Zaburzenie dysmorfii ciała
Etiologia i przyczyny

Zaburzenie dysmorfii ciała (BDD) charakteryzuje się uporczywym zamartwianiem się minimalnymi lub niewidocznymi defektami wyglądu zewnętrznego. Etiologia BDD jest wieloczynnikowa, obejmując komponent genetyczny (42-44% zmienności objawów przypisywane czynnikom genetycznym), neurobiologiczny (zmiany w istocie szarej i białej, hipoaktywność kory wzrokowej i regionów potylicznych), oraz neurochemiczny (zaburzenia funkcjonowania układu serotoninergicznego). W badaniu genów kandydackich wykazano częstsze występowanie genu receptora GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) u pacjentów z BDD, a także potencjalną rolę mutacji w genie transportera serotoniny. Czynniki środowiskowe, takie jak nadużycia w dzieciństwie, dokuczanie i presja społeczna, zwłaszcza w okresie dojrzewania, również odgrywają istotną rolę w patogenezie zaburzenia. Wysoka wrażliwość estetyczna, perfekcjonizm, niska samoocena i neurotyczność predysponują do rozwoju BDD, które często współwystępuje z OCD, zaburzeniami lękowymi i depresją.

Etiologia zaburzenia dysmorfii ciała (BDD)

Zaburzenie dysmorfii ciała (BDD) to zaburzenie psychiczne charakteryzujące się uporczywym zamartwianiem się jedną lub wieloma dostrzeganymi wadami w wyglądzie zewnętrznym, które są minimalne lub niewidoczne dla innych osób. Dokładna etiologia BDD nie jest w pełni poznana, jednak badania sugerują, że choroba ta może być wynikiem złożonej interakcji czynników biologicznych, psychologicznych i środowiskowych.12

Czynniki genetyczne i dziedziczność

Istnieją dowody na komponent genetyczny w rozwoju zaburzenia dysmorfii ciała. Badania wykazały, że około 8% osób z BDD ma członka rodziny pierwszego stopnia również z diagnozą BDD, co stanowi około 38 razy wyższą częstość występowania niż w populacji ogólnej.34 Badania bliźniąt wykazały, że czynniki genetyczne odpowiadają za około 42-44% zmienności w objawach BDD, potwierdzając istotny wkład genów w rozwój tego zaburzenia.56

Osoby mające krewnych z BDD, zaburzeniami obsesyjno-kompulsywnymi (OCD) lub depresją są bardziej narażone na rozwój tego zaburzenia.78 Jedno wstępne badanie genów kandydackich obejmujące 57 osób z BDD i 58 zdrowych osób z grupy kontrolnej wykazało, że gen receptora GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) występował częściej u osób z BDD niż w grupie kontrolnej.9 Inne badania sugerują, że mutacje w genie transportera serotoniny mogą również przyczyniać się do rozwoju BDD.10

Czynniki neurobiologiczne

Badania neurobiologiczne sugerują, że występują zmiany w strukturze i funkcjonowaniu mózgu u osób z BDD. Osoby cierpiące na to zaburzenie często wykazują nieprawidłowości w objętościach istoty szarej i zmniejszoną integralność istoty białej.11 Ponadto zaobserwowano nieprawidłowe połączenia istoty białej mózgu („okablowanie”) u osób z BDD.12

Badania z wykorzystaniem funkcjonalnego rezonansu magnetycznego (fMRI) u osób z BDD wykazały zmienioną aktywność w prawej półkuli mózgu oraz hipoaktywność w układach kory wzrokowej i regionach potylicznych, co może wpływać na percepcję wzrokową i/lub przetwarzanie przestrzenno-wzrokowe.13 Nieefektywne połączenia między tymi regionami mózgu mogą leżeć u podstaw zaburzeń w przetwarzaniu informacji wizualnych, emocjonalnych i potencjalnie innych typów.14

Zaburzenia neuroprzekaźników

Istnieją dowody sugerujące rolę serotoniny w BDD. Badania wykazały pośrednie dowody nieprawidłowego funkcjonowania serotoniny u osób z BDD, co odzwierciedla się w zmniejszonej gęstości wiązania serotoniny.15 Liczne badania leczenia z wykorzystaniem inhibitorów wychwytu zwrotnego serotoniny wykazały, że leki te znacząco zmniejszają objawy BDD.16

Należy jednak zauważyć, że chociaż te obserwacje sugerują, że serotonina może odgrywać rolę w BDD, nie dowodzi to, że pacjenci z BDD mają niskie poziomy serotoniny ani że nieprawidłowe poziomy serotoniny powodują BDD. Leki wpływające na układ serotoninergiczny mogą po prostu prowadzić do zmniejszenia objawów, a nie „korygować” podstawowy nieprawidłowy proces.1718

Czynniki rozwojowe i doświadczenia życiowe

Czynniki rozwojowe w BDD są stosunkowo słabo zbadane w porównaniu z innymi zaburzeniami o podobnej częstości występowania. Istnieją jednak wstępne dowody sugerujące, że wykorzystywanie seksualne, emocjonalne i fizyczne w dzieciństwie może być związane z BDD.1920 Wysokie wskaźniki nadużyć i zaniedbań w dzieciństwie są powiązane z BDD.21

BDD najczęściej pojawia się w okresie dojrzewania, czasie przyspieszonego rozwoju w zmianach wyglądu fizycznego i środowisku hormonalnym. Te czynniki mogą potencjalnie przyczyniać się do rozwoju BDD, chociaż nie były one jeszcze bezpośrednio badane.2223

Czynniki społeczne i kulturowe

Interakcje społeczne mogą być znaczącym źródłem przeciwności w dzieciństwie. Dokuczanie związane z fizycznymi stygmatami, takimi jak trądzik, może mieć długotrwały wpływ na jednostkę, negatywnie wpływając na jej myśli i emocje.24 Badania sugerują, że narażenie na zastraszanie, krytykę wyglądu i doświadczenia odrzucenia mają wpływ na rozwój BDD.25

Zachodnie standardy piękna i presja społeczna mogą wyzwalać BDD u podatnych osób.26 Socjokulturowa teoria samooceny stwierdza, że komunikaty przekazywane przez media i rówieśników o znaczeniu wyglądu są internalizowane przez jednostki, które przyjmują standardy piękna innych jako własne.27

Nadmierne korzystanie z mediów społecznościowych i „robienie selfie” może przekładać się na niską samoocenę i tendencje do zaburzeń dysmorficznych ciała. Ze względu na nadmierne korzystanie z mediów społecznościowych i robienie selfie, jednostki mogą być nadmiernie zaabsorbowane prezentowaniem idealnego zdjęcia dla publiczności.2829

Czynniki osobowościowe

Chociaż przeciwności w dzieciństwie jako czynnik ryzyka są stosunkowo niespecyficzne, zwiększona wrażliwość estetyczna może być bardziej specyficzna dla BDD. Wrażliwość estetyczna odnosi się do świadomości i doceniania piękna i harmonii, w tym symetrii, przeciętności, drugorzędnych cech płciowych i ogólnej atrakcyjności.30

Osoby z pewnymi cechami osobowości, takimi jak perfekcjonizm, wysoki poziom samokrytycyzmu, niska samoocena oraz wysoki poziom neurotyczności, mogą być bardziej podatne na rozwój BDD.3132 Teorie poznawcze sugerują również, że osoby z BDD mają dysfunkcyjne przekonania, że ich wartość jest nieodłącznie związana z ich atrakcyjnością i traktują atrakcyjność jako jedną z ich podstawowych wartości.33

Choroby współwystępujące

BDD często współwystępuje z innymi zaburzeniami psychicznymi. Osoby z BDD często mają co najmniej jedno inne zaburzenie psychiczne jednocześnie. Szczególnie często osoba z dysmorfią ciała może mieć zaburzenie obsesyjno-kompulsywne (OCD), zaburzenie lękowe społeczne (SAD) lub zaburzenie odżywiania, takie jak anoreksja (AN).34

Zaburzenia zdrowia psychicznego, takie jak lęk, depresja i OCD są ściśle powiązane z BDD. Osoby z BDD doświadczają depresji, tworząc cykl negatywnych myśli o wyglądzie i cierpienia emocjonalnego.35 U wielu osób z BDD wcześniejszy lęk społeczny poprzedza BDD.36

Model przyczynowy BDD

Na podstawie dostępnych badań można zaproponować wstępny model etiologiczny BDD. Wkład różnych potencjalnych czynników etiologicznych i patofizjologicznych w rozwój i utrzymywanie się BDD oraz innych, jeszcze niezidentyfikowanych, pozostaje niejasny.37

Wstępny, hipotetyczny model obejmuje złożoną interakcję, w której genetyczne i biologiczne podatności oddziałują z wydarzeniami środowiskowymi, takimi jak dokuczanie lub nadużycia.38 To prowadzi do rozwoju zniekształceń poznawczych i następnie wyuczonych zachowań, które skutkują objawami BDD.

Model poznawczo-behawioralny i uczenie się mogą dostarczyć sformułowania, w jaki sposób czynniki biologiczne, kulturowe i społeczne prowadzą do rozwoju i utrzymywania się BDD, i opierają się na warunkowaniu klasycznym i instrumentalnym.39

Po ustaleniu objawów BDD i rozwoju przekonań, założeń i wartości związanych z wyglądem, postawiono hipotezę, że wtórne warunkowanie instrumentalne w formie negatywnego wzmocnienia służy do utrzymania nieprzystosowawczych zachowań i poznania.40

Integracja czynników w modelu przyczynowym

Próby zintegrowania tych ustaleń prowadzą do złożonego proponowanego modelu, który implikuje dysfunkcję mózgu i neurochemię w rozwoju BDD.41 Interakcje między tymi nieprawidłowo funkcjonującymi systemami mózgowymi, a także możliwe nieprawidłowości w systemach neuroprzekaźników/neurochemicznych, mogą przyczyniać się do wielu objawów BDD.42

Biorąc pod uwagę ograniczoną bazę badawczą, model ten, chociaż odzwierciedla dostępne dowody badawcze, służy przede wszystkim funkcji heurystycznej.43 Przyszłe badania powinny koncentrować się na lepszym zrozumieniu złożonych interakcji między tymi czynnikami w celu opracowania bardziej skutecznych strategii leczenia zaburzenia dysmorfii ciała.

Implikacje kliniczne

Zrozumienie etiologii BDD ma kluczowe znaczenie dla skutecznej diagnozy i leczenia. Zaburzenie dysmorfii ciała jest niedostatecznie rozpoznawane, a pacjenci często odwiedzają kliniki dermatologiczne i chirurgii plastycznej, aby naprawić swoje postrzegane wady.44

Zrozumienie cech BDD i kryteriów diagnostycznych we wszystkich specjalnościach opieki zdrowotnej pomaga zwiększyć świadomość i rozpoznanie tego stanu. Nieleczone BDD może prowadzić do ciężkiej depresji, a nawet myśli samobójczych i nie powinno być ignorowane.4546

Obecne podejścia do leczenia BDD obejmują terapię poznawczo-behawioralną dostosowaną specjalnie do zaburzenia dysmorfii ciała i/lub farmakoterapię z inhibitorem wychwytu zwrotnego serotoniny (SSRI) lub klomipraminą, często w stosunkowo wysokich dawkach.47 Badania wykazują, że im wcześniej rozpocznie się leczenie, tym większa szansa na kontrolowanie objawów i powrót do zdrowia.48

Chociaż nie ma leków zatwierdzonych przez FDA specjalnie do leczenia BDD, selektywne inhibitory wychwytu zwrotnego serotoniny (SSRI) są uważane za leczenie pierwszego rzutu dla BDD.49 Leki te pomagają regulować poziom serotoniny, który może być zaburzony u osób z BDD.50

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  1. 09.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    The etiology and pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), as with most psychiatric disorders, is likely complex. Because research is limited, the causative and contributory factors to the development of BDD are unclear. Yet there is emerging evidence from research studies of various factors that may contribute to the development and maintenance of BDD symptoms. […] This review of the etiology and pathophysiology of BDD explores what has been elucidated thus far from research on developmental, psychosocial, cognitive and behavioral, neuropsychological, and neurobiological (visual processing, neuroanatomical, genetic, and neurochemical) factors. We explore submodels of BDD within these domains, and we synthesize these to generate an overarching, yet preliminary, model of the etiological and pathophysiological processes that appear to contribute to the development and maintenance of BDD. This model involves a context of likely biological and genetic susceptibility upon which adverse life events interact with cognitive distortions and subsequent learned behavior to result in BDD symptoms. Given the limited research base, this model while reflecting available research evidence serves primarily a heuristic function.
  • #2 Body dysmorphic disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/body-dysmorphic-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20353938
    Body dysmorphic disorder is a mental health condition in which you can’t stop thinking about one or more perceived defects or flaws in your appearance a flaw that appears minor or can’t be seen by others. […] It’s not known specifically what causes body dysmorphic disorder. Like many other mental health conditions, body dysmorphic disorder may result from a combination of issues, such as a family history of the disorder, negative evaluations or experiences about your body or self-image, and abnormal brain function or abnormal levels of the brain chemical called serotonin. […] Certain factors seem to increase the risk of developing or triggering body dysmorphic disorder, including: Having blood relatives with body dysmorphic disorder or obsessive-compulsive disorder, Negative life experiences, such as childhood teasing, neglect or abuse, Certain personality traits, such as perfectionism, Societal pressure or expectations of beauty, Having another mental health condition, such as anxiety or depression.
  • #3 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Susceptibility for BDD may be heritable. This is evidenced by the observation that 8% of individuals with BDD have a first-degree family member with a lifetime diagnosis of BDD, which is about 38 times the prevalence in the general population. […] There is some preliminary evidence suggesting a role for serotonin function in BDD. […] Attempts to integrate these findings result in a complex proposed model that implicates brain dysfunction and neurochemistry in the development of BDD. […] The contribution of these different putative etiological and pathophysiologic factors to BDD’s development and maintenance, and others yet to be identified, remains unclear. A preliminary, hypothetical model involves a complex interplay in which genetic and biological susceptibilities interact with environmental events, such as teasing or abuse.
  • #4 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Multiple treatment studies using medications called serotonin reuptake inhibitors showed that they significantly decrease BDD symptoms. […] Yet, although these observations suggest that serotonin might play a role in BDD, it does not prove that BDD patients have low serotonin levels or that abnormal serotonin levels cause BDD, since medications that affect the serotonergic system may simply lead to symptom reduction rather than “correcting” an underlying abnormal process. […] There have not been many genetic studies in BDD. […] However, there is evidence that BDD is heritable. […] Eight percent of individuals with BDD have a family member also diagnosed with BDD – a rate 3 to 5 times higher than in the general population. […] A study of female twins found that genes accounted for about 44% of the propensity for dysmorphic worries.
  • #5 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD. […] Inefficient connections between these brain regions may underlie impairments in visual, emotional, and possibly other types of information processing. […] Interactions between these aberrantly functioning brain systems, as well as possible abnormalities in neurotransmitter/neurochemical systems may contribute to many of the symptoms in BDD.
  • #6 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Body-Dysmorphic-Disorder.aspx
    Body dysmorphia, which is also called body dysmorphic disorder, is an anxiety-related psychiatric condition that is characterized by an intrusive and persistent pre-occupation with an imagined or unnoticeable flaw in appearance. […] Researchers have yet to discover the exact cause leading to the development of body dysmorphia. However, a wide array of empirical studies suggest that the development of such condition could be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. […] Studies primarily show that individuals who have relatives with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or depression are more likely to develop body dysmorphia. Also, individuals suffering from other mental disorders are also prone to this condition. Twin studies show that genetics could account for 42-44% of the variation in body dysmorphia symptoms.
  • #7 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9888-body-dysmorphic-disorder
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition that causes you to view your own physical appearance unfairly. […] Experts dont fully understand how or why BDD happens, but they suspect it involves multiple factors, including: […] Genetics: Youre much more likely between three and eight times more to develop BDD if a first-degree relative (meaning a child, biological parent or biological sibling) has it. […] Brain structure, chemistry and activity differences: People with BDD often have brain areas that are too active or work differently than expected. Those differences make it hard to control thoughts and actions related to the condition. […] Cultural influences and popular media: Different cultures have different standards of beauty and appearance. Popular media, culture or a combination of the two can influence how BDD affects your thoughts or behaviors. […] A history of childhood abuse, neglect or bullying: A history of adverse childhood experiences means youre more likely to develop BDD. A history of being bullied or teased can also increase your risk of developing it.
  • #8 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) – NHS
    https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/body-dysmorphia/
    It’s not known exactly what causes body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), but it might be associated with: […] genetics you may be more likely to develop BDD if you have a relative with BDD, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) or depression […] a chemical imbalance in the brain […] a traumatic experience in the past you may be more likely to develop BDD if you were teased, bullied or abused when you were a child.
  • #9 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/
    Body dysmorphic disorder develops from psychological, social, and biological factors. High-quality studies investigating the pathogenesis of BDD are limited and small. Neuroimaging findings discovered in studies could be etiologic findings or sequelae from the disease process. One preliminary candidate gene study of 57 subjects with BDD matched with 58 healthy controls demonstrated that the GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) receptor gene occurred more frequently in subjects with BDD than in the controls. The heritability of BDD, investigated through twin studies, revealed an estimated 43% genetic contribution for BDD. The remaining contributors are psychological and environmental. A history of physical or sexual abuse may contribute to the development of BDD. Individuals who report lower levels of perceived parental care in childhood or a history of parental neglect have a higher prevalence of BDD than controls. […] Body dysmorphic disorder is underrecognized, and affected patients visit dermatology and plastic surgery clinics to repair their perceived defects. Understanding BDD’s features and diagnostic criteria across all healthcare specialties helps increase awareness and recognition of the condition.
  • #10 What causes body dysmorphic disorder? – Examine
    https://examine.com/faq/what-causes-body-dysmorphic-disorder/?srsltid=AfmBOooytcCTX96R0dG90eEaHM4L1qDU53D2X02foqQBTFyOGpS2Ddwj
    Body dysmorphic disorder typically manifests during adolescence. It is not yet clear what exactly causes BDD, and its likely that multiple factors contribute to the development of the disorder. […] Research suggests a genetic (and thus hereditary) component in BDD because individuals are more susceptible to the disorder if they have a family member affected by BDD or OCD. So far, only a few gene mutations have been identified as potentially contributing to the development of BDD, and these mutations are located on the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A-2 gene and the serotonin transporter gene. […] Developmental factors (e.g., child emotional and/or physical abuse) and social factors (e.g., being bullied about a specific body flaw) may also contribute to the development of BDD, according to some studies. […] Furthermore, the involvement of the serotonin system in BDD is under investigation, with some studies showing that by modulating the serotonin response, BDD symptoms may be exacerbated or attenuated. However, a direct causal relationship between serotonin and BDD has yet to be established.
  • #11 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD. […] Inefficient connections between these brain regions may underlie impairments in visual, emotional, and possibly other types of information processing. […] Interactions between these aberrantly functioning brain systems, as well as possible abnormalities in neurotransmitter/neurochemical systems may contribute to many of the symptoms in BDD.
  • #12 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD. […] Inefficient connections between these brain regions may underlie impairments in visual, emotional, and possibly other types of information processing. […] Interactions between these aberrantly functioning brain systems, as well as possible abnormalities in neurotransmitter/neurochemical systems may contribute to many of the symptoms in BDD.
  • #13 Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Symptoms, causes, treatments, and your questions answered.
    https://examine.com/conditions/body-dysmorphic-disorder/?srsltid=AfmBOoqi3QAgYYOnOpp2I1imIaMk7BDOXJhZxJoD7keBwugy70HuFlbi
    Additionally, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been used to scan BDD subjects while they perform a photo match task. In these fMRI studies, participants with BDD showed altered activity in the right hemisphere of the brain, compared to participants without BDD, and hypoactivity in the visual cortical systems and occipital regions, which may affect visual perception and/or visuospatial processing. […] Furthermore, the involvement of the serotonin system in BDD is under investigation, with some studies showing that by modulating the serotonin response, BDD symptoms may be exacerbated or attenuated. However, a direct causal relationship between serotonin and BDD has yet to be established.
  • #14 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD. […] Inefficient connections between these brain regions may underlie impairments in visual, emotional, and possibly other types of information processing. […] Interactions between these aberrantly functioning brain systems, as well as possible abnormalities in neurotransmitter/neurochemical systems may contribute to many of the symptoms in BDD.
  • #15 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a psychiatric illness in which people misperceive defects in their appearance, disrupting their ability to function in their daily lives, with disturbing preoccupations, ritualistic behaviors, and emotional distress. […] Although the clinical symptoms of BDD are well-described, little is known about the causes or how the symptoms develop and progress over time. […] Researchers in recent years have begun to build knowledge about how BDD sufferers’ brains function. […] Neurochemical studies in BDD thus far have focused on the brain chemical serotonin and the hormone oxytocin. […] Only one study has directly examined serotonergic functioning in individuals with BDD compared with healthy controls. […] It found indirect evidence of abnormal serotonin function in those with BDD, as reflected by decreased serotonin binding densities.
  • #16 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Multiple treatment studies using medications called serotonin reuptake inhibitors showed that they significantly decrease BDD symptoms. […] Yet, although these observations suggest that serotonin might play a role in BDD, it does not prove that BDD patients have low serotonin levels or that abnormal serotonin levels cause BDD, since medications that affect the serotonergic system may simply lead to symptom reduction rather than “correcting” an underlying abnormal process. […] There have not been many genetic studies in BDD. […] However, there is evidence that BDD is heritable. […] Eight percent of individuals with BDD have a family member also diagnosed with BDD – a rate 3 to 5 times higher than in the general population. […] A study of female twins found that genes accounted for about 44% of the propensity for dysmorphic worries.
  • #17 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Multiple treatment studies using medications called serotonin reuptake inhibitors showed that they significantly decrease BDD symptoms. […] Yet, although these observations suggest that serotonin might play a role in BDD, it does not prove that BDD patients have low serotonin levels or that abnormal serotonin levels cause BDD, since medications that affect the serotonergic system may simply lead to symptom reduction rather than “correcting” an underlying abnormal process. […] There have not been many genetic studies in BDD. […] However, there is evidence that BDD is heritable. […] Eight percent of individuals with BDD have a family member also diagnosed with BDD – a rate 3 to 5 times higher than in the general population. […] A study of female twins found that genes accounted for about 44% of the propensity for dysmorphic worries.
  • #18 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): Symptoms, causes, and treatment
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/309254
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition in which a person worries excessively about a perceived flaw in their physical appearance. […] Doctors do not really know what causes BDD, but there are some possible reasons why it might happen. […] One small study has suggested that specific genetic factors may play a role. […] BDD often affects people who have a diagnosis of OCD or who have a relative with OCD. […] In a 2004 study where people did tasks involving drawing figures and viewing images, people with BDD were more likely to overfocus on details and perceive distortions than those without BDD. […] Scientists have found low serotonin levels in some people with BDD, but it is not clear what role serotonin plays, if any. […] According to one study, people who have experienced teasing or body shaming in the past may develop BDD. […] Teaching that places value on specific ideas of beauty may also contribute to the development of BDD, but more research is needed to confirm this.
  • #19 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Developmental factors in BDD are under-researched relative to other disorders of similar prevalence, and hence remain largely unknown. Nevertheless, there is preliminary evidence that sexual, emotional, and physical abuse in childhood may be associated with BDD. […] BDD most often begins in adolescence, a period in development of accelerated changes in physical appearance as well as hormonal milieu; these factors may potentially contribute to, or trigger, the development of BDD, but have yet to be studied directly. […] Social interactions can be a significant source of childhood adversity for some. Teasing related to physical stigmata, such as acne, may have a long-term impact on an individual, negatively affecting ones thoughts and emotions. […] While childhood adversity as a risk factor is relatively nonspecific, heightened aesthetic sensitivity may be more specific to BDD. Aesthetic sensitivity refers to awareness and appreciation of beauty and harmony and includes symmetry, averageness, secondary sexual characteristics, and general attractiveness.
  • #20 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), also known in some contexts as dysmorphophobia, is a mental disorder defined by an overwhelming preoccupation with a perceived flaw in one’s physical appearance. […] As with most mental disorders, BDD’s cause is likely intricate, altogether biopsychosocial, through an interaction of multiple factors, including genetic, developmental, psychological, social, and cultural. […] BDD usually develops during early adolescence, although many patients note earlier trauma, abuse, neglect, teasing, or bullying. […] In many cases, social anxiety earlier in life precedes BDD. […] Yet other factors may be introversion, negative body image, perfectionism, heightened aesthetic sensitivity, and childhood abuse and neglect. […] The development of body dysmorphia can stem from trauma caused by parents/guardians, family, or close friends.
  • #21 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) | Mental Health America
    https://www.mhanational.org/conditions/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where a person experiences heightened anxiety about at least one perceived flaw in their physical appearance. This flaw may or may not be observable to others. […] There is no one cause of BDD. But research suggests that exposure to bullying, critique of appearance and experiences of rejection have an influence. High rates of abuse and neglect during childhood have been associated with BDD. Also, the disorder is more likely to occur in individuals with relatives who have obsessive-compulsive disorder.
  • #22 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Developmental factors in BDD are under-researched relative to other disorders of similar prevalence, and hence remain largely unknown. Nevertheless, there is preliminary evidence that sexual, emotional, and physical abuse in childhood may be associated with BDD. […] BDD most often begins in adolescence, a period in development of accelerated changes in physical appearance as well as hormonal milieu; these factors may potentially contribute to, or trigger, the development of BDD, but have yet to be studied directly. […] Social interactions can be a significant source of childhood adversity for some. Teasing related to physical stigmata, such as acne, may have a long-term impact on an individual, negatively affecting ones thoughts and emotions. […] While childhood adversity as a risk factor is relatively nonspecific, heightened aesthetic sensitivity may be more specific to BDD. Aesthetic sensitivity refers to awareness and appreciation of beauty and harmony and includes symmetry, averageness, secondary sexual characteristics, and general attractiveness.
  • #23 Body Dysmorphic Disorder | Abnormal Psychology
    https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-abnormalpsych/chapter/body-dysmorphic-disorder/
    The cause of BDD is unknown. However, research shows that a number of things may be connected in influencing BDD: […] Low serotonin, one of the brains neurotransmitters that gives us mood and pain, may help cause body dysmorphic disorder. […] Many people with BDD also have OCD, where the person does things without wanting to. […] Many people with BDD also have generalized anxiety disorder. […] There is preliminary evidence that sexual, emotional, and physical abuse in childhood may be associated with BDD. […] It could be that these individuals are already predisposed to BDD and with the additional factors (childhood trauma, bullying, etc.) they are more likely to experience chronic symptoms, which untreated, lead to a full-blown diagnosis; however, these studies dont establish a causative role for childhood trauma in the development of BDD. […] BDD usually develops in adolescence, a time when people usually worry about their appearance the most.
  • #24 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Developmental factors in BDD are under-researched relative to other disorders of similar prevalence, and hence remain largely unknown. Nevertheless, there is preliminary evidence that sexual, emotional, and physical abuse in childhood may be associated with BDD. […] BDD most often begins in adolescence, a period in development of accelerated changes in physical appearance as well as hormonal milieu; these factors may potentially contribute to, or trigger, the development of BDD, but have yet to be studied directly. […] Social interactions can be a significant source of childhood adversity for some. Teasing related to physical stigmata, such as acne, may have a long-term impact on an individual, negatively affecting ones thoughts and emotions. […] While childhood adversity as a risk factor is relatively nonspecific, heightened aesthetic sensitivity may be more specific to BDD. Aesthetic sensitivity refers to awareness and appreciation of beauty and harmony and includes symmetry, averageness, secondary sexual characteristics, and general attractiveness.
  • #25 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) | Mental Health America
    https://www.mhanational.org/conditions/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health condition where a person experiences heightened anxiety about at least one perceived flaw in their physical appearance. This flaw may or may not be observable to others. […] There is no one cause of BDD. But research suggests that exposure to bullying, critique of appearance and experiences of rejection have an influence. High rates of abuse and neglect during childhood have been associated with BDD. Also, the disorder is more likely to occur in individuals with relatives who have obsessive-compulsive disorder.
  • #26 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) | Better Health Channel
    https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental illness characterised by constant worrying over a perceived or slight defect in appearance. […] The cause of BDD is unknown. Theories include: A person with BDD has a genetic tendency to develop this type of mental illness. The trigger may be the stress of adolescence. […] Particular drugs, such as ecstasy, may trigger onset in susceptible people. […] BDD could be caused by chemical imbalances in the brain. […] A person with low self-esteem who has impossible standards of perfection judges some part of their body as ugly. Over time, this behaviour becomes more and more compulsive. […] Western society’s narrow standards of beauty may trigger BDD in vulnerable people.
  • #27 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder
    Indeed, the researchers found that adults who had a history of emotional neglect as children were especially vulnerable to BDD, though other forms of abuse, including physical and sexual abuse, were also identified as significant risk factors. […] Constant use of social media and „selfie taking” may translate into low self-esteem and body dysmorphic tendencies. […] The sociocultural theory of self-esteem states that the messages given by media and peers about the importance of appearance are internalized by individuals who adopt others’ standards of beauty as their own. […] Due to excessive social media use and selfie taking, individuals may become preoccupied about presenting an ideal photograph for the public. […] Specifically, females’ mental health has been the most affected by persistent exposure to social media. […] This leads to attempts to conceal the defect such as seeking out surgeons to resolve the issue of perceived ugliness.
  • #28 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder
    Indeed, the researchers found that adults who had a history of emotional neglect as children were especially vulnerable to BDD, though other forms of abuse, including physical and sexual abuse, were also identified as significant risk factors. […] Constant use of social media and „selfie taking” may translate into low self-esteem and body dysmorphic tendencies. […] The sociocultural theory of self-esteem states that the messages given by media and peers about the importance of appearance are internalized by individuals who adopt others’ standards of beauty as their own. […] Due to excessive social media use and selfie taking, individuals may become preoccupied about presenting an ideal photograph for the public. […] Specifically, females’ mental health has been the most affected by persistent exposure to social media. […] This leads to attempts to conceal the defect such as seeking out surgeons to resolve the issue of perceived ugliness.
  • #29 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms, Causes, & Treatment
    https://laopcenter.com/mental-health/disorder/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd/
    Mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, and OCD are closely linked with BDD. Individuals with BDD experience depression, creating a cycle of negative thoughts about appearance and emotional distress. […] Finally, cultural influences significantly impact the development of BDD, particularly in societies that emphasize physical appearance. The media’s portrayal of unattainable beauty standards worsens body dissatisfaction, especially in individuals who internalize these ideals.
  • #30 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Developmental factors in BDD are under-researched relative to other disorders of similar prevalence, and hence remain largely unknown. Nevertheless, there is preliminary evidence that sexual, emotional, and physical abuse in childhood may be associated with BDD. […] BDD most often begins in adolescence, a period in development of accelerated changes in physical appearance as well as hormonal milieu; these factors may potentially contribute to, or trigger, the development of BDD, but have yet to be studied directly. […] Social interactions can be a significant source of childhood adversity for some. Teasing related to physical stigmata, such as acne, may have a long-term impact on an individual, negatively affecting ones thoughts and emotions. […] While childhood adversity as a risk factor is relatively nonspecific, heightened aesthetic sensitivity may be more specific to BDD. Aesthetic sensitivity refers to awareness and appreciation of beauty and harmony and includes symmetry, averageness, secondary sexual characteristics, and general attractiveness.
  • #31 What are the risk factors for developing BDD?
    https://www.kairoswellnesscollective.com/blog/what-are-the-risk-factors-for-developing-bdd-body-dysmorphic-disorder
    Personality Traits: People with certain personality traits, such as perfectionism, high levels of self-criticism, low self-esteem, and high levels of neuroticism, may be more susceptible to developing body dysmorphia. […] Negative Life Experiences: Traumatic experiences, emotional or physical abuse, bullying, or teasing related to appearance may contribute to the development of body dysmorphia. […] Social and Cultural Influences: Societal pressures, media ideals, and cultural norms that emphasize unrealistic beauty standards and the importance of appearance can contribute to body dissatisfaction and body dysmorphia. […] Early Life Influences: Experiencing early-life adversity or attachment issues may contribute to the development of body dysmorphia later in life. […] Body Image and Identity: People who have a strong focus on their physical appearance and derive a significant part of their identity and self-worth from their appearance may be at a higher risk of developing BDD. […] Emotional Regulation: BDD may be a way for some individuals to cope with or distract themselves from underlying emotional distress, anxiety, or other psychological difficulties.
  • #32 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), also known in some contexts as dysmorphophobia, is a mental disorder defined by an overwhelming preoccupation with a perceived flaw in one’s physical appearance. […] As with most mental disorders, BDD’s cause is likely intricate, altogether biopsychosocial, through an interaction of multiple factors, including genetic, developmental, psychological, social, and cultural. […] BDD usually develops during early adolescence, although many patients note earlier trauma, abuse, neglect, teasing, or bullying. […] In many cases, social anxiety earlier in life precedes BDD. […] Yet other factors may be introversion, negative body image, perfectionism, heightened aesthetic sensitivity, and childhood abuse and neglect. […] The development of body dysmorphia can stem from trauma caused by parents/guardians, family, or close friends.
  • #33 5.2: Body Dysmorphic Disorder – Social Sci LibreTexts
    https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Psychology/Psychological_Disorders/Essentials_of_Abnormal_Psychology_(Bridley_and_Daffin)/05%3A_Obsessive-Compulsive_and_Related_Disorders/5.02%3A_Body_Dysmorphic_Disorder
    Cognitive theories have also proposed that individuals with BDD have dysfunctional beliefs that their worth is inherently tied to their attractiveness and hold attractiveness as one of their primary core values. […] These beliefs are further reinforced by our society, which overly values and emphasizes beauty.
  • #34 Body Dysmorphia: How It Feels, Examples, Finding Relief
    https://www.verywellhealth.com/body-dysmorphia-5272235
    Comorbid conditions: Many people with BDD have at least one other mental health condition at the same time. It’s especially common for someone with body dysmorphia to have obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), social anxiety disorder (SAD), or an eating disorder, such as anorexia nervosa (AN). […] Researchers believe that BDD is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Many people with BDD have been bullied about their looks. A history of trauma, such as child abuse, also increases the likelihood of developing BDD.
  • #35 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Symptoms, Causes, & Treatment
    https://laopcenter.com/mental-health/disorder/body-dysmorphic-disorder-bdd/
    Mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, and OCD are closely linked with BDD. Individuals with BDD experience depression, creating a cycle of negative thoughts about appearance and emotional distress. […] Finally, cultural influences significantly impact the development of BDD, particularly in societies that emphasize physical appearance. The media’s portrayal of unattainable beauty standards worsens body dissatisfaction, especially in individuals who internalize these ideals.
  • #36 Body dysmorphic disorder – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), also known in some contexts as dysmorphophobia, is a mental disorder defined by an overwhelming preoccupation with a perceived flaw in one’s physical appearance. […] As with most mental disorders, BDD’s cause is likely intricate, altogether biopsychosocial, through an interaction of multiple factors, including genetic, developmental, psychological, social, and cultural. […] BDD usually develops during early adolescence, although many patients note earlier trauma, abuse, neglect, teasing, or bullying. […] In many cases, social anxiety earlier in life precedes BDD. […] Yet other factors may be introversion, negative body image, perfectionism, heightened aesthetic sensitivity, and childhood abuse and neglect. […] The development of body dysmorphia can stem from trauma caused by parents/guardians, family, or close friends.
  • #37 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Susceptibility for BDD may be heritable. This is evidenced by the observation that 8% of individuals with BDD have a first-degree family member with a lifetime diagnosis of BDD, which is about 38 times the prevalence in the general population. […] There is some preliminary evidence suggesting a role for serotonin function in BDD. […] Attempts to integrate these findings result in a complex proposed model that implicates brain dysfunction and neurochemistry in the development of BDD. […] The contribution of these different putative etiological and pathophysiologic factors to BDD’s development and maintenance, and others yet to be identified, remains unclear. A preliminary, hypothetical model involves a complex interplay in which genetic and biological susceptibilities interact with environmental events, such as teasing or abuse.
  • #38 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Susceptibility for BDD may be heritable. This is evidenced by the observation that 8% of individuals with BDD have a first-degree family member with a lifetime diagnosis of BDD, which is about 38 times the prevalence in the general population. […] There is some preliminary evidence suggesting a role for serotonin function in BDD. […] Attempts to integrate these findings result in a complex proposed model that implicates brain dysfunction and neurochemistry in the development of BDD. […] The contribution of these different putative etiological and pathophysiologic factors to BDD’s development and maintenance, and others yet to be identified, remains unclear. A preliminary, hypothetical model involves a complex interplay in which genetic and biological susceptibilities interact with environmental events, such as teasing or abuse.
  • #39 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Cognitive-behavioral and learning models can provide a formulation for how biological, cultural, and social factors lead to the development and maintenance of BDD, and are based on classical and operant conditioning. […] Once BDD symptoms have been established and appearance-related beliefs, assumptions, and values developed, it has been hypothesized that secondary operant conditioning in the form of negative reinforcement serves to maintain the maladaptive behaviors and cognitions. […] Researchers have begun to examine neurocognitive functioning in BDD, which may shed light on the etiology and maintenance of BDD’s key symptoms. […] Clinical observation suggests that individuals with BDD may have perceptual distortions, as they perceive defects in their appearance that are not observable or appear minor to others.
  • #40 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Cognitive-behavioral and learning models can provide a formulation for how biological, cultural, and social factors lead to the development and maintenance of BDD, and are based on classical and operant conditioning. […] Once BDD symptoms have been established and appearance-related beliefs, assumptions, and values developed, it has been hypothesized that secondary operant conditioning in the form of negative reinforcement serves to maintain the maladaptive behaviors and cognitions. […] Researchers have begun to examine neurocognitive functioning in BDD, which may shed light on the etiology and maintenance of BDD’s key symptoms. […] Clinical observation suggests that individuals with BDD may have perceptual distortions, as they perceive defects in their appearance that are not observable or appear minor to others.
  • #41 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    Susceptibility for BDD may be heritable. This is evidenced by the observation that 8% of individuals with BDD have a first-degree family member with a lifetime diagnosis of BDD, which is about 38 times the prevalence in the general population. […] There is some preliminary evidence suggesting a role for serotonin function in BDD. […] Attempts to integrate these findings result in a complex proposed model that implicates brain dysfunction and neurochemistry in the development of BDD. […] The contribution of these different putative etiological and pathophysiologic factors to BDD’s development and maintenance, and others yet to be identified, remains unclear. A preliminary, hypothetical model involves a complex interplay in which genetic and biological susceptibilities interact with environmental events, such as teasing or abuse.
  • #42 The Neurobiology of Body Dysmorphic Disorder – BDD
    https://bdd.iocdf.org/professionals/neurobiology-of-bdd/
    Another twin study, in males and females, found BDD to be 42% heritable. […] While genetic research is still in an early stage, these studies provide evidence of genetic contributions to BDD. […] There is some evidence (although it is not entirely consistent) of abnormal gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity. […] In addition, there is evidence of abnormal white matter brain connectivity (“the wiring”) in people with BDD. […] Inefficient connections between these brain regions may underlie impairments in visual, emotional, and possibly other types of information processing. […] Interactions between these aberrantly functioning brain systems, as well as possible abnormalities in neurotransmitter/neurochemical systems may contribute to many of the symptoms in BDD.
  • #43 What Causes BDD: Research Findings and a Proposed Model
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3859614/
    The etiology and pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), as with most psychiatric disorders, is likely complex. Because research is limited, the causative and contributory factors to the development of BDD are unclear. Yet there is emerging evidence from research studies of various factors that may contribute to the development and maintenance of BDD symptoms. […] This review of the etiology and pathophysiology of BDD explores what has been elucidated thus far from research on developmental, psychosocial, cognitive and behavioral, neuropsychological, and neurobiological (visual processing, neuroanatomical, genetic, and neurochemical) factors. We explore submodels of BDD within these domains, and we synthesize these to generate an overarching, yet preliminary, model of the etiological and pathophysiological processes that appear to contribute to the development and maintenance of BDD. This model involves a context of likely biological and genetic susceptibility upon which adverse life events interact with cognitive distortions and subsequent learned behavior to result in BDD symptoms. Given the limited research base, this model while reflecting available research evidence serves primarily a heuristic function.
  • #44 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555901/
    Body dysmorphic disorder develops from psychological, social, and biological factors. High-quality studies investigating the pathogenesis of BDD are limited and small. Neuroimaging findings discovered in studies could be etiologic findings or sequelae from the disease process. One preliminary candidate gene study of 57 subjects with BDD matched with 58 healthy controls demonstrated that the GABA-A-gamma-2 (5q31.1-q33.2) receptor gene occurred more frequently in subjects with BDD than in the controls. The heritability of BDD, investigated through twin studies, revealed an estimated 43% genetic contribution for BDD. The remaining contributors are psychological and environmental. A history of physical or sexual abuse may contribute to the development of BDD. Individuals who report lower levels of perceived parental care in childhood or a history of parental neglect have a higher prevalence of BDD than controls. […] Body dysmorphic disorder is underrecognized, and affected patients visit dermatology and plastic surgery clinics to repair their perceived defects. Understanding BDD’s features and diagnostic criteria across all healthcare specialties helps increase awareness and recognition of the condition.
  • #45 Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) | Description, History, Causes, Symptoms, & Treatment | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/body-dysmorphic-disorder
    body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), preoccupation with one or more perceived or imagined flaws in ones physical appearance, leading to excessive self-consciousness. […] While the specific causes of BDD are unknown, it often is associated with other mental health issues, including depression, OCD, and borderline personality disorder. […] Risk factors can include negative or traumatic life experiences such as abuse, parental neglect, and teasing; low self-esteem; and perfectionism. […] Onset occurs generally before age 18. […] Left untreated, BDD can worsen and exacerbate anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation, with possible eventual attempts at suicide.
  • #46 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center
    https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=134&contentid=216
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health problem. […] Experts think that the cause of BDD is a combination of environmental, psychological, and biological factors. […] Nobody knows the cause of BDD. […] Factors that may contribute to BDD include: A family history of BDD or a similar mental disorder, abnormal levels of brain chemicals, personality type, and life experiences. […] Left untreated, BDD can lead to severe depression and even suicidal thoughts. It should not be ignored.
  • #47 Body Dysmorphic Disorder – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/obsessive-compulsive-and-related-disorders/body-dysmorphic-disorder
    Body dysmorphic disorder usually begins during adolescence and may be somewhat more common among women. […] Body dysmorphic disorder is characterized by significantly higher levels of suicidality than other psychiatric disorders. […] Diagnosis of body dysmorphic disorder is based on history. […] Because many patients are too embarrassed and ashamed to reveal their symptoms, body dysmorphic disorder may go undiagnosed for years. […] Diagnostic criteria for body dysmorphic disorder include the following: Preoccupation with one or more perceived defects in appearance that are not observable or appear only slight to others. […] Patients typically have poor or absent insight. […] Treat using cognitive-behavioral therapy that is tailored specifically to body dysmorphic disorder and/or pharmacotherapy with an SSRI or clomipramine, often at relatively high doses.
  • #48 Body Dysmorphic Disorder
    https://johnshopkinshealthcare.staywellsolutionsonline.com/SummerHeat/134,216
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental health problem. If you have BDD, you may be so upset about how your body looks that it’s hard to live normally. Many of us have what we think are flaws in our appearance. But if you have BDD, your reaction to this flaw may become overwhelming. […] Experts think that the cause of BDD is a combination of environmental, psychological, and biological factors. Bullying or teasing may create or help lead to the feelings of inadequacy, shame, and fear of ridicule. […] Nobody knows the cause of BDD. It often starts in the teen years. Men and women are almost equally affected. Factors that may contribute to BDD include: A family history of BDD or a similar mental disorder. Abnormal levels of brain chemicals. Personality type. Life experiences. […] Treatment for BDD may include talk therapy or medicines. The best treatment is likely a combination of both. Research shows that the sooner treatment begins, the better the chance for controlling symptoms and recovering. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the most effective talk therapy. In CBT, you work with a mental health provider to replace negative thoughts and thought patterns with positive thoughts. Antidepressant medicines called SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) often work best for BDD.
  • #49 Body Dysmorphic Disorder |Fact Sheet – ABCT – Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies
    https://www.abct.org/fact-sheets/body-dysmorphic-disorder/
    Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a nonexistent or slight appearance defect, coupled with behaviors or rituals, such as excessive mirror checking, performed in response to appearance-related anxiety. […] BDD is not necessarily caused by one specific factor; it is thought to have several possible causes, including, but not limited to, genetic, environmental, and social factors. […] BDD is categorized as an obsessive-compulsive-related disorder. […] Notably, fixations with true appearance flaws are not diagnosed as BDD, but as an “Other Specified Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder.” […] Although there are no FDA-approved psychopharmacological treatments specifically for BDD, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medications are considered the first-line treatment for BDD.
  • #50 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Body-Dysmorphic-Disorder.aspx
    Brain and neural differences could also cause body dysmorphia. Recent findings show that the development of body dysmorphic disorder is significantly related to the release of neurotransmitters, particularly serotonin. A lack of ample serotonin causes depressive symptoms, which has led to newer modes of treating body dysmorphia to primarily focus on serotonin regulation. […] Environmental factors are also considered as significant contributors in the development of body dysmorphia. Studies show that cultural factors, traumatic experiences, and other significant life events could affect a persons perception of his or her physical features. People who have been teased, bullied, and/or abused about their bodies during their younger years are more likely to develop body dysmorphic disorder.