Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Diagnosis and management of xerostomia and hyposalivation

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4278738/

  Xerostomia, the subjective complaint of dry mouth, and hyposalivation remain a significant burden for many individuals. Diagnosis of xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction is dependent upon a careful and detailed history and thorough oral examination. […] The diagnosis of xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction requires a thorough medical history. Particular attention should be given to the reported symptoms, medication use, and past medical history. […] Several questionnaires have been proposed to identify patients with xerostomia and hyposalivation. Fox et al developed a questionnaire on the severity of dry mouth, which may predict true hyposalivation. […] A careful oral examination is fundamental to identify clinical signs pathognomonic for hyposalivation. […] Most of the methods to measure the salivary flow are easy to perform and require little time. Salivary flow rates are usually measured for at least 5 minutes after an overnight fast or 2 hours after a meal. […] Several treatment strategies for the management of xerostomia have been proposed in the past years and they all aim to reduce patients symptoms and/or increase salivary flow. […] The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

• #2 Xerostomia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerostomia

  Xerostomia, also known as dry mouth, is a subjective complaint of dryness in the mouth, which may be associated with a change in the composition of saliva, reduced salivary flow, or have no identifiable cause. […] Hyposalivation is a clinical diagnosis that is made based on the history and examination, but reduced salivary flow rates have been given objective definitions. […] A diagnosis of hyposalivation is based predominantly on the clinical signs and symptoms. […] The rate of the salivary flow in an individual’s mouth can also be measured. […] There is little correlation between symptoms and objective tests of salivary flow, such as sialometry. […] Unstimulated whole saliva flow rate more closely correlates with symptoms of xerostomia than stimulated salivary flow rate. […] A minor salivary gland biopsy, usually taken from the lip, may be carried out if there is a suspicion of organic disease of the salivary glands.

• #3 Dry mouth – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dry-mouth/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20356052

  To determine the cause of your dry mouth, your healthcare professional reviews your medical history and the medicines you take, including medicines available without a prescription. Your healthcare professional also looks in your mouth. […] Sometimes you may need blood tests, imaging scans of your salivary glands or tests to measure how much saliva you produce. These scans and tests can help find the cause of your dry mouth. If your healthcare professional suspects that Sjogren syndrome is causing your dry mouth, a small sample of cells taken from salivary glands in your lip may be sent for testing. This procedure is called a biopsy. […] Your healthcare professional likely will ask you several questions. Be ready to answer them to save time to go over any points you want to spend more time on.

• #4 Xerostomia

  https://www.aaom.com/index.php%3Foption=com_content&view=article&id=107:xerostomia&catid=22:patient-condition-information&Itemid=120

  Dry mouth is typically caused by a multitude of factors including: medication side effects, various disease states, head neck irradiation, dehydration, surgery, smoking, and mouth breathing. […] The diagnosis of dry mouth is usually made after your dentist or physician carefully assesses your medical history and the clinical findings. Your doctor will want to determine if your dry mouth is caused by a change in salivary function, its severity, and its cause. In some cases, they may need to order more specialized tests to assess your particular situation. […] History Specifics of the complaint of dry mouth are obtained: duration, frequency, and severity. The history of dryness at other sites (eyes, nose, throat, skin, vagina) is documented. A complete medical and prescription drug history is obtained.

• #5 Dry mouth – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dry-mouth/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20356052

  Your healthcare professional may ask: When did you start having symptoms? Do you have symptoms all the time or only sometimes? Have you started taking any new medicines recently? Do you smoke or chew tobacco? How much alcohol do you drink? Does anything make your symptoms better or make more saliva? What, if anything, appears to worsen your symptoms?

• #6 How Dry Mouth (Xerostomia) Is Diagnosed By a Health Professional

  https://www.biotene.com/dry-mouth-health-impacts/dry-mouth-diagnosis/

  Its important to speak to your pharmacist, doctor, or dentist about Dry Mouthif not to alleviate the discomfort, then to protect against the associated health risks, such as gingivitis, tooth decay, gum disease, and fungal infections. […] Theres no official test to definitively say whether or not you have Dry Mouth. But, when you speak to your doctor or dentist and explain what youre experiencing, theyll examine your condition and ask you questions like: […] To determine if you have Dry Mouth, your doctor or dentist will likely conduct a routine exam. Here are some things they may do: […] Review your medical history because Dry Mouth can be triggered by a variety of different diseases or conditions. […] Talk to your doctor to learn more about how to manage your Dry Mouth symptoms.

• #7 Dry Mouth (Xerostomia): Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/10902-dry-mouth-xerostomia

  Xerostomia (dry mouth) is the sensation you may feel when you don’t have enough saliva (spit). The salivary glands in your mouth produce saliva to lubricate your mouth and help keep it clean. […] Chronic dry mouth (when your mouth is dry all the time) could point to an underlying health condition. Most often, xerostomia is a side effect of certain medications, including antihistamines, decongestants and some antidepressants. […] During an examination, a dentist will look for signs of xerostomia. For instance, your tongue and inner cheeks may look dry and textured rather than smooth, shiny and moist. […] The main goal of dry mouth treatment is to increase saliva production. This will, in turn, reduce your risk for tooth decay and gum disease. […] If you have dry mouth, here are some questions you might want to ask your provider: What’s causing dry mouth? Do I need to change my medications or adjust their dosage? Do I have an underlying condition that needs treatment?

• #8 Xerostomia

  https://www.aaom.com/index.php%3Foption=com_content&view=article&id=107:xerostomia&catid=22:patient-condition-information&Itemid=120

  Examination Major salivary glands are palpated for the presence of tenderness, firmness, or enlargement. The amount and quality of saliva coming from the ducts inside the mouth is assessed. The presence of dry or reddish oral mucosa is noted. The extent and pattern of dental decay is evaluated. […] Salivary flow rate In this test, the amount of saliva produced during a specified amount of time may be measured. The test is non-invasive and painless. […] Scintigraphy Performed in the hospital, this test measures the rate at which a small amount of injected radioactive material is taken up from the blood by the salivary glands and secreted into the mouth. It is another method to measure salivary flow rate. […] Biopsy of minor salivary glands A small, shallow incision is made inside the lower lip to remove at least four of minor salivary glands. A pathologist then examines them for changes characteristic of the salivary component of Sjgrens syndrome.

• #9 Dry mouth | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/dry-mouth

  About 10% of the general population and 25% of older people experience dry mouth (not enough saliva in the mouth). A dry mouth is a symptom of an underlying problem, rather than a condition in itself. […] Diagnosis of dry mouth may include: […] Examination of the mouth and teeth – the inner cheeks appear dry and rough, rather than moist and shiny. Your dentist may check the pattern of tooth decay. […] Saliva tests – for example, a typical saliva test involves rolling out the lower lip and patting it dry. Normally, saliva should re-moisten the lower lip within half a minute or so. […] Reviewing medical history – to check for conditions or medicines that could be drying out your mouth. […] Reviewing your symptoms.

• #10 Dry Mouth Diagnosis | Biotene | Haleon Oral HealthPartner

  https://www.haleonhealthpartner.com/en-us/oral-health/conditions/dry-mouth/diagnosis/

  Diagnosing Dry Mouth can be simply incorporated into routine clinical practice by identification of those at risk or with symptoms through:1,2 […] Typical signs of xerostomia the dental professional may identify include:3 […] Dry Mouth is more prevalent in women than in men4 […] Dry Mouth is more prevalent in the elderly population due to increased use of medication and susceptibility to disease*2,5 […] Xerostomia can cause denture wearing to be very uncomfortable and exacerbate chewing difficulties5 […] This one question could help identify Dry Mouth sufferers6 […] These clinically validated questions can help uncover Dry Mouth […] The ADA Council on Scientific Affairs outlines three diagnostic tests that you can use to support a Dry Mouth diagnosis7 […] Salivary flow measurement Periodic evaluation of salivary flow rate that provides a tool for monitoring Dry Mouth symptoms and can provide a tool to monitor salivary gland function […] Blood tests, Laboratory tests, such as complete blood count tests may be useful for when Dry Mouth is suspected to be related to systemic […] Minor salivary gland biopsy can be used to identify any underlying pathological changes associated with salivary gland dysfunction.

• #11 Xerostomia in the Elderly: What You Need to Know – Quest Healthcare

  https://www.questhealthcare.net/xerostomia-in-the-elderly/

  Increased life expectancy has led to Xerostomia (dry mouth) becoming a more common health condition among the elderly population. It is estimated that approximately 30% of the population 65 years and older experience xerostomia. […] Its important for clinicians to be aware of dry mouth problems in older patients, and be prepared to provide a diagnosis and administer treatment to protect a patients oropharyngeal health and quality of life. […] Examination of the entire oral cavity for patients with dry mouth may reveal: Stringy or foamy saliva, Dry and/or sticky mucosa, Little or no pooled saliva on the floor of the mouth, Difficulty expressing saliva from salivary glands, Dental caries, Pseudomembranous candidiasis (white plaque on mucosal surface), Enlarged glands (most commonly found in patients with Sjogrens syndrome or other diseases). […] Sialometry (injection of a radio-opaque material into the salivary glands to measure salivary flow rates) can be helpful in the evaluation and diagnosis of dry mouth.

• #12 Dry Mouth Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment | National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research

  https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/health-info/dry-mouth

  Your doctor or dentist will review your medical history and ask about any medications you take. He or she may also suggest blood tests or a test that measures how much saliva you produce.

• #13 Xerostomia: Diagnosis and Management

  https://www.cancernetwork.com/view/xerostomia-diagnosis-and-management

  Xerostomia, or dry mouth, is a common complaint that may be caused by several conditions, which include side effects of a wide variety of drugs, such as antidepressants, therapeutic radiation to the head and neck, dehydration, diabetes, and diseases involving salivary glands, such as Sjgren’s syndrome. The complaint of dry mouth may or may not be associated with decreased salivary gland function. Individuals with xerostomia complain of problems with eating, speaking, swallowing, and wearing dentures. […] Diagnosis of xerostomia requires careful evaluation of signs and symptoms, with clinical extra-oral and intra-oral examinations, assessment of salivary gland function by measurement of resting and stimulated flow rates, and, in some cases, biopsy of minor salivary glands. […] Salivary flow measurement (sialometry) is an important part of the evaluation of dry mouth. It can be used to investigate and establish the diagnosis of xerostomia.

• #14 Xerostomia: Diagnosis and Management

  https://www.cancernetwork.com/view/xerostomia-diagnosis-and-management

  Measurement of resting, or unstimulated, whole saliva is an easy way to evaluate complaints of dryness. […] Salivary flow rates from the parotid gland or the submandibular/sublingual glands can be assessed by the use of collection devices placed over the duct orifices. […] Biopsy of minor labial salivary glands is used in the diagnosis of Sjgren’s syndrome, HIV-salivary gland disease, sarcoidosis, amyloidosis, and graft-vs-host disease.

• #15 Comprehensive Salivary Flow Measurement for Dry Mouth Diagnosis – The Kingsley Clinic

  https://thekingsleyclinic.com/resources/comprehensive-salivary-flow-measurement-for-dry-mouth-diagnosis/

  Salivary flow measurement is a diagnostic test used to evaluate the amount of saliva produced by the salivary glands. This test plays a critical role in identifying conditions such as dry mouth (*xerostomia*), salivary gland disorders, and other oral health concerns. […] Salivary flow measurement is often combined with other diagnostic tools, such as imaging studies or blood tests, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of salivary gland health. It is particularly useful for diagnosing conditions like Sjögren’s syndrome, salivary gland infections, and damage caused by radiation therapy. […] Salivary flow measurement is a vital diagnostic tool for identifying and managing conditions that affect saliva production. Saliva is indispensable for maintaining both oral and overall health. […] Diagnosing Dry Mouth (Xerostomia): Persistent dry mouth can cause discomfort, difficulty speaking, and swallowing problems. A salivary flow test helps pinpoint the underlying cause of dry mouth and guides appropriate treatment.

• #16 Xerostomia (Dry Mouth) | American Dental Association

  https://www.ada.org/resources/ada-library/oral-health-topics/xerostomia

  A patient is considered to have reduced salivary flow (hyposalivation) if the unstimulated salivary flow is 0.1 mL/min or less (measured for 5 to 15 minutes) or if the chewing-stimulated salivary flow is 0.7 mL/min or less (measured for 5 minutes). […] Management of xerostomia and hyposalivation should emphasize patient education, adequate hydration and lifestyle modifications. […] Various palliative and preventive measures, including pharmacologic treatment with salivary stimulants, topical fluoride, saliva substitutes, and use of sugar-free gum/mints, may alleviate some symptoms of dry mouth and may improve a patients quality of life. […] Salivary stimulants should be considered in patients with residual salivary gland function. […] The FDA has approved two oral sialologues–pilocarpine (Salagen, Eisai and generics) and cevimeline hydrochloride (Evoxac capsules, Daiichi-Sankyo and generics)–to treat dry mouth. […] Artificial saliva products and oral moisturizers are available with or without prescription.

• #16 Xerostomia (Dry Mouth) | American Dental Association

  https://www.ada.org/resources/ada-library/oral-health-topics/xerostomia

  Severity of xerostomia or dry mouth symptoms ranges from mild oral discomfort to significant oral disease that can compromise the patients health, dietary intake, and quality of life. […] The goals of treating xerostomia include identifying the possible cause(s), relieving discomfort, and preventing complications (e.g., dental caries and periodontal infections). […] Patients with complaints of dry mouth should undergo a detailed medical and dental history to help with early detection and identification of potential underlying causes. […] A thorough extraoral and intraoral examination to identify the presence or absence of salivary pooling on the floor of the mouth can help a dentist identify who will benefit from further diagnostic evaluations, such as salivary flow rate measurement, minor salivary gland biopsy, or blood and microbial tests.

• #17 Dry Mouth (Xerostomia): Causes and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/dry-mouth-xerostomia

  The diagnosis of xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction requires a thorough medical history. Particular attention should be given to the reported symptoms, medication use, and past medical history. […] Patients with salivary gland hypofunction typically complain of dry mouth, difficulty swallowing and/or difficulty speaking. They hardly tolerate spicy, acidic, and crunchy food and often report taste changes or difficulty wearing dentures. […] A careful oral examination is fundamental to identify clinical signs pathognomonic for hyposalivation. Helpful signs include: […] Most of the methods to measure the salivary flow are easy to perform and require little time. Salivary flow rates are usually measured for at least five minutes after an overnight fast or two hours after a meal. Unstimulated whole salivary flow rate is assessed with the patient seated in an upright position. Patients are asked to constantly drain saliva from the lower lip into a graduated container for 15 minutes (draining method).

• #18 Dry Mouth Diagnosis and You | CariFree

  https://carifree.com/blog/dry-mouth-diagnosis-and-you/?srsltid=AfmBOopOVFxAIBcbEGVbO9i-UoShv9gzyKfYeZ69D_tW2OOmnu9-jEvt

  For the stimulated saliva test, the dental practitioner may ask a patient to spit into a measuring cup while chewing on a piece of sterile wax for five minutes. […] Normal resting saliva flow averages about 0.3 ml/min, so if a practitioner retracts the lower lip he or she can observe saliva droplets forming on the mucosa of the lip from the minor salivary glands. […] Another quick indication for saliva flow is to just look at the floor of the mouth. […] If you are concerned about your dry mouth, you should make an appointment to see your dentist. They can recommend oral health products that can help stimulate saliva flow (like this gum) or moisten the mouth (like this spray) and help protect your teeth from the harmful effects of dry mouth.

• #19 Dry mouth: Causes, symptoms, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/187640

  Dry mouth is a symptom that results from a lack of saliva. […] This article will look at the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of dry mouth. […] Treatment for dry mouth depends on several factors, such as whether the person has an underlying condition or disease, or is taking certain medications that may be causing dry mouth. […] The doctor or dentist will likely examine the patients mouth and review their medical history. They may also order blood tests and imaging scans of the salivary glands. […] Sialometry: This is a simple procedure that measures the flow rate of saliva. […] Sialography: This is a radiographic examination of the salivary glands and ducts. […] Biopsy: A healthcare professional takes a small sample of salivary gland tissue. […] According to a 2015 review, doctors often report that, even though a patient complains of severe dry mouth, the oral mucosa appears to be moist. Less frequently, it may be the opposite the oral mucosa appears dry, but the individual does not complain of dry mouth symptoms.

• #20 Dry Mouth: MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/drymouth.html

  Having dry mouth, also called xerostomia, means that you don’t have enough saliva to keep your mouth wet. […] If you have dry mouth, it’s important to find out the cause. To do that, your health care provider or dentist will review your medical history, examine your mouth, and ask about any medicines you take. They may also suggest blood tests or a test that measures how much saliva you produce. […] Treatment for dry mouth depends on the cause. For example, if a medicine is causing dry mouth, your provider or dentist may suggest adjusting the dosage or switching medicines. In some cases, they might give you artificial saliva or a medicine to help your salivary glands work better.

• #21 Sjogren Syndrome Workup: Approach Considerations, SSA and SSB, Complete Blood Count

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332125-workup

  Some laboratory tests can be used to assess salivary and lacrimal involvement in Sjgren syndrome. However, no single test is sufficiently sensitive or specific in the diagnosis of Sjgren syndrome. The condition is properly diagnosed only when the results of various tests are simultaneously positive and when subjective symptoms and serologic abnormalities are present. […] Sialometry is a good measure of the degree of decreased salivary flow and helps to establish xerostomia, but the findings do not narrow the differential diagnoses. […] Dryness of the mouth and tongue due to lack of salivary secretion is characteristic of xerostomia associated with Sjgren syndrome. Mouth dryness may produce a deep red tongue, as shown here, and dental caries are common. […] Minor salivary gland biopsy currently is the best single test to establish a diagnosis of Sjgren syndrome. In this procedure, an incision is made on the inner lip, and some minor salivary glands are removed for examination.

• #22 Sjogren Syndrome Workup: Approach Considerations, SSA and SSB, Complete Blood Count

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/332125-workup

  While this is the most definitive test, performing it is not absolutely necessary from a clinical standpoint. Patients with Sjgren syndrome are essentially treated symptomatically and are observed for the development of other rheumatic disorders or lymphoma. This can be initiated without performing a biopsy. If, however, the diagnosis is in doubt or if a definitive diagnosis is needed, then this is the best test. […] A score of greater than 1 focus per 4 mm2 has a specificity of 83.5-95% and a sensitivity of 63-81.8% in the diagnosis of Sjgren syndrome. The focus score may be associated with keratoconjunctivitis sicca, the presence of autoantibodies, and, less commonly, xerostomia.

• #23 Diagnosis : What is Sjögren’s? : Sjögren’s Society of Canada

  https://sjogrenscanada.org/what-is-sjgrens/diagnosis.html

  Talk to your health care provider if you experience dry eyes and/or dry mouth for more than three months and have other commonly associated Sjgrens-type symptoms. […] The most used tests to confirm Sjgrens and dry mouth (xerostomia) are the Salivary Flow Test and a Lip Biopsy. […] A Salivary Flow Test measures the amount of saliva produced over a certain period of time, typically 15 minutes. The most accurate way to do this is to collect unstimulated saliva in a cup. Patients are considered to have a dry mouth if they produce .1 ml of saliva per minute or less. […] A lip biopsy provides tissue that will help to confirm the diagnosis of Sjgrens. The biopsy looks for signs of inflammation and cells that respond to inflammation which build up within a minor salivary gland. A focus score of 1 or more confirms Sjgrens and is used in combination with other diagnostic criteria.

• #24 Xerostomia Diagnosis and Management – Dimensions of Dental Hygiene

  https://dimensionsofdentalhygiene.com/article/xerostomia-diagnosis-and-management/

  The Xerostomia Inventory questionnaire consists of 11 questions. […] The score provides information about who is most likely to need management recommendations or a referral. […] The severity level of clinical oral dryness is determined with scores of: 1-3: Mild 4-6: Moderate 7-10: Severe. […] Multiple strategies are available to assist patients in managing xerostomia. […] Patients may also be advised to increase humidity at night, avoid using toothpastes that contain sodium lauryl sulphate, which may be irritating, and stop consuming crunchy/hard foods. […] When a patient presents with severe xerostomia/SGH, it may be necessary to meet with the supervising dentist to discuss a more significant intervention. […] Prescription medications (systemic sialogogues) are prescribed to improve salivary flow resulting from salivary gland dysfunction. […] Maintaining open and clear communication with patients is essential to their well-being.

• #25 Dry mouth – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/dry-mouth/symptoms-causes/syc-20356048

  Dry mouth, also called xerostomia (zeer-o-STOE-me-uh), is when the salivary glands in the mouth don’t make enough saliva to keep the mouth wet. […] Treatment for dry mouth depends on the cause. […] If you have dry mouth symptoms that don’t go away, make an appointment with your healthcare professional. […] Dry mouth is caused when the salivary glands in the mouth don’t make enough saliva to keep the mouth wet. […] Risk of dry mouth is higher in people who: Take medicines that have dry mouth listed as a possible side effect. […] Not having enough saliva and getting dry mouth can lead to: Increased plaque, tooth decay and gum disease.

• #26 Dry Mouth: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/oral-health/dental-health-dry-mouth

  Dry mouth (also known as xerostomia) happens when your salivary glands don’t make enough spit for your mouth to stay wet. Saliva is important for moistening and cleansing our mouths and for digesting food. Saliva also prevents infection by controlling bacteria and fungi in the mouth. […] Dry mouth may be due to: […] Certain medications. Dry mouth is a common side effect of many prescription and nonprescription drugs, including drugs used to treat depression, anxiety, pain, allergies, and colds (antihistamines and decongestants), obesity, acne, epilepsy, hypertension (diuretics), diarrhea, nausea, psychotic disorders, urinary incontinence, asthma (certain bronchodilators), and Parkinson’s disease. […] Certain diseases and infections. Medical conditions, including Sjgren’s syndrome, HIV/AIDS, Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, anemia, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, high blood pressure, Parkinson’s disease, stroke, and mumps, can give you dry mouth.

• #27 Dry Mouth: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/oral-health/dental-health-dry-mouth

  Some medical treatments. Damage to the salivary glands can reduce the amount of saliva produced. The damage could stem from radiation to the head and neck, or chemotherapy treatments for cancer. […] Nerve damage. Dry mouth can be a result of nerve damage to the head and neck area from an injury or surgery. […] Dehydration. Conditions that lead to dehydration, such as fever, excessive sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, blood loss, and burns can cause dry mouth. […] Surgical removal of the salivary glands. If you don’t have salivary glands, you won’t have saliva. […] Lifestyle. Smoking or chewing tobacco can affect how much saliva you make and aggravate dry mouth. Breathing with your mouth open a lot can also contribute to the problem. […] Treatment for dry mouth depends on what is causing the problem. Generally, treatment focuses on three areas: managing the medical conditions or drugs causing dry mouth, preventing tooth decay, and increasing the flow of saliva, if possible.

• #28 ClinMed International Library | Xerostomia: Understanding the Diagnosis and the Treatment of Dry Mouth | Journal of Family Medicine and Disease Prevention

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/jfmdp/journal-of-family-medicine-and-disease-prevention-jfmdp-1-008.php?jid=jfmdp

  Xerostomia, commonly referred to as dry mouth syndrome, is a result of reduced or absent salivary flow producing mucosal dryness. […] Xerostomia is often caused by systemic autoimmune diseases, including diabetes, thyroid disorders and Sjögren’s Syndrome, however dry mouth itself has been associated with a variety of mood and anxiety disorders and their treatments; as well, several therapeutic medications are reported as causing xerostomia in at least 10% of users. […] Xerostomia, commonly referred to as dry mouth syndrome, is a result of reduced or absent salivary flow. […] A major cause of xerostomia is systemic diseases, including diabetes, thyroid disorders, cystic fibrosis and a variety of autoimmune connective tissue diseases which all affect salivary gland function. […] While it can be part of a variety of diseases, xerostomia is often seen as a common side effect of many medications, such that, medication use is the most prevalent cause of xerostomia due to specific effects on salivary hypofunction in the mouth.

• #29 ClinMed International Library | Xerostomia: Understanding the Diagnosis and the Treatment of Dry Mouth | Journal of Family Medicine and Disease Prevention

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/jfmdp/journal-of-family-medicine-and-disease-prevention-jfmdp-1-008.php?jid=jfmdp

  Xerostomia is noted to be more prevalent in individuals who take a large number of drugs and/or take medication with higher frequency. […] However, at present we have not been able to predict differences between medications in terms of how xerogenic they are. […] As such, dry mouth can also be associated with a variety of pharmaceutical treatment options for mood and anxiety disorders, often leading patients to report dry mouth as a symptom of their disorder, rather than as a side effect of treatment. […] While antidepressant medications causing xerostomia were originally thought to be a short-term side effect, it has been demonstrated that the problem may persist over longer periods of time, resulting in a variety of dental problems. […] Patients with depression demonstrate heightened activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for decreasing salivary flow.

• #30

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12016-014-8431-1

  The most frequent diagnoses are pSS, other systemic autoimmune diseases, idiopathic sicca syndrome and drug-induced sicca syndrome. […] However, other diseases are important to rule out due to their specific management, such as sarcoidosis, granulomatosis with polyangeitis, IgG4-related disease, chronic hepatitis C virus or human immunodeficiency virus infections, graft-versus-host disease, and head and neck radiation therapy. […] At the light of these data, we propose a core of minimal investigations to be performed when evaluating a patient with suspected pSS.

• #31 Maxfacts

  https://maxfacts.uk/diagnosis/a-z/xerostomia/detailed

  Reduced salivary flow is commonly reported for this condition. […] Xerostomia remains a serious long-term consequence of high-energy irradiation in the head and neck region. […] The peak of salivary-gland damage occurs typically around 6 months after radiotherapy, and chemotherapy in addition to irradiation is known to exacerbate xerostomia effects. […] The current thinking about the mechanisms underlying the lasting damage to the salivary glands caused by high-energy radiation favours a two-stage model.

• #32 Lab Tests for Patients with Dry Mouth and Eyes

  https://www.rupahealth.com/post/lab-tests-for-patients-with-dry-mouth-and-eyes

  Lab tests play an important role in understanding why dry mouth and eyes are occurring. Identifying the underlying cause is key because it helps guide the right approach to treatment. […] Proper diagnosis is essential for managing symptoms effectively and preventing complications. Without knowing the root cause, treatments might only provide temporary relief rather than addressing the issue itself. […] Lab tests can also help differentiate between primary and secondary causes of dry mouth and eyes: […] Understanding whether the dryness is due to a primary or secondary condition is important because it can influence treatment strategies and overall management. Lab testing helps narrow down these possibilities, guiding healthcare providers toward the most suitable treatment plan. […] When dryness in the mouth and eyes is persistent or severe, lab tests can help identify potential underlying causes.

• #33 Xerostomia | Dry Mouth | Causes, Impact, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.nmcpondy.com/blogs/xerostomia

  Diagnosis of xerostomia begins with an examination of the mouth to ascertain the extent of the problem and to check if it has resulted in any tooth or gum problems. […] Your medical history will be reviewed and the impact of any medications you may be taking will be examined. […] At times, a blood test and/or scans of the salivary glands may be ordered to check the condition of the glands. […] Tests to determine the amount of saliva produced may also be ordered. […] In a few cases, cells taken from the salivary glands may be harvested and sent for laboratory examination. […] This will help identify the presence of Sjogrens syndrome or other autoimmune conditions.

• #34 Dry Mouth: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/oral-health/dental-health-dry-mouth

  If you think your dry mouth is caused by a medication you’re taking, talk to your doctor. The doctor may adjust the dose or switch you to a drug that doesn’t cause dry mouth. […] If the medical condition causing the dry mouth can’t be changed for example, if the salivary gland has been damaged or is a result of the disease itself, as is common with Sjgren’s syndrome, Alzheimer’s disease, and stroke treatment will focus on ways to increase saliva flow. […] Not only does saliva help digest food and make it possible for you to chew and swallow, it’s a natural mouth cleanser. Without saliva, tooth decay and gum disease are more likely. […] If you have dry mouth, your doctor may also prescribe an oral rinse to restore mouth moisture. […] Another prescription drug, Evoxac, is FDA-approved to treat dry mouth in people with Sjgren’s syndrome, an autoimmune disease linked to dry eyes, dry mouth, dry skin, and muscle pain.

• #35 Dry Mouth: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/oral-health/dental-health-dry-mouth

  Studies have shown that dry mouth is an early symptom of COVID, occurring before other symptoms like fever, cough, and shortness of breath. […] Dry mouth can make it hard to chew, swallow, talk or wear dentures. Dry mouth also raises your risk of gingivitis (gum disease), tooth decay, and mouth infections, such as thrush. […] You might have a condition like Sjgrens syndrome or another condition that affect the salivary glands’ production of saliva.

• #36 Dry Mouth Risk Factors, Treatment & Prevention | Colgate®

  https://www.colgate.com/en-us/oral-health/dry-mouth/the-facts-about-dry-mouth

  The systems regulating your body are impressively interconnected. This means that your salivary glands can be affected by a range of potential sources, from other medical conditions to drug use. […] Risk factors for dry mouth include: Diabetes, Sjogren’s syndrome, and other chronic health conditions, Medications (prescription and over-the-counter), Smoking, use of tobacco products, or illegal drug use, Alcohol use, Caffeine consumption, A history of radiation therapy, Advanced age, Nerve damage, Anxiety. […] A dry mouth is more than an uncomfortable feeling. Because saliva is necessary to the health of your teeth, gums, and mouth, chronic dry may cause: Difficulty chewing, speaking, and swallowing, Tooth and root cavities, Gum disease (gingivitis and periodontitis), Mouth sores, Cracked lips, Food and drinks taste different, Dentures do not easily attach to your gums, A scratchy voice, Sore throat, Bad breath (halitosis).

• #37 Diagnosis and management of xerostomia and hyposalivation | TCRM

  https://www.dovepress.com/diagnosis-and-management-of-xerostomia-and-hyposalivation-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM

  Xerostomia, the subjective complaint of dry mouth, and hyposalivation remain a significant burden for many individuals. Diagnosis of xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction is dependent upon a careful and detailed history and thorough oral examination. […] The diagnosis of xerostomia and salivary gland hypofunction requires a thorough medical history. Particular attention should be given to the reported symptoms, medication use, and past medical history. […] Several questionnaires have been proposed to identify patients with xerostomia and hyposalivation. […] A careful oral examination is fundamental to identify clinical signs pathognomonic for hyposalivation. […] Most of the methods to measure the salivary flow are easy to perform and require little time. […] Clinicians with a patient complaining of xerostomia have the opportunity to identify patients with true salivary gland hypofunction with effective diagnostic criteria and functional tests, and therefore prevent secondary effects.

• #38

• #39 The Importance of Diagnosing & Treating Dry Mouth | Dental Care

  https://stgeorgedentalcare.com/diagnosing-and-treating-dry-mouth/

  A dry mouth is a condition where the salivary glands in the mouth do not produce enough saliva. This can cause a range of uncomfortable symptoms, including a dry and crumbly tongue membrane, oral lesions, and difficulty swallowing and speaking. Dry mouth can be caused by several reasons that range from medication side effects to autoimmune diseases. It can have a significant impact on dental health, making early diagnosis and treatment crucial. […] A dry mouth is not just a temporary nuisance. It can lead to significant oral health problems that can worsen if left untreated, including enamel erosion, gum disease, and tooth decay. In severe cases, dry mouth can even cause complications with wearing dentures. Thats why diagnosing and treating this condition at an early stage is incredibly important.

• #40 The Importance of Diagnosing & Treating Dry Mouth | Dental Care

  https://stgeorgedentalcare.com/diagnosing-and-treating-dry-mouth/

  If you are experiencing these symptoms, you should consult a dental professional, who will perform a thorough examination, including saliva flow rate measurement, biopsy, and blood tests to determine the cause of your dry mouth. […] A dry mouth can cause serious dental and oral health complications, including cavities, gum disease, and even tooth loss. This is because saliva plays an essential role in keeping the mouth clean and protecting the teeth from harmful bacteria. Regular dental check-ups are crucial for dry mouth patients to prevent long-term dental damage. A dry mouth is not just a temporary discomfort. It can have serious dental and oral health complications, which can be prevented with timely diagnosis and treatment. If you are experiencing dry mouth symptoms, it is essential to consult a dental professional who can recommend effective treatment options. With proper care and treatment, you can prevent dental damage caused by dry mouth and maintain good oral health. So, if you notice any unusual symptoms, do not hesitate to seek professional dental care.

• #41 Xerostomia (Dry Mouth) | American Dental Association

  https://www.ada.org/resources/ada-library/oral-health-topics/xerostomia

  A patient is considered to have reduced salivary flow (hyposalivation) if the unstimulated salivary flow is 0.1 mL/min or less (measured for 5 to 15 minutes) or if the chewing-stimulated salivary flow is 0.7 mL/min or less (measured for 5 minutes). […] Management of xerostomia and hyposalivation should emphasize patient education, adequate hydration and lifestyle modifications. […] Various palliative and preventive measures, including pharmacologic treatment with salivary stimulants, topical fluoride, saliva substitutes, and use of sugar-free gum/mints, may alleviate some symptoms of dry mouth and may improve a patients quality of life. […] Salivary stimulants should be considered in patients with residual salivary gland function. […] The FDA has approved two oral sialologues–pilocarpine (Salagen, Eisai and generics) and cevimeline hydrochloride (Evoxac capsules, Daiichi-Sankyo and generics)–to treat dry mouth. […] Artificial saliva products and oral moisturizers are available with or without prescription.

• #42 Treatment of dry mouth and other non-ocular sicca symptoms in Sjögren’s disease – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-of-dry-mouth-and-other-non-ocular-sicca-symptoms-in-sjogrens-disease

  Sjögren’s disease (SjD) is a chronic multisystem inflammatory disorder characterized by lymphocytic infiltration of the lacrimal and salivary glands and resultant dry eyes and mouth. […] The treatment of dry mouth, including topical therapy, mechanical/gustatory stimulants, and the use of systemic cholinergic agents and other systemic therapies, along with other therapies for the management of other non-ocular sicca symptoms of SjD, will be reviewed here. […] Treatment of dry mouth due to salivary gland hypofunction aims to alleviate symptoms and prevent complications such as dental caries, gingivitis, halitosis, salivary gland calculi, dysphagia, and oral candidiasis. […] Thus, stimulating residual salivary flow, providing lubrication, and treating fungal infection, along with close attention to dental care, are the major aspects of treatment.

• #43 Dry mouth syndrome – symptoms, causes and treatment | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dry-mouth-syndrome

  Your doctor can diagnose you with dry mouth syndrome by asking about your symptoms, lifestyle and medicines. They will also examine your mouth and teeth. They may refer you for medical tests to identify any medical conditions that may be contributing to your symptoms. […] The best way to treat dry mouth syndrome is to treat the cause. Other symptoms and complications of the condition may also need to be treated, including oral thrush, mouth ulcers or dental problems.

• #44 Management of Dry Mouth : Johns Hopkins Sjögren’s Center

  https://www.hopkinssjogrens.org/disease-information/treatment/management-of-dry-mouth/

  Pilocarpine (Salagen) and cevimeline (Evoxac) are prescription medications that stimulate saliva production. Both are used to treat dry mouth by stimulating saliva flow. They should not be used if you have asthma, glaucoma, or heart arrhythmias. The most common side effect is excessive sweating. To minimize this, it is best to start the medication with one pill at bedtime and then increase after one week to one pill in the morning and one pill in the evening. After another week, increase to one pill three times a day. Other potential side effects include upset stomach or throwing up, nose stuffiness, and lowered night eyesight. You can take the drug with or without food. It can take up to 2 months for these medications to have full effect. […] Minimize the use of medications that can cause dry mouth. Many of these are prescription medications (such as anti-depressants, muscle relaxants, and anti-spasmodics for overactive bladders and bowel cramps). Talk with your physician as to whether these types of medications can be discontinued. Some over-the-counter medications can also cause dry mouth, such as anti-histamines and decongestants.

• #45 Dry Mouth

  https://www.aaom.com/dry-mouth

  For many patients, the use of the aforementioned strategies is all that is necessary to adequately manage their dry mouth. […] However, some patients may benefit from targeted drug therapy to address their dry mouth. […] Pharmacologic agents used to increase salivary flow are called secretogogues. […] Currently there are two prescription drugs available: pilocarpine (Salagen, MGI Pharma) and cevimeline (Evoxac, Daiichi Sanko, Inc). […] Both these drugs are approved for the management of dry mouth associated with Sjgrens syndrome, and pilocarpine is also approved for management of dry mouth caused by head and neck radiation therapy.

• #46 Management of Dry Mouth : Johns Hopkins Sjögren’s Center

  https://www.hopkinssjogrens.org/disease-information/treatment/management-of-dry-mouth/

  Artificial saliva or saliva substitutes can be used to replace moisture and lubricate the mouth. These substitutes are available commercially and come in a variety of formulations including solutions, sprays, gels and lozenges. In general, they contain an agent to increase viscosity, such as carboxymethylcellulose or hydroxyethylcellulose, minerals such as calcium and phosphate ions and fluoride, preservatives such as methyl- or propylparaben, and flavoring and related agents. […] SalivaMAX is a supersaturated calcium phosphate rinse that can be soothing and helps protect your teeth. […] Treatment of oral candidiasis in the setting of dry mouth requires anti-fungal medication, taken as either a daily pill or as a topical treatment, in the form of a troche (which is allowed to dissolve in the mouth) or a solution (which is swished around in the mouth before swallowing).

• #47

  https://www.ucsfhealth.org/medical-tests/dry-mouth

  Dry mouth occurs when salivary glands do not produce enough saliva to keep your mouth wet or they stop making it altogether. […] Proper treatment involves finding out the cause of dry mouth. […] Your provider may order: Salivary flow collection test to measure saliva production in your mouth. […] If your medicine is the cause, your provider may change the type or medicine or the dose. Your provider may also prescribe: Saliva substitutes that replace natural saliva in your mouth.

• #48 Dry Mouth Risk Factors, Treatment & Prevention | Colgate®

  https://www.colgate.com/en-us/oral-health/dry-mouth/the-facts-about-dry-mouth

  Keep in mind that because dry mouth can lead to other dental problems, prevention is crucial. Here are some tips for confronting dry mouth to lower your chances of developing associated dental issues: Limiting or skipping out on alcohol and caffeine, Avoiding tobacco products and illegal drugs, Brushing your teeth for two minutes twice daily and cleaning between your teeth using floss or an interdental cleaner once a day, Scheduling visits with your dental professional at least twice a year to stay ahead of potential problems, Consulting with your medical professional about alternatives to medications that cause dry mouth (you mustn’t change your dosage on your own). […] Steps you can take to treat dry mouth include: Drinking more water to prevent dehydration, Using a humidifier, especially when sleeping, Chewing sugar-free gum (xylitol) or consuming dairy products to promote saliva production, Asking your dental professional about using an artificial saliva product or a toothpaste, alcohol-free mouthwash for dry mouth, or gel designed to moisturize your mouth, Choosing products that contain fluoride, like toothpaste, mouthwash, or water (most tap water contains fluoride!) to help prevent cavities.

• #49 Diagnosis and treatment of dry mouth | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/diagnosis-and-treatment-of-dry-mouth-33493926/33493926

  Two prescription drugs pilocarpine and cevimeline reduce symptoms of dry mouth and increase salivary secretion for a few hours. […] Keeping mouth moist by sipping small amounts of water during the day. Avoiding frequent intake of acidic beverages. Drinking water while eating to aid chewing and swallowing. Increasing salivary secretion by chewing sugarfree gum. Soothing Dry cracked lips by an oil-based balm or lipstick placed over previously moistened lips. The use of vitamin E-containing ointments may be helpful.

• #50 Dry Mouth – Mouth and Dental Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/mouth-and-dental-disorders/symptoms-of-oral-and-dental-disorders/dry-mouth

  Medications are the most common cause, but some diseases (most commonly Sjgren syndrome or HIV infection) and radiation therapy can also cause dry mouth. […] Saliva flow can be increased by chewing gum that contains xylitol or sucking on sugarless candy, by taking certain medications, and by using artificial saliva replacement. […] Because people with dry mouth are at high risk of tooth decay, meticulous oral hygiene, additional preventive measures at home (including daily use of over-the-counter fluoride rinses or dentist-prescribed fluoride toothpaste), and dentist-applied fluoride are essential.

• #51 Dry Mouth – Virginia Cancer Institute

  https://www.vacancer.com/diagnosis-and-treatment/side-effects-of-cancer/dry-mouth/

  Treatment for a dry mouth is aimed at either relieving symptoms or preventing the damage before it happens. […] Oral aids: Your doctor may recommend one of the following to relieve your dry mouth symptoms: Sipping water, Gargling with a salt and soda mouthwash, Artificial saliva spray. […] Pilocarpine (Salagen®) tablets: The drug pilocarpine stimulates salivary flow from the minor salivary glands that are known to be rich in mucin, a component of saliva that acts as a lubricant and protects the lining of the mouth and throat. Pilocarpine appears to be moderately effective in relieving symptoms of a dry mouth. […] Amifostine (Ethyol®): Ethyol® is a drug that protects against the damage of radiation. Clinical trials have demonstrated that Ethyol® can reduce dry mouth and may prevent mouth sores. […] If you are suffering from a dry mouth, it is very important to maintain good oral hygiene in order to prevent infection or tooth decay.

• #52 Dry mouth

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dry-mouth/

  A dry mouth is rarely a sign of anything serious. There are things you can do to help ease it yourself. See a GP if these do not work or you also have other symptoms. […] Sometimes a dry mouth that does not go away may be caused by a condition like diabetes or Sjgren’s syndrome. […] If you have a dry mouth, ask a pharmacist about treatments you can buy to help keep your mouth moist. […] You have a dry mouth and it makes it difficult when talking or eating. […] your mouth is still dry after trying home or pharmacy treatments for a few weeks. […] you’re struggling to eat regularly. […] you’re having problems with your sense of taste that are not going away. […] your mouth is painful, red, swollen or bleeding. […] you have sore white patches in your mouth. […] you think a prescribed medicine might be causing your dry mouth. […] you have other symptoms, like needing to pee a lot or dry eyes. […] The GP can check what the cause might be and recommend treatment for it.

• #53 Sjögren’s Syndrome: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4929-sjogrens-syndrome

  Visit a healthcare provider if you’re experiencing new dryness in your eyes, mouth or anywhere else in your body especially if you’re also experiencing other symptoms like pain. […] The most common symptom of Sjgrens syndrome is unusual dryness, including: […] Dry mouth (xerostomia), mouth sores or thickened spit (saliva). […] A healthcare provider will diagnose Sjgrens syndrome with a physical exam and some tests. […] Diagnosing Sjgrens syndrome is usually part of a differential diagnosis. […] Some common treatments for dryness in your eyes, mouth or vagina include: […] Saliva producers: Your dentist may suggest over-the-counter saliva (spit) supplements or prescriptions to help your body make more saliva. […] Special mouthwash or dental care products: People with Sjgrens syndrome have a higher risk of dental health issues, so you may need more frequent cleanings, special fluoride treatments or prescription toothpaste and mouthwash.

• #54 Dry mouth? Xerostomia insights for cancer patients | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/dry-mouth–xerostomia–in-cancer-patients–5-things-to-know.h00-159618645.html

  Xerostomia is the scientific term for a chronically dry mouth. […] Among cancer patients, xerostomia is primarily caused by radiation therapy to the head and neck or surgical removal of the salivary glands. […] Yes. But if your salivary glands have been damaged or removed, we can only treat the symptoms. […] Fortunately, the remaining salivary glands tend to compensate for any that are damaged or missing. […] Almost all patients who undergo radiation therapy of the head and neck area will have some degree of xerostomia as a result of damage to their salivary glands. […] Saliva is a complex bodily fluid that helps people taste, chew, swallow and digest their food. […] So, when something happens to disrupt that flow, its a problem. […] A substantial number of our patients also wear some type of oral prosthesis. When one of them has xerostomia, it can be very challenging and uncomfortable.

• #55 Differential Diagnosis

  https://www.massmecfs.org/test/12-resource-library/differential-diagnosis

  The importance of saliva and adequate salivation is a health issue that often goes unnoticed. […] The more serious consequences and complications of poor salivation and chronic dryness may not be immediately recognized. […] Patients may find their mouth has become sensitive or painful, which could be caused by the thinning and irritation of oral mucosa. […] Progressive deterioration of teeth, increased cavities, particularly those found along the gum line of teeth, and increased periodontal disease are other frequent problems linked to chronic dry mouth. […] Current management recommendations include the following: Hydratedrink water, in frequent, small sips that will help to hydrate and cleanse the mouth. […] Chewing gum or sucking lozenges helps to stimulate saliva production. […] Patients may be referred to ear, nose and throat (ENT) specialists or oral surgeons for further evaluation of dry mouth.

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