Suchość w ustach
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Suchość w ustach (xerostomia) to subiektywne uczucie suchości jamy ustnej, zwykle pojawiające się przy zmniejszeniu przepływu śliny o około 50% w stosunku do wartości wyjściowej. Patofizjologia obejmuje zaburzenia neurotransmisji (blokada receptorów muskarynowych M3 przez leki o działaniu antycholinergicznym), uszkodzenie gruczołów ślinowych (np. po radioterapii głowy i szyi, gdzie dochodzi do ostrego zapalenia i późniejszego zwłóknienia), procesy autoimmunologiczne (zespół Sjögrena z limfocytarną infiltracją i zwłóknieniem gruczołów oraz hamowaniem receptorów muskarynowych M3 przez autoprzeciwciała) oraz zmiany jakościowe śliny (przejście z surowiczej na śluzową). Dodatkowo, czynniki neuropsychiatryczne, takie jak stres i lęk, aktywują układ współczulny, powodując produkcję gęstej, lepkiej śliny, co potęguje odczucie suchości. Wiek i polipragmazja zwiększają ryzyko kserostomii, podobnie jak choroby ogólnoustrojowe, np. cukrzyca, zespół Sjögrena, zakażenie HCV czy choroba Alzheimera.

Patogeneza suchości w ustach

Suchość w ustach (xerostomia) definiowana jest jako subiektywne uczucie suchości jamy ustnej, które może, ale nie musi być związane ze zmniejszonym wytwarzaniem śliny. Występuje, gdy gruczoły ślinowe nie produkują wystarczającej ilości śliny, aby utrzymać odpowiednie nawilżenie jamy ustnej lub całkowicie przestają ją wytwarzać12. Typowo zmniejszenie przepływu śliny o około 50% w stosunku do wartości wyjściowej prowadzi do wystąpienia objawów suchości12.

Mechanizmy fizjologiczne produkcji śliny

Stymulacja błony śluzowej jamy ustnej powoduje przesłanie sygnałów do jąder ślinowych w rdzeniu przedłużonym, wywołując odpowiedź eferentną. Impulsy nerwowe eferentne uwalniają acetylocholinę w zakończeniach nerwowych gruczołów ślinowych, aktywując receptory muskarynowe (M3), co zwiększa produkcję i przepływ śliny. Sygnały z rdzenia odpowiedzialne za ślinienie mogą być również modulowane przez bodźce korowe z innych źródeł (np. smak, zapach, niepokój)1.

Wydzielanie śliny jest regulowane przez receptory muskarynowe M1 i M3, receptory adrenergiczne alfa1 i beta1 oraz specyficzne receptory peptydergiczne, które inicjują sekrecję śliny1. Normalna funkcja ślinianek jest zapośredniczona głównie przez receptor muskarynowy M3. Stymulacja tego receptora powoduje zwiększenie wydzielania śliny1.

Etiologia polekowa

Najczęstszą przyczyną suchości w ustach są efekty uboczne stosowanych leków12. Szacuje się, że ponad 500-600 leków może powodować kserostomię12. Leki indukujące suchość jamy ustnej mogą wpływać na ośrodkowy układ nerwowy lub na połączenie nerwowo-gruczołowe1.

Polekowa suchość w ustach występuje, gdy lek bezpośrednio hamuje produkcję acetylocholiny przez ośrodkowy układ nerwowy lub zajmuje receptory muskarynowe/adrenergiczne12. Leki mogą wywoływać działanie antycholinergiczne przeciw receptorom muskarynowym M3, co prowadzi do zmniejszonego wydzielania śliny1.

Ryzyko wystąpienia suchości w ustach zwiększa się wraz z całkowitą liczbą przyjmowanych leków, niezależnie od tego, czy poszczególne leki mają działanie kserogenne (powodujące suchość) czy nie1. Jest to tzw. zjawisko polipragmazji (polypharmacy)1.

Wpływ radioterapii i chemioterapii

Radioterapia obszaru głowy i szyi stanowi drugą najczęstszą przyczynę suchości w ustach12. Promieniowanie powoduje suchość w ustach, ponieważ jama ustna, węzły chłonne i gruczoły ślinowe znajdują się w polu promieniowania1. Radioterapia wywołuje zarówno ilościowe, jak i jakościowe zmiany w gruczołach ślinowych1.

Ostra kserostomia po radioterapii wynika z reakcji zapalnej, podczas gdy późna kserostomia, która może wystąpić nawet rok po radioterapii, jest wynikiem zwłóknienia gruczołu ślinowego i zwykle ma charakter trwały1. Prawie wszyscy pacjenci poddawani radioterapii w obszarze głowy i szyi doświadczą pewnego stopnia kserostomii w wyniku uszkodzenia gruczołów ślinowych1.

Chemioterapia również może przyczyniać się do rozwoju suchości w ustach, zmieniając naturę śliny i ilość jej produkcji1. Leki chemioterapeutyczne mogą powodować ciężką suchość i zapalenie jamy ustnej (stomatitis) podczas ich przyjmowania, ale problemy te zwykle ustępują po zakończeniu terapii12.

Zespół Sjögrena i choroby autoimmunologiczne

W zespole Sjögrena, przewlekła limfocytarna infiltracja i zapalenie komórek zrazikowych prowadzą do zwłóknienia gruczołów egzokrynnych, powodując uszkodzenie gruczołów1. Obecność przeciwciał anty-SSA (Ro) lub anty-SSB (La) może pomóc w diagnostyce choroby1.

Dysfunkcja gruczołów ślinowych obserwowana w zespole Sjögrena wiąże się również z hamowaniem bodźców nerwowych12. Zmniejszenie wydzielania śliny może początkowo wpływać na drobne gruczoły ślinowe, rozpoczynając objawy suchości jamy ustnej1.

Patogeneza suchości w ustach w zespole Sjögrena jest złożona. Obejmuje szereg zmian zapalnych prowadzących do uszkodzenia lub zahamowania gruczołów ślinowych, w tym:
(1) zaburzenie komórek nabłonkowych;
(2) migrację limfocytów T do gruczołów;
(3) uszkodzenie gruczołów wywołane przez przeciwciała (ANA, anty-Ro/SSA, anty-LA/SSB i czynnik reumatoidalny);
(4) hamowanie receptora cholinergicznego muskarynowego typu 3 za pośrednictwem autoprzeciwciał;
(5) aktywację ścieżek cytokin i interferonu;
(6) strukturalne niszczenie komórek zrazikowych1.

Inne mechanizmy patofizjologiczne

Suchość w ustach może być również spowodowana zmianą składu śliny (z surowiczej na śluzową)1. Sugeruje się, że jakość śliny może być zmieniona przez zmiany w drodze wydzielniczej i mucynach ślinowych1.

W przypadku cukrzycy, przewlekła hiperglikemia wywołująca polidypsję i poliurię, neuropatia, nieprawidłowości mikronaczyniowe, uszkodzenie miąższu gruczołów, dysfunkcja śródbłonka oraz leki przyjmowane w celu kontrolowania cukrzycy mogą przyczyniać się do zmniejszonego przepływu śliny1.

W przypadku zaburzeń lękowych i stresu, aktywacja układu współczulnego prowadzi do produkcji gęstej śliny, co przyczynia się do objawów suchości jamy ustnej12. Przepływ śliny jest zmniejszony podczas snu, co może prowadzić do przejściowego uczucia suchości w ustach po przebudzeniu1.

Odwodnienie organizmu może również powodować hiposekrecję śliny, będącą wynikiem próby oszczędzania płynów przez organizm1. Stany powodujące odwodnienie, takie jak gorączka, nadmierne pocenie się, wymioty, biegunka, utrata krwi i oparzenia, mogą powodować suchość w ustach1.

Czynniki ryzyka suchości w ustach

Wiek i płeć

Wiek jest istotnym predyktorem odczuwanej suchości jamy ustnej1. Chociaż suchość w ustach jest częstsza u osób starszych, prawdopodobnie wynika to z wielu leków typowo stosowanych przez osoby starsze, a nie ze starzenia się jako takiego1.

Fizjologiczne zmiany związane z wiekiem w tkankach gruczołów ślinowych mogą prowadzić do skromnego zmniejszenia produkcji śliny i częściowo wyjaśniać zwiększoną częstość występowania kserostomii u osób starszych1. Jednakże zdolność funkcjonalna gruczołów ślinowych kompensuje obserwowany spadek liczby komórek zrazikowych, pod warunkiem że na układ nie działają dodatkowe czynniki stresogenne1.

Kobiety, szczególnie w okresie pomenopauzalnym, częściej doświadczają zmniejszonego przepływu śliny i niższego pH w porównaniu z kobietami miesiączkującymi1. Znacznie wyższa liczba kobiet po menopauzie doświadcza obniżonego przepływu śliny i niższego pH w porównaniu z kobietami miesiączkującymi1.

Choroby systemowe

Czynniki ryzyka powszechnie związane z suchością w ustach obejmują określone choroby układowe, w tym:

  • Zespół Sjögrena – najczęstszą chorobę autoimmunologiczną związaną z suchością w ustach, charakteryzującą się atrofią gruczołów ślinowych i następową hiposaliwacją12
  • Cukrzycę – niekontrolowani pacjenci z cukrzycą często zgłaszają suchość w ustach z powodu poliurii i złego nawodnienia12
  • Zakażenie wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu C (HCV) – szacuje się, że dotyczy około 3% populacji światowej; pacjenci zakażeni HCV mogą wykazywać przewlekłe zapalenie gruczołów ślinowych, które może prowadzić do hiposekrecji śliny12
  • Chorobę Alzheimera, neuropatie autonomiczne, mukowiscydozę, depresję, chorobę przeszczep przeciwko gospodarzowi, zakażenie HIV, sarkoidozę i inne12

Czynniki behawioralne i środowiskowe

Nawyki osobiste, takie jak oddychanie przez usta, picie alkoholu lub używanie wyrobów tytoniowych, mogą powodować suchość w ustach1. Palenie tytoniu zazwyczaj powoduje zmniejszenie ilości śliny1.

Stany psychologiczne, takie jak niepokój i depresja, wykazują statystycznie istotny związek z częstością niestymulowanego przepływu śliny i suchością w ustach1. Różne zaburzenia psychologiczne, takie jak depresja, zaburzenia obsesyjno-kompulsywne, fobia raka i stany lękowe, wiązały się z suchością w ustach1.

Palenie tytoniu, spożywanie alkoholu i picie napojów zawierających kofeinę mogą zmieniać szybkość przepływu śliny i zwiększać ryzyko suchości w ustach lub zaostrzać ten stan1.

Konsekwencje zdrowotne suchości w ustach

Utrzymująca się suchość w ustach może prowadzić do wielu problemów klinicznych wpływających na zdrowie jamy ustnej i ogólnoustrojowe, komfort i jakość życia pacjenta1. Suchość w ustach znacznie zwiększa ryzyko próchnicy i innych chorób jamy ustnej1.

Wpływ na tkanki twarde i miękkie jamy ustnej

W krótkim czasie, bez odpowiedniej ilości śliny, pacjent zaczyna doświadczać zmian w tkankach miękkich i twardych jamy ustnej1. Widoczne zmiany w tkankach miękkich obejmują:

  • Suchość czerwieni wargowej
  • Utratę brodawek nitkowatych języka
  • Pękanie i bruzdowanie języka
  • Zwiększone tworzenie się płytki na języku
  • Brak śliny w odpowiedzi na palpację gruczołu
  • Kandydozę jamy ustnej
  • Owrzodzenie błony śluzowej jamy ustnej1

Zmiany w tkankach twardych obejmują:

  • Zwiększony wskaźnik próchnicy (szczególnie w trzeciej części szyjki)
  • Zwiększoną niepróchnicową utratę struktury zęba w wyniku erozji zębów
  • Nadwrażliwość zębiny szyjki
  • Zwiększone gromadzenie się płytki nazębnej na zębach i aparatach1

Wpływ na funkcje jamy ustnej

Brak odpowiedniej funkcji wydzielniczej śliny może powodować wiele objawów klinicznych, w tym:

  • Lepką, gęstą ślinę
  • Trudności w mówieniu
  • Trudności w połykaniu
  • Halitozę (nieświeży oddech)
  • Zmienione poczucie zapachu
  • Zmieniony smak
  • Skargę na suchość
  • Skargę na pieczenie ust, warg lub języka
  • Upośledzenie utrzymania pełnej protezy górnej
  • Upośledzenie smarowania protezy dolnej
  • Podrażnienie błony śluzowej przez pokarmy i produkty do pielęgnacji zębów1

Ryzyko infekcji i innych powikłań

Przy przewlekle suchej jamie ustnej mikrobiom w jamie ustnej zmienia się znacząco. Może to powodować znaczny wzrost szkodliwych bakterii i prowadzić do próchnicy, infekcji jamy ustnej, takich jak pleśniawki, zakażeń kości, a w najgorszych przypadkach nawet złamań szczęki1.

Bez wystarczającej ilości śliny jama ustna staje się miejscem sprzyjającym rozwojowi bakterii, co prowadzi do zwiększonego ryzyka próchnicy, chorób dziąseł i infekcji1. Dodatkowo, suchość w ustach może utrudniać wygodne noszenie protez lub nawet prawidłowe mówienie1.

Pacjenci z kserostomią po radioterapii lub chemioterapii nowotworowej są szczególnie narażeni na infekcje wynikające z normalnej flory jamy ustnej1.

Mechanizmy leczenia suchości w ustach

Leki stymulujące wydzielanie śliny

Leki, które zwiększają produkcję śliny, obejmują cewimelina i pilokarpinę, oba będące agonistami cholinergicznymi1.

Pilokarpina jest niespecyficznym agonistą receptora muskarynowego acetylocholiny z łagodną aktywnością beta-adrenergiczną1. Pilokarpina jest zdolna do aktywacji wszystkich 5 podtypów receptorów muskarynowych – przy czym efekt terapeutyczny w leczeniu kserostomii pochodzi z jej wiązania z receptorem muskarynowym acetylocholiny 3 (M3R) w gruczołach ślinowych1.

Cewimeline jest agonistą receptora muskarynowego acetylocholiny z przeważającym powinowactwem do receptorów M1 i M31. Lek aktywuje te receptory umiejscowione na nabłonku gruczołów ślinowych, aby zwiększyć wydzielanie śliny1. Według Chambers i wsp., cewimeline ma dłuższy okres półtrwania i czas trwania niż pilokarpina1.

Cewimeline (30 mg doustnie 3 razy dziennie) ma mniejszą aktywność receptora M2 (sercowego) niż pilokarpina i dłuższy okres półtrwania. Głównym działaniem niepożądanym są nudności1.

Pilokarpina (5 mg doustnie 3 razy dziennie) może być podawana po wykluczeniu przeciwwskazań okulistycznych i sercowo-oddechowych; działania niepożądane obejmują pocenie się, zaczerwienienie i wielomocz1.

Mechanizmy stymulacji śliny i substytuty

Ogólna koncepcja stosowania interwencji stymulujących ślinę jest taka sama jak powszechnie przepisywanych agonistów receptorów muskarynowych: złagodzenie objawów kserostomii poprzez zwiększenie produkcji śliny1.

U pacjentów z suchością w ustach ważne jest ustalenie, czy pozostaje funkcjonalny miąższ gruczołu ślinowego, który można stymulować mechanicznie lub chemicznie1.

Ślinę można stymulować na różne sposoby. Najprostszą i najmniej inwazyjną metodą jest stymulacja mechaniczna, czyli żucie1. Żucie jakiejkolwiek gumy, co ważne, bezcukrowej, będzie stymulować ślinę, ale niektóre produkty są specjalnie wprowadzane na rynek w tym celu1.

Chociaż guma do żucia jest skuteczna w stymulowaniu śliny, jej użyteczność w leczeniu kserostomii jest ograniczona, co podkreśla złożony charakter związku między hiposekrecją gruczołów ślinowych a kserostomią1.

W przypadkach ekstremalnej lub długotrwałej suchości w ustach można stosować substancje, które zastępują utraconą funkcję i składniki śliny1. Substytuty śliny i środki nawilżające do jamy ustnej są dostępne bez recepty w postaci roztworów, sprejów lub żeli1.

Właściwości smarujące mucyn można przypisać ich zdolności do wiązania jonów, a w konsekwencji wody. Warstwa ochronna, którą zapewniają mucyny, jest tak ważna, że utrata produkcji mucyny jest główną przyczyną kserostomii1.

Nowoczesne podejścia terapeutyczne

Naukowcy pracują nad sposobami naprawy gruczołów ślinowych, które zostały uszkodzone, i rozwijają sztuczny gruczoł ślinowy, który można wszczepić do organizmu1.

Akupunktura jest znana z tego, że zwiększa działanie przywspółczulne, powodując uwolnienie neuropeptydu i stymulując przepływ i wydzielanie śliny, zmniejszając tym samym częstość występowania kserostomii1.

Terapia HBO (terapia hiperbaryczna) również zyskuje popularność w leczeniu kserostomii u pacjentów z rakiem wywołanym przez promieniowanie ze względu na jej efekty angiogenetyczne i rewaskularyzacyjne, ale dokładny mechanizm nie jest dobrze zrozumiany1.

Połączenie zasad i metod nauk przyrodniczych z inżynieryjnymi w celu opracowania materiałów i metod, które mogą naprawić uszkodzone i chore tkanki lub stworzyć całkowite zamienniki tkanek, nazywa się inżynierią tkankową1.

Znaczenie leczenia przyczynowego

Podstawowym celem leczenia suchości w ustach jest zwiększenie produkcji śliny1. Wpłynie to na zmniejszenie ryzyka próchnicy i chorób dziąseł1.

Leczenie suchości w ustach zależy od przyczyny leżącej u jej podstaw1. Gdy to możliwe, leczenie jest ukierunkowane na podstawową przyczynę suchości jamy ustnej1.

Dostosowanie farmakoterapii

Konkretne leczenie suchości w ustach zależy od podstawowej przyczyny. Na przykład, jeśli lekarz podejrzewa, że lek powoduje suchość w ustach, sprawdzi, czy może dostosować dawkę. Alternatywnie, można przejść na inny lek1.

Leki są częstą przyczyną suchości w ustach. Należy zmniejszyć dawkę lub zmienić lek, jeśli to możliwe. Morfina jest częstą, ale często przeoczaną przyczyną suchości jamy ustnej. Inne leki, które powodują suchość w ustach, to trójcykliczne leki przeciwdepresyjne, leki przeciwhistaminowe, leki przeciwmuskarynowe, leki przeciwpadaczkowe, leki przeciwpsychotyczne, beta-blokery i leki moczopędne1.

Gdy suchość w ustach rozpoczęła się krótko po rozpoczęciu nowego leku, lekarze często próbują odstawić lek, aby sprawdzić, czy objawy ustąpią1.

Leczenie chorób podstawowych

Wśród ogólnych środków, które należy wziąć pod uwagę przy leczeniu pacjentów z suchością jamy ustnej, należy najpierw skupić się na kontroli wszelkich zaburzeń ogólnoustrojowych, które mogą być odpowiedzialne za problem w jamie ustnej1.

Czynniki psychopatologiczne są coraz częstszymi przyczynami kserostomii, szczególnie przewlekły niepokój i stres1.

W przypadku, gdy stan medyczny powodujący suchość w ustach nie może być zmieniony, na przykład, jeśli gruczoł ślinowy został uszkodzony lub jest wynikiem samej choroby, jak to się często zdarza w przypadku zespołu Sjögrena, choroby Alzheimera i udaru, leczenie skupi się na sposobach zwiększenia przepływu śliny1.

Podstawowym celem lekarzy z dziedziny medycyny jamy ustnej w leczeniu kserostomii jest zidentyfikowanie możliwej przyczyny, złagodzenie dolegliwości i zapobieganie powikłaniom1.

Podsumowanie mechanizmów patofizjologicznych

Kserostomia (suchość w ustach) to subiektywne uczucie suchości jamy ustnej, które może być związane ze zmniejszonym wytwarzaniem śliny przez gruczoły ślinowe lub zmianą jej składu. Objawy typowo występują, gdy przepływ śliny zmniejszy się o około 50% od wartości wyjściowej.

Główne mechanizmy patofizjologiczne suchości w ustach obejmują:

  1. Zaburzenia neurotransmisji: Leki mogą bezpośrednio hamować produkcję acetylocholiny przez OUN lub blokować receptory muskarynowe/adrenergiczne w gruczołach ślinowych, co prowadzi do zmniejszonego wydzielania śliny.
  2. Uszkodzenie gruczołów ślinowych: Radioterapia obszaru głowy i szyi może powodować zarówno ostre zapalenie, jak i przewlekłe zwłóknienie gruczołów ślinowych, prowadząc do trwałego upośledzenia wydzielania śliny.
  3. Procesy autoimmunologiczne: W zespole Sjögrena limfocytarna infiltracja i zapalenie prowadzą do zwłóknienia gruczołów egzokrynnych oraz zahamowania stymulacji nerwowej, co upośledza produkcję śliny.
  4. Zmiany jakościowe śliny: Zmiana składu śliny z surowiczej na śluzową może powodować uczucie suchości pomimo prawidłowej objętości wydzielanej śliny.
  5. Zaburzenia neuropsychiatryczne: Stres i lęk poprzez aktywację układu współczulnego mogą prowadzić do produkcji gęstej, lepkiej śliny, powodując subiektywne uczucie suchości.

Zrozumienie tych mechanizmów patofizjologicznych jest kluczowe dla właściwego podejścia terapeutycznego, które może obejmować zarówno leczenie przyczynowe (np. modyfikację farmakoterapii), jak i objawowe (leki stymulujące wydzielanie śliny, substytuty śliny).

Kolejne rozdziały

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Xerostomia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545287/
    Xerostomia is defined as the sensation of oral dryness. Numerous etiologies have been described, but xerostomia mainly presents as a medication side effect, secondary to head and neck radiation therapy, and associated with Sjgren syndrome. […] Xerostomia is linked to multiple etiologies. However, it most frequently develops as an adverse effect of medication, secondary to head and neck radiation therapy, and due to Sjgren syndrome. […] Xerostomia-inducing medications may affect the central nervous system or at the neuroglandular junction. The secretory cells of the salivary glands receive nerve supply from muscarinic M1 and M3 receptors, alpha1 and beta1-adrenergic receptors, and specific peptidergic receptors that initiate salivary secretion. Medication-induced xerostomia is caused when a medication directly suppresses the central nervous system from producing ACh or occupies the muscarinic/adrenergic receptors.
  • #1 Dry mouth: Xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction
    https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/july/dry-mouth-xerostomia-and-salivary-gland-hypofuncti
    Mouth dryness may present as salivary gland hypofunction (SGH), xerostomia or both. […] SGH refers to diminished salivary flow and is based on objective measures of saliva production. […] The relationship between SGH (sign) and xerostomia (symptom) is complex. […] Studies show that mouth dryness is observed when an individuals baseline salivary output falls by about 50%, but the mechanisms by which decreases in salivary flow are interpreted as the sensation of mouth dryness are not well understood. […] The causes of SGH can be broadly attributed to water or metabolite loss, salivary gland injury, or interferences with neural control of salivary secretion. […] Although the ageing process has been linked to SGH, it is believed that the functional reserve capacity of the salivary glands compensates for the observed decrease in the number of acinar cells, provided that no additional stresses are placed on the system.
  • #1 Xerostomia – Dental Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dental-disorders/symptoms-of-dental-and-oral-disorders/xerostomia
    Xerostomia is dry mouth caused by reduced or absent flow of saliva. […] Stimulation of the oral mucosa signals the salivatory nuclei in the medulla, triggering an efferent response. The efferent nerve impulses release acetylcholine at salivary gland nerve terminals, activating muscarinic receptors (M3), which increase saliva production and flow. Medullary signals responsible for salivation may also be modulated by cortical inputs from other stimuli (eg, taste, smell, anxiety). […] Chemotherapeutic agents cause severe dryness and stomatitis while they are being taken; these problems usually end after therapy is stopped. […] Xerostomia is diagnosed by symptoms, appearance, and absence of salivary flow when massaging the salivary glands. […] Medications that augment saliva production include cevimeline and pilocarpine, both cholinergic agonists. Cevimeline (30 mg orally 3 times a day) has less M2 (cardiac) receptor activity than pilocarpine and a longer half-life. The main adverse effect is nausea. Pilocarpine (5 mg orally 3 times a day) may be given after ophthalmologic and cardiorespiratory contraindications are excluded; adverse effects include sweating, flushing, and polyuria.
  • #1 Xerostomia – Oral Cancer Foundation | Information and Resources about Oral Head and Neck Cancer
    https://oralcancerfoundation.org/complications/xerostomia/
    Xerostomia is defined as dry mouth resulting from reduced or absent saliva flow. […] Normal salivary function is mediated by the muscarinic M3 receptor. Stimulation of this receptor results in increased watery flow of salivary secretions. […] Xerostomia is often a contributing factor for both minor and serious health problems. […] Xerostomia is the most common toxicity associated with standard fractionated radiation therapy to the head and neck. Acute xerostomia from radiation is due to an inflammatory reaction, while late xerostomia, which can occur up to one year after radiation therapy, results from fibrosis of the salivary gland and is usually permanent. […] Certain cancer chemotherapeutic drugs can also change the composition and flow of saliva, resulting in xerostomia, but these changes are usually temporary.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: Medications and their Effects on Saliva
    https://ostrowonline.usc.edu/medications-that-cause-dry-mouth/
    By far, the most common cause of long standing dry mouth particularly in older adults is the use of xerogenic medications. […] There are now projected to be over a thousand medications associated with subjective and/or objective oral dryness either by interfering with the production of saliva or the pathways responsible for saliva secretions. […] Most commonly the inhibition is due to the impact of the drug on central and peripheral receptors resulting in anticholinergic activity against the M3 muscarinic receptors; the end result being reduced salivation. […] The prevalence of dry mouth increases with increasing numbers of medications used for one or more conditions (polypharmacy). […] Age and medication seemed to play a more central role when there was objective evidence of hypo-salivation while female gender and psychological factors were more related to the subjective sensation of oral dryness. Clearly, the presence of medication is a more likely predictor of the risk of dry mouth than either age or gender. […] When drug-associated symptoms of dry mouth occur, the timeline of the symptoms and the initiation of the medication are likely to be closely related.
  • #1 Xerostomia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerostomia
    A medication which is known to cause xerostomia may be termed xerogenic. […] The likelihood of xerostomia increases in relation to the total number of medications taken, whether the individual medications are xerogenic or not. […] Xerostomia may be caused by autoimmune conditions which damage saliva-producing cells. […] Sjgren’s syndrome is one such disease, and it is associated with symptoms including fatigue, myalgia and arthralgia. […] Radiation therapy for cancers of the head and neck (including brachytherapy for thyroid cancers) where the salivary glands are close to or within the field irradiated is another major cause of xerostomia. […] This side effect is a result of radiation damage of the parasympathetic nerves. […] Xerostomia may also be a consequence of infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and a rare cause of salivary gland dysfunction may be sarcoidosis. […] Similar to taste dysfunction, xerostomia is one of the most prevalent and persistent oral symptoms associated with COVID-19.
  • #1 Xerostomia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545287/
    Radiation causes xerostomia because the oral cavity, lymph nodes, and salivary glands are in the radiation field of head and neck radiation therapy. Radiation causes quantitative and qualitative changes in the salivary glands. […] In Sjgren syndrome, chronic lymphocytic infiltration and inflammation of acinar cells lead to exocrine fibrosis, resulting in gland damage. The presence of anti-SSA (Ro) or anti-SSB (La) antibodies can help diagnose the disease. Salivary gland dysfunction seen in Sjgren syndrome has also been linked to an inhibition of nerve stimuli. The decrease in saliva secretion may first affect the minor salivary glands, initiating the symptoms of oral dryness.
  • #1 Dry mouth? Xerostomia insights for cancer patients | MD Anderson Cancer Center
    https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/dry-mouth–xerostomia–in-cancer-patients–5-things-to-know.h00-159618645.html
    Xerostomia is primarily caused by radiation therapy to the head and neck or surgical removal of the salivary glands. […] Almost all patients who undergo radiation therapy of the head and neck area will have some degree of xerostomia as a result of damage to their salivary glands. […] The major salivary glands combined produce up to 1.5 liters or more than six cups of saliva each day. This accounts for up to 90% of our salivary secretions. […] With a chronically dry mouth, the microbiome in the oral cavity changes markedly. This can cause harmful bacteria to increase substantially, and lead to tooth decay, oral infections like thrush, bone infections, and even jaw fractures in the worst cases. […] If we can reduce the amount of damage caused to our patients salivary glands without affecting the results of their treatments, that would be very beneficial.
  • #1 Dry mouth – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dry-mouth/symptoms-causes/syc-20356048
    Dry mouth, also called xerostomia (zeer-o-STOE-me-uh), is when the salivary glands in the mouth don’t make enough saliva to keep the mouth wet. Dry mouth often is due to aging, the side effects of certain medicines or radiation therapy for cancer. Less often, a condition directly affecting the salivary glands can cause dry mouth. […] Dry mouth is caused when the salivary glands in the mouth don’t make enough saliva to keep the mouth wet. Sometimes these glands may not work properly due to: […] Cancer therapy. Medicine to treat cancer, called chemotherapy, can change the nature of saliva and the amount produced. This may be for a limited time, with typical salivary flow returning after treatment ends. Radiation treatments to the head and neck can damage salivary glands, greatly lowering saliva production. This may be for a limited time, or it could be lasting, depending on the radiation dose and area treated. […] Other health conditions. Dry mouth can be due to certain health conditions, such as diabetes, stroke, a yeast infection in the mouth or Alzheimer’s disease. Or dry mouth could be due to autoimmune diseases, such as Sjogren syndrome or HIV/AIDS.
  • #1 Frontiers | An Update on the Lived Experience of Dry Mouth in Sjögren’s Syndrome Patients
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/oral-health/articles/10.3389/froh.2021.767568/full
    The pathogenesis of dry mouth in SS is complex. It has been hypothesized to involve a series of inflammatory changes that result in damage or inhibition of the salivary glands and resulting decrease in saliva production. These include: (1) a disruption of epithelial cells; (2) T lymphocytes migration to the glands; (3) previously thought glandular damage triggered by SS (ANA, anti-Ro/SSA, anti-LA/SSB, and rheumatoid factor) autoantibodies in advanced disease or potentially by novel autoantibodies anti-salivary gland protein 1 (SP1), anti-carbonic anhydrase 6 (CA6), and parotid secretory protein (PSP) in early disease; (4) more recent theory of autoantibodies mediated inhibition of type 3 muscarinic cholinergic receptor; (5) activation of the cytokines and interferon pathways; and (6) structural destruction of acinar cells. […] It has also been suggested that the quality of saliva is altered by changes in secretory route and salivary mucins.
  • #1 Xerostomia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerostomia
    Xerostomia, also known as dry mouth, is a subjective complaint of dryness in the mouth, which may be associated with a change in the composition of saliva, reduced salivary flow, or have no identifiable cause. […] Dehydration, radiotherapy involving the salivary glands, chemotherapy and several diseases can cause reduced salivation (hyposalivation), or a change in saliva consistency and hence a complaint of xerostomia. […] Xerostomia may also result from a change in composition of saliva (from serous to mucous). […] A reduction in saliva production to about 50% of the normal unstimulated level will usually result in the sensation of dry mouth. […] Altered saliva composition may also be responsible for xerostomia. […] Salivary flow rate is decreased during sleep, which may lead to a transient sensation of dry mouth upon waking.
  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/dmms/fulltext/2019/14030/dry_mouth__an_emerging_epidemic.35.aspx
    Chronic hyperglycemia-induced polydipsia and polyuria, neuropathy, microvascular abnormalities, damage to the gland parenchyma, endothelial dysfunction and medication that is being consumed to keep the diabetes under control may contribute to decreased salivary flow in these individuals. […] Sjogren’s syndrome is an autoimmune disorder characterized by lymphocytic infiltration of the exocrine glands, mainly the lacrimal and salivary glands, resulting in reduced secretory functions with oral and ocular dryness. […] Xerostomia and SGH are common side effects of prescription drugs. […] Drug-induced hyposalivation may be due to inhibition of parasympathetic nervous system with decreased salivation or through sympathetic stimulation that produces little saliva, high in protein content, thus giving a sensation of dry mouth.
  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/dmms/fulltext/2019/14030/dry_mouth__an_emerging_epidemic.35.aspx
    Radiotherapy is commonly employed as the mainstay or as an adjunct with chemotherapy and surgery for treatment of head and neck cancers. […] The first few weeks of radiotherapy witness a marked and progressive reduction in the salivary flow. […] The activation of the sympathetic system in conditions of anxiety, stress produces viscous saliva and hence contributes to the symptom of dry mouth. […] Personal habits like mouth breathing, drinking alcohol, or using tobacco products can cause dry mouth. […] Various psychological disorders such as depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, cancer phobia, and anxiety states have been associated with dry mouth. […] Disruption in the neuronal pathway for salivation following trauma and head and neck surgery can also lead to hyposalivation.
  • #1 Xerostomia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerostomia
    Dry mouth is also a common sensation during periods of anxiety, probably owing to enhanced sympathetic drive. […] During periods of stress, our body responds in a fight or flight state that will interfere with the saliva flow in the mouth. […] Dehydration is known to cause hyposalivation, the result of the body trying to conserve fluid. […] Physiologic age-related changes in salivary gland tissues may lead to a modest reduction in salivary output and partially explain the increased prevalence of xerostomia in older people. […] However, polypharmacy is thought to be the major cause in this group, with no significant decreases in salivary flow rate being likely to occur through aging alone. […] Aside from physiological causes of xerostomia, iatrogenic effects of medications are the most common cause.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment
    https://www.webmd.com/oral-health/dental-health-dry-mouth
    Conditions that lead to dehydration, such as fever, excessive sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, blood loss, and burns can cause dry mouth. […] If you don’t have salivary glands, you won’t have saliva. […] Smoking or chewing tobacco can affect how much saliva you make and aggravate dry mouth. […] A common side effect of using a CPAP machine is dry mouth. That’s because saliva is released from the salivary glands when they’re at a specific pressure. If the pressure in the mouth is higher than the saliva secretion pressure, the flow of saliva can be blocked. […] If the medical condition causing the dry mouth can’t be changed for example, if the salivary gland has been damaged or is a result of the disease itself, as is common with Sjgren’s syndrome, Alzheimer’s disease, and stroke treatment will focus on ways to increase saliva flow.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: Its Etiology, Symptoms, and Strategies for Management
    https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/dry-mouth-its-etiology-symptoms-and-strategies-for-management
    Rare developmental failure in salivary glands (partial or total) causes childhood xerostomia, occurring in 1 of 5000 births. […] Age is a significant predictor of perceived mouth dryness. […] A significantly higher number of postmenopausal women experience reduced salivary flow rate and lower pH levels compared with menstruating women. […] Psychological conditions such as anxiety and depression show a statistically significant relationship with the rate of unstimulated salivary flow and dry mouth. […] Smoking, consuming alcohol, and drinking caffeinated beverages can alter salivary flow rate and increase the risk of dry mouth or aggravate the condition.
  • #1 Dry Mouth – Mouth and Dental Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/mouth-and-dental-disorders/symptoms-of-oral-and-dental-disorders/dry-mouth
    Dry mouth is more common among older adults, but this is probably due to the many medications typically used by older adults rather than to aging itself. Medications are the most common cause, but some diseases (most commonly Sjgren syndrome or HIV infection) and radiation therapy can also cause dry mouth.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: Its Etiology, Symptoms, and Strategies for Management
    https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/dry-mouth-its-etiology-symptoms-and-strategies-for-management
    Dry mouth, or xerostomia, is a frequently occurring affliction that can negatively influence oral functioning and an individuals quality of life. […] Xerostomia is not a separate clinical entity, but rather, a sign of several etiologies that can impair the functioning of the salivary glands. […] Risk factors commonly associated with dry mouth include certain systemic diseases, xerogenic medications, head-and-neck radiation, developmental issues, older age, menopause, various psychological conditions, and lifestyle choices. […] Sjgren syndrome is the most recognized autoimmune disease associated with dry mouth and is characterized by the atrophy of the salivary glands followed by hyposalivation. […] Dry mouth is frequently observed as an adverse effect (AE) of prescription and OTC medications that are known xerogenic agents.
  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/aomr/fulltext/2015/27010/xerostomia__an_overview.19.aspx
    Xerostomia is the fourth most common symptom reported due to chemotherapeutic agents in advanced cancer patients. […] Uncontrolled diabetic patients often report dry mouth, due to polyuria and poor hydration. […] Xerostomia causes dysphagia, dysgeusia, and dysarthria by affecting patient’s quality of life. […] The condition causes dry, cracked lips with fissuring at the corners of the mouth, fissured tongue, and burning sensation. […] Xerostomia predisposes patients to increased incidence of dental caries leading to increased tooth extraction. […] Diagnosis of xerostomia can be made by detailed patient’s history, examination of the oral cavity, and clinically by mouth mirror test and wafer test. […] Management of dry mouth should begin with proper patient education and the identification of the underlying cause.
  • #1 Dry Mouth – European Association of Oral Medicine
    https://eaom.eu/education/eaom-handbook/dry-mouth/
    Xerostomia, as the symptom of oral dryness, results most frequently from hyposalivation. Other causes of xerostomia not related to hyposalivation are habits (such as mouth breathing), sensory impairment, and psychological or unknown (idiopathic) factors. […] Hyposalivation can be caused by systemic diseases or by their treatment. […] Sjögren’s syndrome (SS), an autoimmune disease causing oral and ocular dryness, is the second most frequent cause of hyposalivation. […] Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is estimated to affect about 3% of the world population. HCV-infected patients may present a chronic inflammation of the salivary glands, which may lead to hyposalivation. […] Others diseases with associated hyposalivation are Alzheimer’s disease, autonomic neuropathies, cystic fibrosis, depression, diabetes, graft-versus-host disease, HIV infection, sarcoidosis and others.
  • #1 Dry Mouth – Mouth and Dental Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/mouth-and-dental-disorders/symptoms-of-oral-and-dental-disorders/dry-mouth
    Dry mouth is caused by a reduced or absent flow of saliva. This condition can cause discomfort, interfere with speech and swallowing, make wearing dentures difficult, cause bad breath (halitosis), and worsen oral hygiene by causing a decrease in the acidity of the mouth and an increase in bacterial growth, which contributes to the development of cavities. Longstanding dry mouth can result in severe tooth decay and candidiasis of the mouth. Dry mouth occurs when the salivary glands (glands in the mouth that produce saliva) malfunction and thus decrease saliva production. There are many causes, including dehydration and mouth breathing. The most common causes of dry mouth are medications and other substances, and radiation to the head and neck (for cancer treatment). Medications are the most common cause overall. About 400 prescription medications and many nonprescription (over-the-counter) medications cause a decrease in saliva production. Many commonly used medications have anticholinergic effects. Dry mouth is only one among many anticholinergic side effects. Many chemotherapy medications cause severe dryness and mouth sores (stomatitis) while they are being taken. Illegal methamphetamine use has resulted in a disorder called meth mouth, which is severe tooth decay caused by methamphetamine-induced dry mouth. Tobacco use usually causes a decrease of saliva. Radiation therapy for head and neck cancer can severely damage the salivary glands, often causing permanent dryness. Less common causes of dry mouth include bodywide (systemic) disorders. Dry mouth is very common among people with Sjgren syndrome. Some people with diabetes or HIV infection have problems with dry mouth.
  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/dmms/fulltext/2019/14030/dry_mouth__an_emerging_epidemic.35.aspx
    Dry mouth is a common and emerging concern among the young and old alike, causing significant discomfort and oropharyngeal infections and impairing the quality of life of the individual. The etiology ranges from simple obstruction of salivary gland ducts, physiological stress and anxiety to a plethora of underlying salivary gland pathologies and systemic conditions. […] Understanding the etiology of the condition prompts appropriate early intervention to treat the underlying pathology, alleviate symptoms and prevent undesirable consequences that compromise the quality of life of an individual. […] Salivary dysfunction and ensuing dry mouth has a multifactorial etiology. Medications, poor general health, female sex, and old age influence the development of the condition. […] Diabetes is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both.
  • #1 Dry mouth | Better Health Channel
    https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/dry-mouth
    A dry mouth is a symptom of an underlying problem, rather than a condition in itself. […] A number of things may cause a persistently dry mouth, including prescription medications, medical treatments and certain autoimmune diseases such as Sjogren’s syndrome. […] A dry mouth significantly increases the risk of tooth decay and other oral diseases. […] Poor oral hygiene (not brushing and flossing your teeth every day) and a sugary diet tend to cause tooth decay. […] Because they are lacking the protection of saliva, people with dry mouth are more likely to get tooth decay and are more prone to get decay along the gum line (tooth root surface). […] Many different conditions, some short term and others long term, can disrupt the production of saliva. […] These conditions may include: Drugs and medications – about 600 drugs and medications, both legal and illegal, are known to cause dry mouth.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: Simplified – Oral Health Group
    https://www.oralhealthgroup.com/features/dry-mouth-simplified/
    Within a short period, without adequate saliva, the patient will begin to experience soft and hard tissue changes in the oral cavity. These are the complications of xerostomia, which can have very serious impacts on the patients health and quality of life. […] The visible soft tissue changes include: Dryness of the vermillion border of the lip, Loss of filiform papillae of the tongue, Cracking and fissuring of the tongue, Increased plaque formation on the tongue, Absence of saliva in response to gland palpation, Oral candidiasis, Ulceration of the oral mucosa. […] The hard tissue changes include: Increased caries rate (especially in the cervical third), Increased non-carious loss of tooth structure by dental erosion, Cervical dentinal hypersensitivity, Increased plaque accumulation on teeth and appliances.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: Simplified – Oral Health Group
    https://www.oralhealthgroup.com/features/dry-mouth-simplified/
    The major causes of decreased salivary flow are as follows: Medication (by far the most common cause), Autoimmune diseases (Sjogrens syndrome, lupus), Systemic diseases (diabetes, asthma, kidney, sarcoidosis, HIV), Radiation therapy to head and neck (which can cause injury to the salivary glands), Stress/anxiety/depression, Gender (xerostomia is higher in females, especially at menopause), Diurnal rhythms (flow is highest during the mid afternoon), Circadian rhythms (flow decreases in the fall and increases in the spring). […] Sjogrens syndrome is an autoimmune inflammatory disease with multisystem manifestations. There is a progressive loss of lacrimal and salivary function. […] The lack of effective salivary function will cause any or all of the following symptoms: Viscous saliva, Sticky saliva, Difficulty in speaking, Difficulty swallowing, Halitosis, Altered sense of smell, Altered taste, Complaint of dryness, Complaint of burning mouth, lips or tongue, Impaired retention of full upper denture, Impaired lubrication of lower denture, Mucosal irritation from foods and dental home care products.
  • #1 Xerostomia – Oral Cancer Foundation | Information and Resources about Oral Head and Neck Cancer
    https://oralcancerfoundation.org/complications/xerostomia/
    The most common disease causing xerostomia is Sjögren’s syndrome (SS), a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that occurs predominantly in postmenopausal women. […] In sarcoidosis, noncaseating epithelioid granulomas in salivary glands result in reduced salivary flow. In amyloidosis, amyloid deposits in the salivary glands result in development of xerostomia. […] Patients experiencing xerostomia from radiation therapy or cancer chemotherapy are at particular risk of infections from normal oral flora.
  • #1 Pilocarpine / Salagen® and Cevimeline / Evoxac® for Dry Mouth (Xerostomia) | Iowa Head and Neck Protocols
    https://medicine.uiowa.edu/iowaprotocols/pilocarpine-salagen%C2%AE-and-cevimeline-evoxac%C2%AE-dry-mouth-xerostomia
    A. A double blind randomized trial among 72 patients with Sjogrens Syndrome and xerostomia and xeropthalmia were assigned to either 10 drops of pilocarpine (5 mg) or 10 drops of artifical saliva orally three times a day for 12 weeks – identified statistically significant improvement in salivary flow and lacrimal flow with pilocarpine – with the most common side-effects being sialorrhoea and nausea (Cifuentes 2018) […] As per Kapourani et al, pilocarpine is a non-specific muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonist with mild beta-adrenergic activity (Kapourani 2022). Pilocarpine is capable of activating all 5 muscarinic receptor subtypes – with the therapeutic effect addressing xerostomia coming from its binding to the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor 3 (M3R) in the salivary glands. […] A. The FDA identifies cevimeline as indicated for the treatment of symptoms of dry mouth in patients with Sjogrens Syndrome with their recommended dose is 30 mg taken three times a day. Cevimeline can be found under the brand name Evoxac (20-989 Evoxac Final Print Label – full reference below).
  • #1 Pilocarpine / Salagen® and Cevimeline / Evoxac® for Dry Mouth (Xerostomia) | Iowa Head and Neck Protocols
    https://medicine.uiowa.edu/iowaprotocols/pilocarpine-salagen%C2%AE-and-cevimeline-evoxac%C2%AE-dry-mouth-xerostomia
    As per Fife et al, cevimeline is a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonist with predominant affinity for the M1 and M3 receptors (Fife 2002). The drug activates these receptors located on salivary gland epithelium to increase salivary secretions. According to Chambers et al, cevimeline has a longer half-life and duration than pilocarpine (Chambers 2007).
  • #1 Cancer treatment-related xerostomia: basics, therapeutics, and future perspectives | European Journal of Medical Research | Full Text
    https://eurjmedres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40001-024-02167-x
    The general concept behind using saliva-stimulating interventions is the same as the commonly prescribed muscarinic receptor agonists: relieving xerostomia symptoms by increasing saliva production. […] Muscarinic agonists, including pilocarpine and cevimeline, are currently the primary pharmacological candidates for cancer treatment-related xerostomia. These agents activate the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors located on the surface of salivary gland cells. […] Overall, current studies cannot determine the superiority of either medication, and the choice between pilocarpine and cevimeline should be made according to each patients baseline characteristics, the clinical response to each medication, their subjective satisfaction with the treatment, and most importantly, the frequency and severity of adverse effects.
  • #1 Tratamiento de la boca seca: puesta al día
    https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?pid=S1698-44472004000400001&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
    A first consideration is whether the cause underlying dry mouth is reversible or irreversible, i.e., whether the alteration affecting the salivary reflex is functional or involves permanent gland parenchymal destruction. […] Among the general measures to be taken into account when treating patients with dry mouth, consideration should first focus on the control of any systemic disorders that may be responsible for the oral problem. […] Psychopathological factors are increasingly frequent causes of xerostomia, particularly chronic anxiety and stress. […] In patients with dry mouth it is important to determine whether functional salivary gland parenchyma remains that can be stimulated mechanically or chemically. […] In patients with extreme or prolonged dry mouth, substances that replace lost salivary function and components can be used.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: Simplified – Oral Health Group
    https://www.oralhealthgroup.com/features/dry-mouth-simplified/
    Management of the condition of xerostomia must include strategies to restore salivary flow and function as well as treatment of the soft and hard tissue complications. […] Saliva can be stimulated by various means. The easiest and least invasive method is mechanical, or chewing, stimulation. […] Some medications decrease salivary flow; others increase salivary flow and can be used to treat xerostomia. The most established pharmacologic agent is pilocarpine. […] Saliva substitutes and oral lubricants are over the counter products that are formulated as solutions, sprays or gels. […] Many patients with profound xerostomia suffer from mucosal irritation. Alcohol based rinses amplify these symptoms and must be ruled out. […] The Biotene system includes one protein and two enzymes, both naturally present in saliva, that have antimicrobial properties. […] After the cause is determined, the treatment follows step-by-step strategies. First, the lack of saliva is addressed through stimulation and/or saliva substitution to enhance patient comfort. Then the oral complications are managed by easy-to-follow protocols.
  • #1 Dry mouth: Xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction
    https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/july/dry-mouth-xerostomia-and-salivary-gland-hypofuncti
    The causes of xerostomia span beyond inadequate salivary volume. […] Factors that have been attributed to xerostomia include qualitative changes in salivary composition, such as mucin abnormalities. […] More than 500 medications that are currently in use list mouth dryness as a side effect; however, in the majority of cases, the mechanisms are unknown. […] Salivary stimulation can be used in the management of SGH and xerostomia, and may be considered in an individual with functioning salivary gland tissue. […] Chewing any gum, importantly, sugar-free, will stimulate saliva, but certain products are specifically marketed for that purpose. […] Although chewing gum is effective in stimulating saliva, its usefulness in the management of xerostomia is limited, highlighting the complex nature of the relationship between SGH and xerostomia.
  • #1 Oral Lubrication, Xerostomia, and Advanced Macromolecular Lubricants for Treatment of Dry Mouth
    https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4442/12/4/126
    Dry mouth, also known as xerostomia, is a condition in which insufficient or ineffective saliva does not provide sufficient oral lubrication. […] Xerostomia arises as a side effect of various medications, diseases, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or nerve damage. […] Saliva is the key medium responsible for the lubrication of oral surfaces. […] Salivary gland dysfunction may alter the composition and the production of saliva, resulting in aberrant SCF with less mucin, which results in poor lubrication, mouth dryness, difficulty in swallowing, and may cause oral burning sensations. […] The lubricating properties of mucins can be attributed to their ability to bind ions and, consequently, water. […] The protective layer that mucins provide is so important that the loss of mucin production is a major cause of xerostomia.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment
    https://www.webmd.com/oral-health/dental-health-dry-mouth
    Another prescription drug, Evoxac, is FDA-approved to treat dry mouth in people with Sjgren’s syndrome, an autoimmune disease linked to dry eyes, dry mouth, dry skin, and muscle pain. […] Scientists are working on ways to repair salivary glands that have been damaged and are developing an artificial salivary gland that can be implanted into the body. […] Studies have shown that dry mouth is an early symptom of COVID, occurring before other symptoms like fever, cough, and shortness of breath. This is because the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes COVID, enters the salivary glands early on and affects the amount and quality of saliva these glands produce.
  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/aomr/fulltext/2015/27010/xerostomia__an_overview.19.aspx
    Cyclosporine, cyclophosphamide, and thalidomide when administered systemically produce marked improvement in xerostomia. […] In prolonged xerostomic patients, artificial salivary substitutes can be used which humidify the oral cavity and replace lost salivary function and components. […] Acupuncture is known to increase parasympathetic action, causing a release in neuropeptide and stimulating salivary flow and secretions, thereby reducing the incidence of xerostomia. […] HBO therapy is also gaining popularity in the treatment of xerostomia in radiation-induced cancer patients owing to its angiogenetic and revascularization effects, but the exact mechanism is poorly understood. […] A combination of principles and methods of life sciences with those of engineering to develop materials and methods that can repair damaged and diseased tissue or to create entire tissue replacements is called tissue engineering.
  • #1 Dry Mouth (Xerostomia): Causes, Symptoms & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/10902-dry-mouth-xerostomia
    Xerostomia happens when something causes your salivary glands to produce less saliva. […] Chronic dry mouth (when your mouth is dry all the time) could point to an underlying health condition. Most often, xerostomia is a side effect of certain medications, including antihistamines, decongestants and some antidepressants. […] The main goal of dry mouth treatment is to increase saliva production. This will, in turn, reduce your risk for tooth decay and gum disease. […] Specific dry mouth treatment depends on the underlying cause. For instance, if your provider suspects a medication is causing dry mouth, they’ll see if they can adjust your dosage. Or you might be able to switch to another medication altogether. […] When you have chronic dry mouth, you’re more likely to develop cavities, gum disease, mouth sores, cracked lips, and oral thrush.
  • #1 Dry Mouth: MedlinePlus
    https://medlineplus.gov/drymouth.html
    Having dry mouth, also called xerostomia, means that you don’t have enough saliva to keep your mouth wet. […] There are many possible causes of dry mouth, including: […] Diseases such as Sjogren’s syndrome, HIV, salivary gland disorders, and diabetes […] Nerve damage, when it involves the nerves that tell salivary glands to make saliva. […] Treatment for dry mouth depends on the cause.
  • #1 Dry Mouth (Xerostomia): Causes and Treatment | Doctor
    https://patient.info/doctor/dry-mouth-xerostomia
    Xerostomia (dry mouth) may be a side-effect of medication. It is also caused by irradiation of the head and neck region or by damage to or disease of the salivary glands. Patients with a persistently dry mouth may develop a burning or scalded sensation and have poor oral hygiene. They are prone to increased dental caries, periodontal disease, oral infections (particularly candidiasis) and intolerance of dentures. […] Where possible, treatment is directed at the underlying cause of dry mouth. If this is not possible, or is only partially successful, symptomatic treatment is used. Untreated xerostomia significantly impairs quality of life, which can potentially lead to depression. […] There are many possible causes of xerostomia, which include: Medications, especially anticholinergic, sympathomimetic and antihypertensive. Some opioids, benzodiazepines and anti-migraine agents may also contribute to salivary disorders.
  • #1 Dry Mouth (Xerostomia): Causes and Treatment | Doctor
    https://patient.info/doctor/dry-mouth-xerostomia
    The diagnosis of xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction requires a thorough medical history. Particular attention should be given to the reported symptoms, medication use, and past medical history. […] Patients with salivary gland hypofunction typically complain of dry mouth, difficulty swallowing and/or difficulty speaking. […] Drugs are a common cause of dry mouth. Reduce the dose or change the drug if possible. Morphine is a common but often overlooked cause of dry mouth. Other drugs that cause dry mouth include tricyclic antidepressants, antihistamines, antimuscarinic drugs, anti-epileptic drugs, antipsychotics, beta-blockers and diuretics. […] Pilocarpine is the only licensed oral treatment available. The tablets are licensed for the treatment of xerostomia following irradiation for head and neck cancers. […] Radiotherapy-induced dry mouth does not respond well to pilocarpine. One study showed that salivary gland transfer was four times more effective in this type of patient.
  • #1 Dry Mouth – Mouth and Dental Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/mouth-and-dental-disorders/symptoms-of-oral-and-dental-disorders/dry-mouth
    Doctors first ask questions about the persons symptoms and medical history. Symptoms of dry or irritated eyes, dry skin, rash, and/or joint pain raise the possibility of Sjgren syndrome. Doctors also ask about a history of past or current radiation treatment, head and neck trauma, and a diagnosis of or risk factors for HIV infection. Doctors need to know all the medications a person is taking or substances being used to find out whether any are causing the dry mouth. What doctors find during the history and physical examination often suggests a cause of the dry mouth and the tests that may need to be done. If the dry mouth began shortly after a new medication was started, doctors often try stopping the medication to see whether symptoms go away. […] Treatment of the cause, including stopping causative medications when possible, is essential. Sometimes medications to increase saliva production are used. Medications that increase saliva production include cevimeline and pilocarpine. The main side effect of cevimeline is nausea. The main side effects of pilocarpine include sweating, flushing, and excreting large volumes of diluted urine (polyuria). Saliva flow can be increased by chewing gum that contains xylitol or sucking on sugarless candy, by taking certain medications, and by using artificial saliva replacement. Because people with dry mouth are at high risk of tooth decay, meticulous oral hygiene, additional preventive measures at home, and dentist-applied fluoride are essential.
  • #1 Dry Mouth / Xerostomia
    https://www.centerfororalpathology.com/dry-mouth-xerostomia/
    Dry mouth, or xerostomia, refers to a condition where the salivary glands in your mouth do not make enough saliva to keep your mouth wet. […] Dry mouth is caused when your salivary glands do not produce enough saliva to keep your mouth wet. These glands may not work properly as the result of: […] Dry mouth can also occur in association with numerous health conditions including diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, or from autoimmune diseases. […] The goals of The Center for Oral Pathology for treating your xerostomia include identifying the possible cause, relieving your discomfort, and preventing complications. […] Xerostomia can be alleviated by using a saliva substitute and other measures, such as lifestyle changes, and other oral health specific recommendations. […] Saliva is essential to maintain the health of your teeth and your mouth.
  • #2 Dry mouth – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dry-mouth/symptoms-causes/syc-20356048
    Dry mouth, also called xerostomia (zeer-o-STOE-me-uh), is when the salivary glands in the mouth don’t make enough saliva to keep the mouth wet. Dry mouth often is due to aging, the side effects of certain medicines or radiation therapy for cancer. Less often, a condition directly affecting the salivary glands can cause dry mouth. […] Dry mouth is caused when the salivary glands in the mouth don’t make enough saliva to keep the mouth wet. Sometimes these glands may not work properly due to: […] Cancer therapy. Medicine to treat cancer, called chemotherapy, can change the nature of saliva and the amount produced. This may be for a limited time, with typical salivary flow returning after treatment ends. Radiation treatments to the head and neck can damage salivary glands, greatly lowering saliva production. This may be for a limited time, or it could be lasting, depending on the radiation dose and area treated. […] Other health conditions. Dry mouth can be due to certain health conditions, such as diabetes, stroke, a yeast infection in the mouth or Alzheimer’s disease. Or dry mouth could be due to autoimmune diseases, such as Sjogren syndrome or HIV/AIDS.
  • #2 Xerostomia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerostomia
    Xerostomia, also known as dry mouth, is a subjective complaint of dryness in the mouth, which may be associated with a change in the composition of saliva, reduced salivary flow, or have no identifiable cause. […] Dehydration, radiotherapy involving the salivary glands, chemotherapy and several diseases can cause reduced salivation (hyposalivation), or a change in saliva consistency and hence a complaint of xerostomia. […] Xerostomia may also result from a change in composition of saliva (from serous to mucous). […] A reduction in saliva production to about 50% of the normal unstimulated level will usually result in the sensation of dry mouth. […] Altered saliva composition may also be responsible for xerostomia. […] Salivary flow rate is decreased during sleep, which may lead to a transient sensation of dry mouth upon waking.
  • #2 Dry Mouth: Its Etiology, Symptoms, and Strategies for Management
    https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/dry-mouth-its-etiology-symptoms-and-strategies-for-management
    Dry mouth, or xerostomia, is a frequently occurring affliction that can negatively influence oral functioning and an individuals quality of life. […] Xerostomia is not a separate clinical entity, but rather, a sign of several etiologies that can impair the functioning of the salivary glands. […] Risk factors commonly associated with dry mouth include certain systemic diseases, xerogenic medications, head-and-neck radiation, developmental issues, older age, menopause, various psychological conditions, and lifestyle choices. […] Sjgren syndrome is the most recognized autoimmune disease associated with dry mouth and is characterized by the atrophy of the salivary glands followed by hyposalivation. […] Dry mouth is frequently observed as an adverse effect (AE) of prescription and OTC medications that are known xerogenic agents.
  • #2 Xerostomia (also known as “dry mouth” and “dry mouth syndrome”) – CDHO
    https://cdho.org/factsheets/xerostomia/
    Drug-induced xerostomia is a combination of reduced salivary flow and changes in both the nature and quality of the residual saliva. More than 500 medications cause xerostomia, making it a very common reported oral side effect, particularly amongst the elderly. […] Because salivary mucins and enzymes play a role in initiating the breakdown of food in preparation for swallowing and digestion, xerostomic patients/clients may experience gastrointestinal issues related to their inability to adequately digest food. This may lead patients/clients to make poor food choices and decrease eating due to discomfort, disinterest, or chewing difficulties; these risks are heightened in patients/clients taking medications that cause taste alteration as a side effect.
  • #2
    https://europepmc.org/books/n/statpearls/article-56858/?extid=34033360&src=med
    Xerostomia-inducing medications may affect the central nervous system or at the neuroglandular junction. […] Medication-induced xerostomia is caused when a medication directly suppresses the central nervous system from producing ACh or occupies the muscarinic/adrenergic receptors. […] In Sjgren syndrome, chronic lymphocytic infiltration and inflammation of acinar cells lead to exocrine fibrosis, resulting in gland damage. […] Salivary gland dysfunction seen in Sjgren syndrome has also been linked to an inhibition of nerve stimuli.
  • #2 Dry mouth | Canadian Cancer Society
    https://cancer.ca/en/treatments/side-effects/dry-mouth
    Dry mouth happens when the salivary glands don’t make enough saliva to keep the mouth moist. […] If there is not enough saliva, bacteria can grow too quickly and cause sores, infections, gum disease and cavities. […] Dry mouth usually develops in the first 2 to 3 weeks of radiation therapy. It may slowly improve after radiation therapy to the head and neck is finished, but sometimes it can be permanent. […] Surgery that removes the salivary glands will cause an immediate and permanent dry mouth. […] Dry mouth caused by chemotherapy is usually temporary. Saliva usually returns to normal 2 to 3 weeks after treatment ends.
  • #2 Xerostomia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerostomia
    Dry mouth is also a common sensation during periods of anxiety, probably owing to enhanced sympathetic drive. […] During periods of stress, our body responds in a fight or flight state that will interfere with the saliva flow in the mouth. […] Dehydration is known to cause hyposalivation, the result of the body trying to conserve fluid. […] Physiologic age-related changes in salivary gland tissues may lead to a modest reduction in salivary output and partially explain the increased prevalence of xerostomia in older people. […] However, polypharmacy is thought to be the major cause in this group, with no significant decreases in salivary flow rate being likely to occur through aging alone. […] Aside from physiological causes of xerostomia, iatrogenic effects of medications are the most common cause.
  • #2 Dry Mouth – European Association of Oral Medicine
    https://eaom.eu/education/eaom-handbook/dry-mouth/
    Xerostomia, as the symptom of oral dryness, results most frequently from hyposalivation. Other causes of xerostomia not related to hyposalivation are habits (such as mouth breathing), sensory impairment, and psychological or unknown (idiopathic) factors. […] Hyposalivation can be caused by systemic diseases or by their treatment. […] Sjögren’s syndrome (SS), an autoimmune disease causing oral and ocular dryness, is the second most frequent cause of hyposalivation. […] Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is estimated to affect about 3% of the world population. HCV-infected patients may present a chronic inflammation of the salivary glands, which may lead to hyposalivation. […] Others diseases with associated hyposalivation are Alzheimer’s disease, autonomic neuropathies, cystic fibrosis, depression, diabetes, graft-versus-host disease, HIV infection, sarcoidosis and others.
  • #2 Xerostomia – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerostomia
    A medication which is known to cause xerostomia may be termed xerogenic. […] The likelihood of xerostomia increases in relation to the total number of medications taken, whether the individual medications are xerogenic or not. […] Xerostomia may be caused by autoimmune conditions which damage saliva-producing cells. […] Sjgren’s syndrome is one such disease, and it is associated with symptoms including fatigue, myalgia and arthralgia. […] Radiation therapy for cancers of the head and neck (including brachytherapy for thyroid cancers) where the salivary glands are close to or within the field irradiated is another major cause of xerostomia. […] This side effect is a result of radiation damage of the parasympathetic nerves. […] Xerostomia may also be a consequence of infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and a rare cause of salivary gland dysfunction may be sarcoidosis. […] Similar to taste dysfunction, xerostomia is one of the most prevalent and persistent oral symptoms associated with COVID-19.