDD affects your thoughts or behaviors. […] A history of childhood abuse, neglect or bullying: A history of adverse childhood experiences means youre more likely to develop BDD. A history of being bullied or teased can also increase your risk of developing it.

• #62 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/body-dysmorphia/

  It’s not known exactly what causes body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), but it might be associated with: […] genetics you may be more likely to develop BDD if you have a relative with BDD, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) or depression […] a chemical imbalance in the brain […] a traumatic experience in the past you may be more likely to develop BDD if you were teased, bullied or abused when you were a child.

• #63 New perspectives in the treatment of body… | F1000Research

  https://f1000research.com/articles/7-361

  The pathogenesis of BDD has yet to be fully elucidated but likely involves a combination of social, psychological, and biological factors. […] Individuals with BDD were found to be more likely to self-report a history of physical or sexual abuse (or both) in childhood or adolescence in comparison with healthy controls. […] A total of 78.7% of patients with BDD surveyed reported a history of childhood maltreatment, which included emotional neglect (68.0%) and emotional abuse (56.0%), physical abuse (34.7%), physical neglect (33.3%), and sexual abuse (28.0%). […] An emerging body of neuroimaging research has led to the development of a working neurobiological model of BDD pathophysiology, one that involves the large-scale disorganization of neural networks involved in cognitive control and interpretation of visual and emotional information.

• #64 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder

  As with most mental disorders, BDD’s cause is likely intricate, altogether biopsychosocial, through an interaction of multiple factors, including genetic, developmental, psychological, social, and cultural. BDD usually develops during early adolescence, although many patients note earlier trauma, abuse, neglect, teasing, or bullying. In many cases, social anxiety earlier in life precedes BDD. Though twin studies on BDD are few, one estimated its heritability at 43%. Yet other factors may be introversion, negative body image, perfectionism, heightened aesthetic sensitivity, and childhood abuse and neglect. […] The development of body dysmorphia can stem from trauma caused by parents/guardians, family, or close friends. In a study published in 2021 about the prevalence of childhood maltreatment among adults with body dysmorphia, researchers found that more than 75% of respondents had experienced some form of abuse as children. Indeed, the researchers found that adults who had a history of emotional neglect as children were especially vulnerable to BDD, though other forms of abuse, including physical and sexual abuse, were also identified as significant risk factors.

• #65 New perspectives in the treatment of body… | F1000Research

  https://f1000research.com/articles/7-361

  The pathogenesis of BDD has yet to be fully elucidated but likely involves a combination of social, psychological, and biological factors. […] Individuals with BDD were found to be more likely to self-report a history of physical or sexual abuse (or both) in childhood or adolescence in comparison with healthy controls. […] A total of 78.7% of patients with BDD surveyed reported a history of childhood maltreatment, which included emotional neglect (68.0%) and emotional abuse (56.0%), physical abuse (34.7%), physical neglect (33.3%), and sexual abuse (28.0%). […] An emerging body of neuroimaging research has led to the development of a working neurobiological model of BDD pathophysiology, one that involves the large-scale disorganization of neural networks involved in cognitive control and interpretation of visual and emotional information.

• #66 Body Dysmorphia as A Trauma Response – Crossroads Health

  https://crossroadshealth.org/body-dysmorphia-as-a-trauma-response/

  In a recent study of the prevalence of childhood maltreatment among adults with body dysmorphia, researchers found that more than 75% of respondents had experienced some form of abuse as children. […] Indeed, the researchers found that adults who had a history of emotional neglect as children were especially vulnerable to BDD, though other forms of abuse, including physical and sexual abuse, were also identified as significant risk factors. […] Unfortunately, the links between childhood neglect and abuse and the emergence of BDD in adolescence and adulthood are all too understandable. […] Children who suffer from abuse and neglect are not only wounded in the moment, but those wounds endure and manifest in often unexpected ways years, and even decades, later. […] It is perhaps little wonder that an abused child would, without treatment, internalize that abuse. And, for too many victims of childhood abuse, that internalization of victimization easily mutates into a form of self-reproach, even self-loathing, that manifests in a pathologically distorted body image.

• #67 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9888-body-dysmorphic-disorder

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition that causes you to view your own physical appearance unfairly. The thoughts and feelings related to your appearance can consume you and affect your thoughts and actions. […] Experts dont fully understand how or why BDD happens, but they suspect it involves multiple factors, including: […] Genetics: Youre much more likely between three and eight times more to develop BDD if a first-degree relative (meaning a child, biological parent or biological sibling) has it. […] Brain structure, chemistry and activity differences: People with BDD often have brain areas that are too active or work differently than expected. Those differences make it hard to control thoughts and actions related to the condition. […] Cultural influences and popular media: Different cultures have different standards of beauty and appearance. Popular media, culture or a combination of the two can influence how BDD affects your thoughts or behaviors. […] A history of childhood abuse, neglect or bullying: A history of adverse childhood experiences means youre more likely to develop BDD. A history of being bullied or teased can also increase your risk of developing it.

• #68 Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Characteristics, Psychopathology, Clinical Associations, and Influencing Factors | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/60898

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is defined by a recurring and persistent concern characterized by psychic suffering caused by a possible physical imperfection in appearance. […] It is a severe psychiatric condition, duly confirmed by neuroanatomical findings, very peculiar repetitive behaviors, and specific personalities. […] The etiology is associated to a perfectionist pre-morbid personality, teasing in school, or a traumatic event. […] Some variations were found in brain structure and function. Research suggests that BDD patients may have some alteration in the white substance of the brain, leading to a functional impairment due to disorganization in the tract which connects the vision with emotional issues and memory. […] Nowadays, BDD has been included in the range of obsessive compulsive disorders (OCDs), because the neuroanatomic findings presented new evidences about BDD, pointing biological features to its etiopathogeny.

• #69 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): Symptoms, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/309254

  According to one study, people who have experienced teasing or body shaming in the past may develop BDD. […] Teaching that places value on specific ideas of beauty may also contribute to the development of BDD, but more research is needed to confirm this. […] A correct diagnosis and appropriate treatment can help to resolve the underlying issues that are causing BDD.

• #70 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  Body dysmorphic disorder develops from psychological, social, and biological factors. High-quality studies investigating the pathogenesis of BDD are limited and small. Neuroimaging findings discovered in studies could be etiologic findings or sequelae from the disease process. One preliminary candidate gene study of 57 subjects with BDD matched with 58 healthy controls demonstrated that the GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) receptor gene occurred more frequently in subjects with BDD than in the controls. The heritability of BDD, investigated through twin studies, revealed an estimated 43% genetic contribution for BDD. The remaining contributors are psychological and environmental. A history of physical or sexual abuse may contribute to the development of BDD. Individuals who report lower levels of perceived parental care in childhood or a history of parental neglect have a higher prevalence of BDD than controls.

• #71 Body Dysmorphia as A Trauma Response – Crossroads Health

  https://crossroadshealth.org/body-dysmorphia-as-a-trauma-response/

  When BDD is associated with a traumatic history, as is so often the case, then the disorder may best be understood as an effort to cope with the unhealed wounds of the past. […] Fixation on the perceived physical flaw, then, is an unconscious effort to distract, deny, and deflect from the true source of the pain, the unresolved trauma. […] When BDD emerges as an unhealthy coping mechanism for living with unresolved trauma, dealing with body issues alone will not be sufficient. […] However, recovering from trauma-derived BDD requires patients to look far beyond body image itself. […] Rather, the path toward healing most likely will begin by seeking care from a mental health professional who specializes in trauma-informed care. […] Healing from past trauma, especially childhood trauma, and developing healthier coping mechanisms will depend, in part, on recognizing and replacing those childlike patterns of thought and behavior with more positive and productive adult reasoning and responses. […] Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a prevalent and often destructive mental illness that is often strongly associated with unresolved trauma.

• #72 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9888-body-dysmorphic-disorder

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition that causes you to view your own physical appearance unfairly. The thoughts and feelings related to your appearance can consume you and affect your thoughts and actions. […] Experts dont fully understand how or why BDD happens, but they suspect it involves multiple factors, including: […] Genetics: Youre much more likely between three and eight times more to develop BDD if a first-degree relative (meaning a child, biological parent or biological sibling) has it. […] Brain structure, chemistry and activity differences: People with BDD often have brain areas that are too active or work differently than expected. Those differences make it hard to control thoughts and actions related to the condition. […] Cultural influences and popular media: Different cultures have different standards of beauty and appearance. Popular media, culture or a combination of the two can influence how BDD affects your thoughts or behaviors. […] A history of childhood abuse, neglect or bullying: A history of adverse childhood experiences means youre more likely to develop BDD. A history of being bullied or teased can also increase your risk of developing it.

• #73 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental illness characterised by constant worrying over a perceived or slight defect in appearance. […] The cause of BDD is unknown. Theories include: A person with BDD has a genetic tendency to develop this type of mental illness. The trigger may be the stress of adolescence. […] BDD could be caused by chemical imbalances in the brain. […] Western society’s narrow standards of beauty may trigger BDD in vulnerable people.

• #74 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder

  Constant use of social media and „selfie taking” may translate into low self-esteem and body dysmorphic tendencies. The sociocultural theory of self-esteem states that the messages given by media and peers about the importance of appearance are internalized by individuals who adopt others’ standards of beauty as their own. […] Individuals with BDD tend to engage in heavy plastic surgery use. In 2018, the plastic surgeon Dr. Tijon Esho coined term „Snapchat Dysmorphia” to describe a trend of patients seeking plastic surgeries to mimic „filtered” pictures. Filtered photos, such as those on Instagram and Snapchat, often present unrealistic and unattainable looks that may be a causal factor in triggering BDD.

• #75 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental illness characterised by constant worrying over a perceived or slight defect in appearance. […] The cause of BDD is unknown. Theories include: A person with BDD has a genetic tendency to develop this type of mental illness. The trigger may be the stress of adolescence. […] BDD could be caused by chemical imbalances in the brain. […] Western society’s narrow standards of beauty may trigger BDD in vulnerable people.

• #76 Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Definition, Symptoms, Traits, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.verywellmind.com/signs-symptoms-and-treatment-of-body-dysmorphic-disorder-4153269

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition characterized by an unhealthy and excessive preoccupation with one’s physical appearance. […] Factors like abuse, bullying, genetics, and social interactions may play a part in causing this condition. […] Researchers are not 100% sure about what exactly causes body dysmorphic disorder. It’s a condition that can affect anyone, but experts believe that there are a variety of factors that can play a role, such as: a history of abuse, childhood trauma, a triggering event, brain abnormalities, bullying, genetic predisposition, social and interpersonal interactions. […] In addition to these factors, societal and cultural factors also undoubtedly play a part. Unrealistic beauty standards, social media images, and the society’s emphasis on the thin-ideal promote ideas about appearance and beauty that shape how people see themselves.

• #77 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder

  Constant use of social media and „selfie taking” may translate into low self-esteem and body dysmorphic tendencies. The sociocultural theory of self-esteem states that the messages given by media and peers about the importance of appearance are internalized by individuals who adopt others’ standards of beauty as their own. […] Individuals with BDD tend to engage in heavy plastic surgery use. In 2018, the plastic surgeon Dr. Tijon Esho coined term „Snapchat Dysmorphia” to describe a trend of patients seeking plastic surgeries to mimic „filtered” pictures. Filtered photos, such as those on Instagram and Snapchat, often present unrealistic and unattainable looks that may be a causal factor in triggering BDD.

• #78 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms, Causes, & Treatment

  https://laopcenter.com/mental-health/disorder/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd/

  Mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, and OCD are closely linked with BDD. Individuals with BDD experience depression, creating a cycle of negative thoughts about appearance and emotional distress. […] Finally, cultural influences significantly impact the development of BDD, particularly in societies that emphasize physical appearance. The media’s portrayal of unattainable beauty standards worsens body dissatisfaction, especially in individuals who internalize these ideals.

• #79 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder

  Constant use of social media and „selfie taking” may translate into low self-esteem and body dysmorphic tendencies. The sociocultural theory of self-esteem states that the messages given by media and peers about the importance of appearance are internalized by individuals who adopt others’ standards of beauty as their own. […] Individuals with BDD tend to engage in heavy plastic surgery use. In 2018, the plastic surgeon Dr. Tijon Esho coined term „Snapchat Dysmorphia” to describe a trend of patients seeking plastic surgeries to mimic „filtered” pictures. Filtered photos, such as those on Instagram and Snapchat, often present unrealistic and unattainable looks that may be a causal factor in triggering BDD.

• #80 Recognising and managing body dysmorphic disorder – The Pharmaceutical Journal

  https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/ld/recognising-and-managing-body-dysmorphic-disorder

  Veale et al. noted that individuals with this condition often have an interest or background in art and design, and were more likely than patients with other psychiatric conditions to have an education or occupation in these areas. Similar findings were reported by Lambrou, who observed that 20% of a BDD group had a background in art/design, compared with 0% in a matched control group. It is yet to be established if this observation is a predisposing factor or a consequence of having the condition. […] Furthermore, it is usual for individuals with BDD to have comorbid conditions, and often it is these conditions that prompt the individual to seek treatment. For example, a patient may be diagnosed with agoraphobia (i.e. a fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult or where help would not be available if things go wrong) because they are unable to leave the house. However, this fear may actually be driven by BDD-related concerns.

• #81 The Pathophysiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3836287/

  The pathophysiology of BDD likely involves a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks. Hemispheric imbalance may also play a crucial role. […] Dysfunction in frontal-striatal circuits may also be involved in the pathophysiology of BDD. […] In idiopathic BDD, the specific structures involved are likely to be those that mediate body image, self-recognition, and perceptual distortions, such as the right PHG, dorsal occipital cortex, temporo-parieto-occipital junction, fusiform gyrus, IPL, IFG, and DLPFC. […] A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyper-responsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD.

• #82 (PDF) The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder

  https://www.academia.edu/27822048/The_pathophysiology_of_body_dysmorphic_disorder

  A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyperresponsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD. […] There is evidence of neurobiological abnormalities associated with symptoms in BDD, although research to date is still limited. […] We propose a model in which visual perceptual abnormalities, along with frontostriatal and limbic system dysfunction, may combine to contribute to the symptoms of impaired insight, obsessive thoughts, and compulsive behaviors expressed in BDD. […] The cognitive assessment demonstrated deficits in executive functioning and facial affect perception, but not in general social cognition. […] The findings implicate frontal-amygdala and temporal-parietal pathology in BDD although neuroimaging studies are needed to confirm this speculation.

• #83 The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder | CoLab

  https://colab.ws/articles/10.1016%2Fj.bodyim.2007.11.002

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an often severe and disabling condition, affecting up to 2% of the population. […] Despite its prevalence and clinical significance, very little is known about the pathophysiology of BDD. […] However, clues to its possible neurobiological substrates and abnormalities in information processing are starting to emerge. […] There is likely a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks underlying the pathophysiology of BDD. […] A combination of dysfunctions in frontal-subcortical circuits, temporal, parietal, and limbic structures, and possibly involving hemispheric imbalances in information processing, may produce both the characteristic symptoms and neurocognitive deficits seen in BDD. […] An improved understanding of the pathophysiology of BDD will be crucial to guide the development of better treatments.

• #84 The Pathophysiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3836287/

  The pathophysiology of BDD likely involves a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks. Hemispheric imbalance may also play a crucial role. […] Dysfunction in frontal-striatal circuits may also be involved in the pathophysiology of BDD. […] In idiopathic BDD, the specific structures involved are likely to be those that mediate body image, self-recognition, and perceptual distortions, such as the right PHG, dorsal occipital cortex, temporo-parieto-occipital junction, fusiform gyrus, IPL, IFG, and DLPFC. […] A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyper-responsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD.

• #85 (PDF) The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder

  https://www.academia.edu/27822048/The_pathophysiology_of_body_dysmorphic_disorder

  A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyperresponsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD. […] There is evidence of neurobiological abnormalities associated with symptoms in BDD, although research to date is still limited. […] We propose a model in which visual perceptual abnormalities, along with frontostriatal and limbic system dysfunction, may combine to contribute to the symptoms of impaired insight, obsessive thoughts, and compulsive behaviors expressed in BDD. […] The cognitive assessment demonstrated deficits in executive functioning and facial affect perception, but not in general social cognition. […] The findings implicate frontal-amygdala and temporal-parietal pathology in BDD although neuroimaging studies are needed to confirm this speculation.

• #86 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  There have not been many genetic studies in BDD. […] However, there is evidence that BDD is heritable. […] A study of female twins found that genes accounted for about 44% of the propensity for dysmorphic worries. […] Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] Several different types of studies have demonstrated that the brains of individuals with BDD perceive visual information differently than those without BDD. […] The findings suggest that individuals with BDD engage in more detailed processing systems (generally left-sided) relative to those involved in holistic and configural processing (generally right-sided), even for images that contain little detail.

• #87 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  This may explain increased attention to miniscule defects, and the subsequent inability to see them as inconsequential relative to the body as a whole. […] In sum, there is evidence in BDD of abnormal holistic and configural visual processing. […] The brains of people with BDD may not provide adequate visual “templates” for them to integrate and contextualize details such as minor flaws or imperfections, which could contribute to distortions in perceptions. […] This might result in poor insight about their illness, and a desire to pursue cosmetic solutions to try to fix (mis)perceived physical appearance problems. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD.

• #88 (PDF) The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder

  https://www.academia.edu/27822048/The_pathophysiology_of_body_dysmorphic_disorder

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an often severe and disabling condition, affecting up to 2% of the population. […] However, clues to its possible neurobiological substrates and abnormalities in information processing are starting to emerge. […] There is likely a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks underlying the pathophysiology of BDD. A combination of dysfunctions in frontal-subcortical circuits, temporal, parietal, and limbic structures, and possibly involving hemispheric imbalances in information processing, may produce both the characteristic symptoms and neurocognitive deficits seen in BDD. […] This suggests that BDD patients might have pathological hyperactivation of limbic structures that mediate disgust and aversion to visual stimuli, such as the insula and amygdala.

• #89 (PDF) The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder

  https://www.academia.edu/27822048/The_pathophysiology_of_body_dysmorphic_disorder

  A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyperresponsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD. […] There is evidence of neurobiological abnormalities associated with symptoms in BDD, although research to date is still limited. […] We propose a model in which visual perceptual abnormalities, along with frontostriatal and limbic system dysfunction, may combine to contribute to the symptoms of impaired insight, obsessive thoughts, and compulsive behaviors expressed in BDD. […] The cognitive assessment demonstrated deficits in executive functioning and facial affect perception, but not in general social cognition. […] The findings implicate frontal-amygdala and temporal-parietal pathology in BDD although neuroimaging studies are needed to confirm this speculation.

• #90 Abnormal Brain Network Organization in Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Neuropsychopharmacology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201318

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is characterized by preoccupation with misperceived defects of appearance, causing significant distress and disability. […] Previous studies suggest abnormalities in information processing characterized by greater local relative to global processing. […] Results suggest disturbances in whole brain structural topological organization in BDD, in addition to correlations between clinical symptoms and network organization. […] There is also evidence of abnormal connectivity between regions involved in lower-order visual processing and higher-order visual and emotional processing, as well as interhemispheric visual information transfer. […] Thus, structural network topology may provide indirect information about functional organization in BDD. […] We hypothesized that the whole brain network organization in individuals with BDD would reflect highly localized information processing.

• #91 Abnormal Brain Network Organization in Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Neuropsychopharmacology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201318

  Higher MCC in BDD suggests a network organization in which local connections dominate. […] This is consistent with previous findings in BDD that provide evidence of greater local (relative to global) visual and visuospatial information processing. […] Higher MCC found in this study could reflect abnormal network organization across the whole brain, and could relate to these abnormalities in information processing. […] Individuals with BDD exhibit abnormal white matter brain network organization, as characterized by higher MCC compared with controls. […] In addition, global efficiency negatively correlates with BDD symptom severity. […] Individuals with BDD also demonstrate higher edge betweenness centrality for connections between anterior temporal and occipital regions, as well as between bilateral occipital poles.

• #92 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD

  https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/

  Inefficient connections between these brain regions may underlie impairments in visual, emotional, and possibly other types of information processing. […] Interactions between these aberrantly functioning brain systems, as well as possible abnormalities in neurotransmitter/neurochemical systems may contribute to many of the symptoms in BDD.

• #93 (PDF) The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder

  https://www.academia.edu/27822048/The_pathophysiology_of_body_dysmorphic_disorder

  A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyperresponsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD. […] There is evidence of neurobiological abnormalities associated with symptoms in BDD, although research to date is still limited. […] We propose a model in which visual perceptual abnormalities, along with frontostriatal and limbic system dysfunction, may combine to contribute to the symptoms of impaired insight, obsessive thoughts, and compulsive behaviors expressed in BDD. […] The cognitive assessment demonstrated deficits in executive functioning and facial affect perception, but not in general social cognition. […] The findings implicate frontal-amygdala and temporal-parietal pathology in BDD although neuroimaging studies are needed to confirm this speculation.

• #94 Body dysmorphic disorder: Epidemiology and pathogenesis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/body-dysmorphic-disorder-epidemiology-and-pathogenesis/print

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is characterized by excessive preoccupation with nonexistent or slight defects in physical appearance, such that patients believe they look abnormal, unattractive, ugly, or deformed, when in reality they look normal. […] This topic reviews the epidemiology and pathogenesis of BDD. […] By contrast, pharmacotherapy (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or clomipramine) and/or cognitive-behavioral therapy tailored specifically to BDD are often efficacious.

• #95 The Mirror Lies: Body Dysmorphic Disorder | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0715/p217.html

  One small study found that serotonin transporter promoter genes tend to be shorter in persons with BDD compared with the general population. […] Newer medications were tried when the central role of serotoninergic neurotransmission in the manifestation of obsessive thinking and compulsive behavior became clearer. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been shown to effectively treat OCD. […] The SSRIs were shown to reduce symptoms and subjective distress in 63 to 73 percent of patients. […] The limitations of SSRIs are evident, but they may provide relief in combination with psychotherapy. Promising psychotherapeutic approaches include cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), which appears to be a particularly useful adjunct to pharmacotherapy.

• #96 What Is Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/mental-health-conditions/body-dysmorphic-disorder/

  Although no medications are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for body dysmorphic disorder, medications such as antidepressants can help manage symptoms. A class of antidepressants called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may be particularly effective for body dysmorphic disorder because the condition is thought to be related to issues with the brain chemical serotonin. […] The root cause isn’t fully known, there’s currently no way to prevent or reduce risk of body dysmorphic disorder. But with treatment, it’s possible to manage the symptoms. […] Body dysmorphic disorder tends to get worse over time if it’s not treated.

• #97 Body dysmorphic disorder: Epidemiology and pathogenesis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/body-dysmorphic-disorder-epidemiology-and-pathogenesis/print

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is characterized by excessive preoccupation with nonexistent or slight defects in physical appearance, such that patients believe they look abnormal, unattractive, ugly, or deformed, when in reality they look normal. […] This topic reviews the epidemiology and pathogenesis of BDD. […] By contrast, pharmacotherapy (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or clomipramine) and/or cognitive-behavioral therapy tailored specifically to BDD are often efficacious.

• #98 The Mirror Lies: Body Dysmorphic Disorder | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0715/p217.html

  One small study found that serotonin transporter promoter genes tend to be shorter in persons with BDD compared with the general population. […] Newer medications were tried when the central role of serotoninergic neurotransmission in the manifestation of obsessive thinking and compulsive behavior became clearer. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been shown to effectively treat OCD. […] The SSRIs were shown to reduce symptoms and subjective distress in 63 to 73 percent of patients. […] The limitations of SSRIs are evident, but they may provide relief in combination with psychotherapy. Promising psychotherapeutic approaches include cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), which appears to be a particularly useful adjunct to pharmacotherapy.

• #99 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) – HelpGuide.org

  https://www.helpguide.org/mental-health/anxiety/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd

  While there arent any medications to specifically treat BDD, research has shown that serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant, may help ease the obsessive thoughts and behaviors that are hallmarks of BDD. They may also reduce the symptoms of anxiety and depression that often co-occur with BDD. With your mind more at ease, you may find it easier to engage with CBT.

• #100 The Mirror Lies: Body Dysmorphic Disorder | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0715/p217.html

  One small study found that serotonin transporter promoter genes tend to be shorter in persons with BDD compared with the general population. […] Newer medications were tried when the central role of serotoninergic neurotransmission in the manifestation of obsessive thinking and compulsive behavior became clearer. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have been shown to effectively treat OCD. […] The SSRIs were shown to reduce symptoms and subjective distress in 63 to 73 percent of patients. […] The limitations of SSRIs are evident, but they may provide relief in combination with psychotherapy. Promising psychotherapeutic approaches include cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), which appears to be a particularly useful adjunct to pharmacotherapy.

• #101 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Effective Solutions | The Gateway Institute

  https://www.gatewayocd.com/related-conditions/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd/

  Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where you have a distorted view of your appearance. You may be excessively fixated on a perceived flaw that others dont see or find minor. This can cause significant distress and interfere with your daily life. […] In BDD, the focus is on a perceived flaw, and the behaviors may not necessarily reduce anxiety, but rather reinforce the obsession with appearance. […] Therapy, particularly Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), can be very effective in treating people with Body Dysmorphic Disorder. […] Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): This therapy helps identify negative thoughts about your appearance and develop coping mechanisms to manage them. […] Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP): This therapy involves gradually exposing yourself to situations that trigger your BDD worries and practicing resisting compulsive behaviors. […] Medication: In some cases, medication can help manage symptoms of anxiety and depression often associated with BDD.

• #102 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) – HelpGuide.org

  https://www.helpguide.org/mental-health/anxiety/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd

  Some people with BDD also have eating disorders. This can include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Individuals with both BDD and eating disorders have persistent negative thoughts about their appearance and how it defines their perceptions of self-worth. Nonetheless, there are also distinctions between these disorders. A diagnosis of an eating disorder must include abnormal eating behaviors, which is not a requirement of a diagnosis of BDD. […] Treatment for body dysmorphic disorder includes both individual and group therapy as well as medication. […] Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the only psychological treatment for BDD supported by research. It focuses on changing the thought and behavior patterns triggered by the condition. Your therapist will help you identify situations that cause anxiety and develop healthier coping mechanisms. Through CBT, you can learn to step outside of yourself and view your body through a more objective and forgiving lens.

• #103 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Effective Solutions | The Gateway Institute

  https://www.gatewayocd.com/related-conditions/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd/

  Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where you have a distorted view of your appearance. You may be excessively fixated on a perceived flaw that others dont see or find minor. This can cause significant distress and interfere with your daily life. […] In BDD, the focus is on a perceived flaw, and the behaviors may not necessarily reduce anxiety, but rather reinforce the obsession with appearance. […] Therapy, particularly Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), can be very effective in treating people with Body Dysmorphic Disorder. […] Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): This therapy helps identify negative thoughts about your appearance and develop coping mechanisms to manage them. […] Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP): This therapy involves gradually exposing yourself to situations that trigger your BDD worries and practicing resisting compulsive behaviors. […] Medication: In some cases, medication can help manage symptoms of anxiety and depression often associated with BDD.

• #104 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/body-dysmorphic-disorder-pro

  ERP is a technique in which patients are repeatedly exposed to the situation causing them anxiety (eg, exposure to dirt) and are prevented from performing repetitive actions which lessens that anxiety (eg, washing their hands). This method is only used after extensive counselling and discussion with the patient, who knows fully what to expect. After an initial increase in anxiety, the level gradually decreases. This is extremely therapeutic, as the patient feels that they have confronted their worst fears without anything terrible happening. […] Patients with BDD do not usually benefit from surgical treatment.

• #105 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – 44/2022 – Hogrefe Publishing

  https://www.hogrefe.com/us/shop/body-dysmorphic-disorder.html

  This volume provides a user-friendly, evidence-based guide to the diagnosis, phenomenology, etiology, and treatment of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). […] The authors outline step-by-step instructions for numerous novel and advanced treatment strategies, including perceptual re-training, attentional training, acceptance and commitment approaches, and ways to manage ongoing desire for cosmetic surgery. […] Written for both practicing clinicians and students, this book offers the reader a thoughtful, in-depth conceptualization of this complex and often misunderstood psychiatric illness. Steeped in evidence-based theory and treatment, the authors highlight utilization of a multimodal psychotherapeutic approach with particular attention given to cognitive-behavioral therapy, widely recognized as the gold standard for body dysmorphic disorder.

• #106 Body dysmorphic disorder in men

  https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2015/november/body-dysmorphic-disorder-in-men

  BDD is a frequently under-recognised psychiatric condition. It is characterised by a preoccupation with one or more perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance that appear slight or are not observable to others, and repetitive behaviours or mental acts related to the perceived flaw(s). […] The factors contributing to the onset and maintenance of BDD are unclear, although neurobiological and sociocultural factors are likely to contribute. […] Given the nature of BDD, sociocultural influences are often considered to play a key role in its development. […] Muscle dysmorphia is a variant of BDD, which is characterised by a perceived lack of muscularity, and largely affects males. […] The most effective treatment approach for BDD is a combination of psychological and pharmacological interventions. […] Comorbid psychiatric conditions also need to be addressed. […] Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is the most studied of the psychological interventions deployed to attempt to treat BDD.

• #107 Common Myths About Body Dysmorphic Disorder – Center For Discovery

  https://centerfordiscovery.com/blog/common-myths-body-dysmorphic-disorder/

  BDD is about persistent thoughts associated with perceived flaws that can consume an individual struggling to the point that they affect daily life. Obsessional worries, intrusive thoughts, and repetitive behaviors related to appearance are often in seen in both eating disorders and BDD and therefore it is essential to understand that body dysmorphia can play a role in a client’s eating disorder, which can be an integral component of the treatment plan. […] Body dysmorphia disorder tends to grow stronger with time, and leaving this disorder untreated can have serious consequences. A 2007 study revealed that nearly 80 percent of individuals diagnosed with body dysmorphic disorder experience lifetime suicidal ideations. Around 24 to 28 percent actually attempt suicide indicating this mental illness can be a lifelong issue that presents severe threats to an individual’s wellness regardless of their age. […] To effectively treat this disorder and maintain long-lasting healing, the emotions underneath the diagnoses must be addressed. Cognitive behavioral therapy and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are recommended as the first-line and most effective therapy for this disorder.

• #108 The Pathophysiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3836287/

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an often severe and disabling condition, affecting up to 2% of the population. […] Very little is known about the etiology or pathophysiology of BDD, as few studies have addressed this directly. This review of the pathophysiology of BDD explores what has been elucidated thus far from research on the genetics, neuroanatomy, neuropsychology, and psychopharmacology of BDD, as well as secondary BDD symptoms resulting from brain damage and medical illnesses. […] There is likely a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks underlying the pathophysiology of BDD. A combination of dysfunctions in frontal-subcortical circuits, temporal, parietal, and limbic structures, and possibly involving hemispheric imbalances in information processing, may produce both the characteristic symptoms and neurocognitive deficits seen in BDD.

• #109 The Pathophysiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3836287/

  The pathophysiology of BDD likely involves a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks. Hemispheric imbalance may also play a crucial role. […] Dysfunction in frontal-striatal circuits may also be involved in the pathophysiology of BDD. […] In idiopathic BDD, the specific structures involved are likely to be those that mediate body image, self-recognition, and perceptual distortions, such as the right PHG, dorsal occipital cortex, temporo-parieto-occipital junction, fusiform gyrus, IPL, IFG, and DLPFC. […] A combination of frontal-striatal circuit dysfunction, hemispheric imbalances, and hyper-responsiveness of the amygdala and insula may be involved in mediating the symptoms and neuropsychological deficits of BDD.

• #110 (PDF) The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder

  https://www.academia.edu/27822048/The_pathophysiology_of_body_dysmorphic_disorder

  These findings may be interpreted as further evidence for the inclusion of BDD among a group of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. […] Further research is necessary to confirm these preliminary findings, to extend them, and to clarify their significance with respect to the etiology and pathophysiology of BDD.

• #111 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/

  The current understanding of the pathophysiology of BDD is limited. No specific biomarkers are currently available. Some biological findings have been identified as potential clues to identify the illness. Overlapping features discovered from studies of OCD have also provided some insight. Neuroanatomic findings for BDD are inconsistent. Findings of magnetic resonance studies are increased total white matter volume, a leftward shift in caudate volume asymmetry, smaller orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate volume combined with larger thalamic volumes in patients with BDD compared to controls. White matter fiber disorganization in tracts connecting visual processing and emotion and memory processing could explain the severity level of delusional preoccupation, an example of poor insight with misperceived appearance defects.

• #112 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/20800

  Body dysmorphic disorder develops from psychological, social, and biological factors. High-quality studies investigating the pathogenesis of BDD are limited and small. Neuroimaging findings discovered in studies could be etiologic findings or sequelae from the disease process. One preliminary candidate gene study of 57 subjects with BDD matched with 58 healthy controls demonstrated that the GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) receptor gene occurred more frequently in subjects with BDD than in the controls. […] The heritability of BDD, investigated through twin studies, revealed an estimated 43% genetic contribution for BDD. The remaining contributors are psychological and environmental. A history of physical or sexual abuse may contribute to the development of BDD. […] The current understanding of the pathophysiology of BDD is limited. No specific biomarkers are currently available. Some biological findings have been identified as potential clues to identify the illness. Overlapping features discovered from studies of OCD have also provided some insight. Neuroanatomic findings for BDD are inconsistent.

• #113 (PDF) The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder

  https://www.academia.edu/27822048/The_pathophysiology_of_body_dysmorphic_disorder

  These findings may be interpreted as further evidence for the inclusion of BDD among a group of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. […] Further research is necessary to confirm these preliminary findings, to extend them, and to clarify their significance with respect to the etiology and pathophysiology of BDD.

• #114 The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder | CoLab

  https://colab.ws/articles/10.1016%2Fj.bodyim.2007.11.002

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an often severe and disabling condition, affecting up to 2% of the population. […] Despite its prevalence and clinical significance, very little is known about the pathophysiology of BDD. […] However, clues to its possible neurobiological substrates and abnormalities in information processing are starting to emerge. […] There is likely a complex interplay of dysfunctions in several brain networks underlying the pathophysiology of BDD. […] A combination of dysfunctions in frontal-subcortical circuits, temporal, parietal, and limbic structures, and possibly involving hemispheric imbalances in information processing, may produce both the characteristic symptoms and neurocognitive deficits seen in BDD. […] An improved understanding of the pathophysiology of BDD will be crucial to guide the development of better treatments.

• #115

  https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10204061/

  Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an obsessivecompulsive disorder-related psychiatric condition characterized by an intense preoccupation with perceived physical flaws that are not observable by others. […] Research on the aetiology of BDD is scarce but likely involves an interplay between genetic and environmental factors. A few studies suggest functional and structural brain differences (compared with controls) in the regions involved in visual and emotional processing, although firm conclusions about the pathophysiology of the disorder cannot be made at this stage. […] Future research should focus on understanding the biological and environmental factors that increase the risk of BDD, and on improving access to effective treatments, thereby addressing a critical gap in care for this often misunderstood and overlooked disorder.

• #116 Digital Innovation in Body Dysmorphic Disorder Therapy: Improving Access and Understanding Mechanism | UCL Grand Challenges – UCL – University College London

  https://www.ucl.ac.uk/grand-challenges/case-studies/2025/apr/digital-innovation-body-dysmorphic-disorder-therapy-improving-access-and

  This project aims to adapt and pilot a novel digitally-enabled therapy tailored for university students with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). […] A secondary aim is to develop and test a gamified digital tool to measure behavioural avoidance, a key mechanism hypothesised to underlie BDD. […] This work will be foundational for developing a larger programme of research aimed at generating a step-change in care for individuals with BDD, and producing key insights into processes driving therapeutic change.

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