Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Bronchiectasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430810/

  Historically, the most common cause of bronchiectasis was thought to be an antecedent respiratory infection, often during childhood. The causes are idiopathic, acquired, or infection-related. […] The causes are idiopathic, acquired, or infection-related. […] Bronchiectasis is a chronic lung disease characterized by persistent and lifelong widening of the bronchial airways and weakening of the function mucociliary transport mechanism owing to repeated infection contributing to bacterial invasion and mucus pooling throughout the bronchial tree.

• #1 Bronchiectasis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21144-bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is caused by two phases of airway damage. In the first phase, the initial damage (or insult) is caused by an infection, inflammatory disorder or another condition that affects your lungs. Healthcare providers dont know the initial cause in up to 40% of people with bronchiectasis. […] The first insult makes you more likely to get inflammation and repeated infections that cause further damage to your lungs. This is the second phase, or the vicious cycle. […] Some of the specific causes of the initial damage (insult) which starts the cycle of bronchiectasis include: Cystic fibrosis. Mycobacterial infections, like MAC infections or tuberculosis (TB). Autoimmune or inflammatory disorders, like rheumatoid arthritis (RA), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), lupus (SLE) and Sjgren’s syndrome. Foreign bodies, tumors or lymph nodes that block airways and prevent mucus clearance. Conditions that decrease immunity and increase risk of infections (like HIV and hypogammaglobulinemia). Primary ciliary dyskinesia. Organ transplant. Transplant medications decrease immunity and can increase risk of infection and bronchiectasis. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), an allergy to a type of fungus. Fibrosis (scarring) from radiation. Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. […] The most common cause of bronchiectasis depends on where you live. In the U.S. and other western countries, the most common cause of bronchiectasis is cystic fibrosis. Worldwide, its tuberculosis. In many cases, healthcare providers can’t determine the cause of bronchiectasis.

• #1 Bronchiectasis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis may result from a number of infectious and acquired causes, including measles, pneumonia, tuberculosis, immune system problems, as well as the genetic disorder cystic fibrosis. […] Cystic fibrosis is identified as a cause in up to half of cases. […] Historically, about half of all cases of non-CF bronchiectasis were found to be idiopathic, or without a known cause. […] However, more recent studies with a more thorough diagnostic work-up have found an etiology in 60 to 90% of patients. […] A range of bacterial, mycobacterial, and viral lung infections are associated with the development of bronchiectasis. […] Impairments in host defenses that lead to bronchiectasis may be congenital, such as with primary ciliary dyskinesia, or acquired, such as with the prolonged use of immunosuppressive drugs.

• #1 Causes – Bronchiectasis

  https://bronchiectasis.com.au/bronchiectasis/bronchiectasis/causes

  There are numerous causes for bronchiectasis. However, in approximately 50% of cases, an underlying cause is not found (King et al 2006). […] It is ideal to identify the cause of bronchiectasis where possible, to target appropriate disease management strategies. […] Bronchiectasis may present as a primary lung manifestation of the conditions listed below, which can cause chronic inflammation resulting from an abnormality of anatomy, immunity or function. […] Secondary bronchiectasis is more common and may occur as a complication of other lung diseases as a consequence of airway distortion, traction and ultimate damage in relation to conditions including COPD, emphysema, bronchitis, bronchiolitis and interstitial lung disease. […] Post infection: Pneumonia, Pertussis (whooping cough), Viral (measles, adenovirus, influenza virus), Mycobacterial (tuberculosis and atypical NTM).

• #1 Bronchiectasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296961-overview

  Causes of bronchiectasis include the following: […] Primary infections […] Bronchial obstruction […] Aspiration […] Cystic fibrosis […] Primary ciliary dyskinesia […] Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis […] Immunodeficiency states […] Congenital anatomic defects […] Connective-tissue disorders […] Alpha1-antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency […] Autoimmune diseases […] Idiopathic inflammatory disorders […] Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease […] Traction from other processes […] Toxic gas exposure. […] Bronchiectasis may be the sequela of a variety of necrotizing infections that are either inadequately treated or not treated at all. […] Typical offending organisms that have been known to cause bronchiectasis include the following: Klebsiella species, Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Nontuberculous mycobacteria, Measles virus, Pertussis virus, Influenza virus, Herpes simplex virus, Certain types of adenovirus.

• #1

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/bronchiectasis/causes/

  Bronchiectasis is caused by the airways of the lungs becoming damaged and widened. This can be the result of an infection or another condition, but sometimes the cause is not known. […] In around half of all cases of bronchiectasis, no obvious cause can be found. […] Around 1 in 3 cases of bronchiectasis in adults are associated with a severe lung infection in childhood, such as severe pneumonia, whooping cough, tuberculosis (TB), and measles. […] Some cases of bronchiectasis occur because a person has a weakened immune system, which makes their lungs more vulnerable to tissue damage. […] Some people with bronchiectasis develop the condition as a complication of an allergic condition known as allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA). […] Aspiration is the medical term for stomach contents accidentally passing into your lungs, rather than down into your gastrointestinal tract.

• #1 Bronchiectasis | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is a condition where your airways are damaged and widened. […] There are many causes of bronchiectasis. […] An infection in childhood, such as pneumonia, is a common cause. […] Examples of other infections that can lead to bronchiectasis include: childhood infection with whooping cough, influenza (flu) or measles, severe pneumonia, COVID-19 infection. […] Other causes of bronchiectasis can include: cystic fibrosis a genetic condition that can cause thick, sticky mucus to build up in your lungs, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or asthma, autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, Sjgren’s syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) an allergic reaction to a fungus called aspergillus, problems with your immune system. […] Sometimes, an obvious cause can’t be found.

• #1 Bronchiectasis – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/bronchiectasis-and-atelectasis/bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is best considered the common end-point of various disorders that cause chronic airway inflammation. Bronchiectasis develops most often in patients with genetic, immunologic, or anatomic defects that affect the airways. The cause of many cases appears initially to be idiopathic, probably partly because onset is so slow that the triggering problem is not readily evident at the time bronchiectasis is recognized. However, after thorough investigation using genetic and immunologic testing, an etiology is more often found in these idiopathic cases. […] Cystic fibrosis (CF) is commonly associated with diffuse bronchiectasis that classically predominates in the upper lobes, and previously undiagnosed CF may account for up to 20% of idiopathic cases. Even patients who are heterozygous, who typically have no clinical manifestations of CF, may have an increased risk of bronchiectasis.

• #1 Bronchiectasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296961-overview

  CF is a multisystem disorder that affects the chloride transport system in exocrine tissues, primarily secondary to a defect in the CF transmembrane regulator (CFTR) protein. […] CF and its variants are the most common cause of bronchiectasis in the United States and other industrialized nations. […] Young syndrome is clinically similar to CF and may represent a genetic variant of CF. […] Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a group of inherited disorders that may affect 1 in 15,000-30,000 population. […] Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is a hypersensitivity reaction to inhaled Aspergillus antigen that is characterized by bronchospasm, bronchiectasis, and immunologic evidence of a reaction to Aspergillus species. […] Immunodeficiency states may be congenital or acquired. […] Bronchiectasis can result from a variety of congenital anatomic defects.

• #1 Bronchiectasis Causes | How did I get Bronchiectasis?

  https://www.nationaljewish.org/conditions/bronchiectasis/overview/causes

  Primary ciliary dyskinesia impairs the ability small hairs called cilia to clear mucus and bacteria from the airways. Recurrent lung infections can occur and cause bronchiectasis. […] Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency or Anomaly. Alpha-1 antitrypsin is a protein that moderates inflammation that occurs during an infection. People who are deficient in alpha-1 antitrypsin or who have an abnormal protein may be more likely to have recurrent lung infections that cause bronchiectasis. […] Obstructed airways trap mucous and infection behind the obstruction which can damage the airways and cause bronchiectasis. […] Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and allergic bronchopulmonary aspirgillosis are diseases that can cause obstruction of the airways.

• #1 Causes – Bronchiectasis

  https://bronchiectasis.com.au/bronchiectasis/bronchiectasis/causes

  Primary or secondary immune deficiency: Immunoglobulin G subclass deficiency, Hypogammaglobulinaemia, Lung and bone marrow transplantation, Malignancy, HIV/AIDS, Human T-Lymphotropic Virus 1 (HTLV-1). […] Asthma and fungal allergy: Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA). […] Mucociliary dysfunction: Cystic Fibrosis, Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia, Kartageners Syndrome. […] Recurrent small volume aspiration: Gastro-oesophageal reflux, Poor dentition/recurrent oral infection. […] Bronchial obstruction: Inhalation of foreign objects such as peanuts, Tumour, Airway compression, Lymph node. […] Systemic inflammatory diseases: Rheumatoid arthritis, Sjgrens Syndrome, Inflammatory bowel disease, Sarcoidosis. […] Structural lung disease: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Bronchiolitis, Interstitial lung disease. […] Treatable causes of bronchiectasis: Immune deficiency, ABPA, Mycobacterial infection, Airway obstruction, Inflammatory bowel disease, Rheumatoid arthritis, Aspiration.

• #1 Bronchiectasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296961-overview

  Bronchiectasis has been noted to occur in this rare condition, both in patients with true AAT deficiency and in patients with heterozygous phenotypes. […] Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with bronchiectasis in a reported 3.2-35% of patients. […] Bronchiectasis has been noted in patients with Sjgren syndrome and may be secondary to increased viscosity of mucus with poor airway clearance. […] Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) patients have also been shown to have an increased incidence of bronchiectasis on radiographic screening. […] Traction bronchiectasis is distortion of the airways secondary to mechanical traction on the bronchi from fibrosis of the surrounding lung parenchyma. […] Exposure to toxic gas may often cause irreversible damage to the bronchial airways and cystic bronchiectasis.

• #1 Bronchiectasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296961-overview

  Infection with respiratory syncytial virus in childhood may also result in bronchiectasis. […] Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection deserves special mention. […] Once a patient develops bronchiectasis, many of these same organisms colonize the damaged bronchi and may cause ongoing damage and episodic infectious exacerbations. […] Although not a primary cause of bronchiectasis, P aeruginosa often causes chronic bronchial infection in patients with non-CF bronchiectasis via a mechanism involving biofilm formation and the release of virulence factors. […] Focal postobstructive bronchiectasis may occur in a number of clinical settings (ie, endobronchial tumors, broncholithiasis, bronchial stenosis from infections, encroachment of hilar lymph nodes, foreign body aspiration). […] In adults, foreign body aspiration often takes place in the setting of altered mental status and involves unchewed food.

• #1 Causes and risk factors associated with bronchiectasis | RESPe

  https://respelearning.scot/topic-2-assessment-and-common-lung-diseases/common-lung-diseases/bronchiectasis/causes-and-risk

  Bronchiectasis is caused by inflammatory damage to the airways. In about half of all people with bronchiectasis the cause of the damage cannot be found. In the other half an identified underlying cause has damaged the airways, leading to bronchiectasis. […] Examples of underlying causes include: […] Post-infectious: Previous childhood respiratory infections due to viruses (i.e., measles, influenza, whooping cough). Previous infections with Mycobacteria (Tuberculosis) or severe bacterial pneumonia. Exaggerated response to inhaled Aspergillus fumigatus (air borne fungus). […] Immunodeficiency: Immunoglobulin deficiency. HIV infection. […] Genetic: Cystic fibrosis. Ciliary dyskinesia or immotile cilia syndrome. Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency (also causes COPD and emphysema). […] Aspiration or inhalation injury. […] Focal bronchial obstruction: Foreign body, egg or peanut allergy, parts of toys, teeth etc. Stenosis narrowing of major air passage. Tumour blocking airways. Enlarged lymph nodes pressing on airways narrowing them down.

• #1 Bronchiectasis and exacerbations or “flare ups” – North Tees and Hartlepool NHS Foundation Trust

  https://www.nth.nhs.uk/resources/bronchiectasis-and-exacerbations-or-flare-ups/

  Airway blockages: Occasionally food or objects can be accidentally inhaled into your airways. These will block an airway or group of airways. This blockage traps mucous and phlegm which causes inflammation and scarring. […] Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease: This is also known as acid reflux. Some people are prone to acid washing out of their stomach and up the oesophagus (the gullet). The top of the gullet shares an opening with the top of your wind-pipe. If the acid reaches this opening, small amounts of it can travel down your wind pipe and into the airways in your lung. This acid can cause the airways to become inflamed. […] Allergy: You can become allergic to a fungus called aspergillus which is in the environment around us. This allergic response in your airways causes them to become inflamed. If this isn’t treated, in the longer term it can lead to bronchiectasis. […] Other causes: There are rare conditions of your airways and some other inherited conditions which can cause bronchiectasis. […] You may also know that Cystic Fibrosis (CF) causes bronchiectasis. This is different from the bronchiectasis we are describing here.

• #1 Bronchiectasis – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/bronchiectasis-and-atelectasis/bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis also often coexists with more common conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. It is an increasingly recognized complication of chronic, recurrent aspiration and gastroesophageal reflux. […] Immunodeficiencies such as common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) may also lead to diffuse disease. […] In regions where tuberculosis is common, bronchiectasis is a common complication, particularly in patients with impaired immune function due to undernutrition or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. […] Rare abnormalities in airway structure may lead to diffuse bronchiectasis. […] Congenital defects in mucociliary clearance such as primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) syndromes may also be a cause, explaining almost 3% of cases that were previously thought to be idiopathic.

• #1 Bronchiectasis: Symptoms, causes, and risk factors

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/185768

  Bronchiectasis can happen when a medical condition or an infection damages the lungs, leaving them unable to remove mucus. […] The exact cause of bronchiectasis is unclear. However, damage to the bronchial tubes may occur during an infection or a medical condition. […] Cystic fibrosis (CF) accounts for almost half of the cases in the United States. […] Infections that increase the risk include tuberculosis (TB), pneumonia, a fungal infection, whooping cough early in life, and measles. […] A wide variety of factors can lead to bronchiectasis, including genetic abnormalities, immunologic conditions, autoimmune diseases, airway obstruction, and underlying deficiencies due to genetic factors. […] Apart from CF, a number of other long-term conditions can increase the risk of bronchiectasis. […] Smoking and traffic pollution are risk factors for COPD. With COPD, there is a narrowing of the bronchial tubes which allows mucus to build up and impair respiratory function. […] Individuals who have had COPD for a long time may develop bronchiectasis.

• #1 Causes of Bronchiectasis | trudellmed.com

  https://www.trudellmed.com/global/living-bronchiectasis/causes-bronchiectasis

  Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) […] Severe asthma […] Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), such as ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease […] Recurring pulmonary aspiration, when you inhale a foreign substance such as food, liquid, saliva, or stomach acid into your lungs […] Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (A1AT), a genetic disorder that can affect your lungs […] Congenital (you are born with the condition) […] The cause is unknown this is called idiopathic bronchiectasis […] CF Bronchiectasis is related to having cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis is a genetic condition that causes an abnormal production of thick and sticky mucus in the lungs and other parts of the body.

• #1 Environmental causes of bronchiectasis? | Mayo Clinic Connect

  https://connect.mayoclinic.org/discussion/environmental-causes-of-bronchiectasis/

  I think environment is definitely a contributing factor to many diseases, but our genetics and diet play a role as well. […] People with various lung infections sometimes develop bronchiectasis and MAC is one of the infections that can do that. […] Bottom line much of NTM exposure is related to water. It also shows up in soil and therefore the air. […] If you garden wear a mask. Inside swimming pools and hot tubs also brew NTM (it’s in the plumbing pipes). It’s ubiquitous. […] I would think, if there were such a connection then others would already have examined and reported it. […] Maybe exposure to NTM causes bronchiectasis? […] The registry indicates that half of all people with bronchiectasis smoked. […] Here’s the article I mentioned about the cluster of MAC near my current residence-just across river. […] Assuming this is accurate, your question about whether it is unusual for you and a few close neighbors to all have BE, given your ages, I would think not. But if you all have MAC, then I would, as others have pointed out, at least be concerned about an environmental source common to all of you.

• #1 Bronchiectasis exacerbation: a narrative review of causes, risk factors, management and prevention

  https://atm.amegroups.org/article/view/104705/html

  In addition to pathogens and host inflammatory responses, environmental factors such as air pollution may be related to bronchiectasis exacerbations. […] A history of exacerbations should be discussed first. […] The concept of a frequent exacerbator phenotype in bronchiectasis is similar to that in COPD, which describes a patient group more susceptible to pulmonary exacerbation with no relation to lung function. […] Chronic infection, particularly with P. aeruginosa is associated with worse outcomes. […] When bronchiectasis is coupled with airway disease, the risk of exacerbation increases. […] Patients with bronchiectasis are often elderly and multimorbid, and a higher frequency of exacerbations has been shown to be associated with a higher frequency of co-morbid illnesses.

• #1 What causes bronchiectasis? – NTM Bronchiectasis

  https://bronchiectasisinfo.org/what-causes-bronchiectasis/

  The initial lung damage that leads to bronchiectasis can begin in childhood. […] Bronchiectasis can be congenital (present from birth) or acquired. Congenital bronchiectasis affects infants and children as a result of genetic abnormalities that affect the normal function of the airways. Acquired bronchiectasis is more common and occurs as a secondary effect of another factor such as infection. […] In the United States, common childhood infections that cause damage to the airways such as whooping cough and measles used to cause many cases of bronchiectasis. […] In all populations, tuberculosis, NTM (nontuberculous mycobacteria), fungal infections, and pneumonia can also cause bronchiectasis. […] Although smoking does not cause bronchiectasis, it can make a patients condition and symptoms worse and lead to more rapid lung function decline.

• #1

  https://bpac.org.nz/bpj/2012/september/bronchiectasis.aspx

  Bronchiectasis is commonly caused by recurrent or severe respiratory infections such as pneumonia (both bacterial and viral), tuberculosis, adenovirus, measles and pertussis. It may also be associated with; congenital syndromes and abnormalities, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), gastro-oesphageal reflux, smoking and passive smoking, mucociliary dysfunction, immune deficiency, pulmonary fibrosis, post-obstruction (e.g. with an unrecognised foreign body), recurrent aspiration and systemic inflammatory diseases (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoidosis). Overcrowding and socioeconomic deprivation are also important contributing factors. […] Socioeconomic deprivation is associated with an increased risk of developing bronchiectasis. The relative risk of a child living in a decile nine or ten community (most deprived) developing bronchiectasis is over 15 times higher than for a child living in a decile one area (least deprived).

• #1 Bronchiectasis Treatment London | Expert Consultation

  https://londonchestspecialist.co.uk/bronchiectasis-diagnosis-and-treatment-london-chest-specialist/

  Bronchiectasis is a complex disease with a multifactorial pathogenesis that involves damage to the airways and an ongoing cycle of infection and inflammation. […] The following are some of the key steps in the development and progression of bronchiectasis: Initial airway damage: Bronchiectasis may develop due to various causes that lead to initial damage of the airways, such as infections, genetic disorders, and conditions that cause airway obstruction. […] A detailed history and examination, as well as targeted investigations can identify the cause of bronchiectasis in many cases. However, a proportion will be labelled idiopathic where the cause is unknown. […] The inability to clear mucus and recurrent chest infections results in bronchiectasis. […] The impaired immune function predispose to recurrent and severe infections that often taken longer to improve on antibiotic therapy.

• #1 Bronchiectasis: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/lung/what-is-bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is when the walls of your bronchi, the tubes that carry air into and out of your lungs, become thickened and damaged. […] Your bronchial walls can slowly get thicker because of inflammation and infections. Both of these things keep mucus from draining the way it should. That extra mucus can trap bacteria, causing more infections, scarring, and thickening. Over time, your lungs have to work harder to breathe. […] Acid reflux into your lungs, like with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), may also damage them.

• #1 Pathophysiology – Bronchiectasis

  https://bronchiectasis.com.au/bronchiectasis/bronchiectasis/pathophysiology

  As bronchiectasis is an acquired disorder, its pathophysiology is commonly described as distinct phases of infection and chronic inflammation. […] The first stage in the development of bronchiectasis is an initial infective insult to the airways, which triggers a mucociliary response. […] This loss of mucociliary transport renders the airways susceptible to microbial colonization. […] Common microbials which may cause infections in bronchiectasis are: […] The severity of airway obstruction and rate of decline in lung function may be influenced by the colonizing microorganisms.

• #1 Bronchiectasis

  https://www.svhlunghealth.com.au/conditions/bronchiectasis

  One common factor in people with bronchiectasis is thought to be chronic infection and inflammation of the airways due to bacteria. A bacterial infection can cause the airways to get bigger and accumulate pockets of mucus. […] Causes of bronchiectasis include: Allergy an allergic reaction to fungi in people with asthma, Drug use as well as alcohol abuse, Environmental exposure exposure to toxic environmental agents, GORD also known as gastro-oesophageal reflux, Infection both viral and bacterial, including tuberculosis, Smoking especially cannabis. […] Bronchiectasis can also be inherited due to: Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, Cystic fibrosis, Immotile cilia syndrome. […] In bronchiectasis, the smooth muscles and the elastic tissue that allow the airways to contract (get smaller) are damaged. Chronic infection causes further damage to the bronchial walls, in a vicious cycle. As the cycle of infection continues, the ability of the lungs to function normally decreases.

• #1 Bronchiectasis – Impact be

  http://impact-be.com/conditions/bronchiectasis/

  Bronchiectasis is caused by one or more infections introduced into the lungs. […] People with bronchiectasis are more likely to get lung infections. Each lung infection can make the bronchiectasis worse. Therefore, early diagnosis and treatment of bronchiectasis is very important.

• #1

  https://www.rethinkbronchiectasis.com/disease-overview/

  Bronchiectasis has several known etiologies and associated conditions, but up to 40% of patients with bronchiectasis have no specific identifiable cause. […] Exacerbations are important for a lot of reasons. One is because patients feel poorly when they have them, and we would therefore like to try and prevent them, or treat them rapidly when they occur. So, we believe that exacerbations are part of what drives the ongoing inflammation and progression of bronchiectasis. […] One of the reasons we want to prevent exacerbations is we know they’re associated with some bad outcomes, worsening quality of life, and, very importantly, disease progression, and even mortality. […] Exacerbations can negatively affect patients and their families, and are associated with significant anxiety, lack of control, decreased quality of life, embarrassment, and work and social interruptions.

• #1 Etiology of Bronchiectasis in a Cohort of 2047 Patients. An Analysis of the Spanish Historical Bronchiectasis Registry | Archivos de Bronconeumología

  https://www.archbronconeumol.org/es-etiology-bronchiectasis-in-cohort-2047-articulo-S157921291730174X

  When idiopathic BEs are compared to post-infective BEs, the idiopathic forms were diagnosed earlier, had more symptoms of rhinosinusitis, were predominantly bilateral, had better lung function, and a lower rate of CBIs caused by PA, in line with previous studies. […] In our series, only 27% of patients had FEV1 evaluated the relationship between different levels of severity and different BE etiologies, and did not find any important differences, except for a higher rate of severe forms among BE caused by COPD and a lower rate among idiopathic BEs, coinciding with our findings.

• #1 Bronchiectasis Differential Diagnoses

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296961-differential

  Investigate the possible etiology of a patient’s bronchiectasis. Specifically, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, atypical mycobacterial infections, immunodeficiency states, and autoimmune diseases are causes of bronchiectasis that may be treated effectively once diagnosed. […] Foreign body obstruction needs to be excluded as an etiology in all patients. […] Cystic fibrosis (CF), Young syndrome, primary ciliary dyskinesia, and alpha1-antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency require aggressive treatment, as well as genetic counseling for patients and their families. Likewise, congenital abnormalities should be identified as such for the patient and their family.

• #1 Bronchiectasis 101: 5 Essential Facts You Need to Know | Temple Health

  https://www.templehealth.org/about/blog/5-things-to-know-about-bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is often caused by other conditions. […] Many people with bronchiectasis have an underlying disorder that damages the lungs. Cystic fibrosis, a genetic disorder that affects the lungs and other organs, is the most common of these. Nearly half of people with bronchiectasis have cystic fibrosis. […] Other conditions that can cause bronchiectasis include the following: Immune system disorders, such as HIV or immunoglobulin deficiency. Airway blockages caused by tumors or noncancerous growths. Inflammatory bowel disease, such as Crohns disease or ulcerative colitis. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), an inflammatory lung disease which includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Severe lung infections, including pneumonia or tuberculosis. […] Sometimes the underlying reason for bronchiectasis is unknown, but that doesn’t mean the condition itself can’t be treated.

• #1 Mortality risk and causes of death in patients with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis | Respiratory Research | Full Text

  https://respiratory-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12931-019-1243-3

  All-cause mortality risk and causes of death in bronchiectasis patients have not been fully investigated. The aim of this study was to compare the mortality risk and causes of death between individuals with bronchiectasis and those without bronchiectasis. […] The all-cause mortality rate in the bronchiectasis group was 1608.8 per 100,000 person-years, which was higher than that in the control group (133.5 per 100,000 person-years). The bronchiectasis group had higher all-cause, respiratory, and lung cancer-related mortality risks than the control group. […] Individuals with bronchiectasis had a higher risk of all-cause, respiratory, and lung cancer-related mortality compared to the control group. The risk of all-cause mortality was more prominent in those with airflow limitation and in ever smokers.

• #1 Bronchiectasis in children: Pathophysiology and causes – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/bronchiectasis-in-children-pathophysiology-and-causes

  The incidence of bronchiectasis in children is highly variable, ranging from 0.2 to 735 per 100,000 children annually, based on extrapolation of published data. Bronchiectasis affects children from low-, middle-, and high-income countries. […] For example, reported incidence of bronchiectasis in children aged 0 to 14 years old ranges from 0.2 per 100,000 child-years in England to 3.7 per 100,000 child-years in New Zealand.

• #1 Bronchiectasis | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/bronchiectasis?lang=us

  Bronchiectasis is irreversible dilatation of the bronchial tree, and is commonly accompanied by bronchial wall thickening and mucoid impaction 25. […] The incidence of bronchiectasis is difficult to gauge; infection is the most common cause and the disease is more common in low socioeconomic groups. Globally, infectious diseases account for about 30% of cases and in a similar proportion the cause is unknown. Tuberculosis accounts for about 14% and cystic fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma make a minor contribution 26. […] Commoner causes include infection, inflammation, congenital and proximal airway obstruction. Causes include 1-7,9,17,21: idiopathic, i.e. unknown (most common), impaired host defenses, cystic fibrosis (most common cause in children), primary ciliary dyskinesia, e.g. Kartagener syndrome, Young syndrome, primary immunodeficiency disorder, e.g. common variable immunodeficiency, hypogammaglobulinaemia, chronic granulomatous disease, HIV/AIDS 15,16, postinfective (most common known non-cystic fibrosis cause in adults), bacterial pneumonia and bronchitis, e.g. S. aureus, H. influenzae, B. pertussis, mycobacterial infection, e.g. tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex, allergic and autoimmune, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), connective tissue disease, e.g. rheumatoid arthritis 6, Sjgren syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) 7, inflammatory bowel disease, obstruction, severe obstructive lung disease: asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), neoplasm, e.g. bronchial carcinoid, lung cancer inhaled foreign bodies, congenital, bronchial tree malformations, e.g. Mounier-Kuhn syndrome, Williams-Campbell syndrome, pulmonary sequestration, bronchial atresia, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, others, chronic aspiration, traction bronchiectasis due to diffuse lung disease, e.g. pulmonary fibrosis, radiation-induced lung disease, post-transplantation. […] A mnemonic to remember common causes is CAPT Kangaroo has Mounier-Kuhn.

• #2 Learn About Bronchiectasis | American Lung Association

  https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/bronchiectasis/learn-about-bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is a chronic condition where the lungs bronchi become permanently damaged and widened. […] There are many causes of bronchiectasis, but for about 40% of cases the cause is unknown. This is called idiopathic bronchiectasis. […] Although the cause of bronchiectasis is not known in about 40% of the cases, it is often brought on by damage from another condition that affects the lungs. Even an airway blockage, like a growth or a noncancerous tumor, can lead to bronchiectasis. […] Though it is most often linked to cystic fibrosis, many other conditions can trigger bronchiectasis such as: Autoimmune disease, Immunodeficiency disorders, such as HIV or diabetes, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency which can cause COPD in some people, Diseases that affect the cilia, the small, hair-like structures that line your airways and whose main function is to clear mucus, Inflammatory bowel disease, including Crohns and ulcerative colitis, Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis which is a type of allergic lung inflammation of the airways, Chronic pulmonary aspiration, problems with swallowing that causes food or fluids to get into the lungs and leads to inflamed airways. […] Recurring infections that can cause damage to the airway walls include: Pneumonia, Pertussis (Whooping cough), Tuberculosis, Fungal infections.

• #2 Causes – Bronchiectasis

  https://bronchiectasis.com.au/bronchiectasis/bronchiectasis/causes

  There are numerous causes for bronchiectasis. However, in approximately 50% of cases, an underlying cause is not found (King et al 2006). […] It is ideal to identify the cause of bronchiectasis where possible, to target appropriate disease management strategies. […] Bronchiectasis may present as a primary lung manifestation of the conditions listed below, which can cause chronic inflammation resulting from an abnormality of anatomy, immunity or function. […] Secondary bronchiectasis is more common and may occur as a complication of other lung diseases as a consequence of airway distortion, traction and ultimate damage in relation to conditions including COPD, emphysema, bronchitis, bronchiolitis and interstitial lung disease. […] Post infection: Pneumonia, Pertussis (whooping cough), Viral (measles, adenovirus, influenza virus), Mycobacterial (tuberculosis and atypical NTM).

• #2 Bronchiectasis – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/bronchiectasis-and-atelectasis/bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is best considered the common end-point of various disorders that cause chronic airway inflammation. Bronchiectasis develops most often in patients with genetic, immunologic, or anatomic defects that affect the airways. The cause of many cases appears initially to be idiopathic, probably partly because onset is so slow that the triggering problem is not readily evident at the time bronchiectasis is recognized. However, after thorough investigation using genetic and immunologic testing, an etiology is more often found in these idiopathic cases. […] Cystic fibrosis (CF) is commonly associated with diffuse bronchiectasis that classically predominates in the upper lobes, and previously undiagnosed CF may account for up to 20% of idiopathic cases. Even patients who are heterozygous, who typically have no clinical manifestations of CF, may have an increased risk of bronchiectasis.

• #2 Etiology of Bronchiectasis in a Cohort of 2047 Patients. An Analysis of the Spanish Historical Bronchiectasis Registry | Archivos de Bronconeumología

  https://www.archbronconeumol.org/es-etiology-bronchiectasis-in-cohort-2047-articulo-S157921291730174X

  Bronchiectasis is caused by many diseases. Establishing its etiology is important for clinical and prognostic reasons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the etiology of bronchiectasis in a large patient sample and its possible relationship with demographic, clinical or severity factors, and to analyze differences between idiopathic disease, post-infectious disease, and disease caused by other factors. […] A total of 2047 patients from 36 Spanish hospitals were analyzed. Mean age was 64.9 years and 54.9% were women. Etiology was identified in 75.8% of cases (post-infection: 30%; cystic fibrosis: 12.5%; immunodeficiencies: 9.4%; COPD: 7.8%; asthma: 5.4%; ciliary dyskinesia: 2.9%, and systemic diseases: 1.4%). The different etiologies presented different demographic, clinical, and microbiological factors.

• #2 Bronchiectasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296961-overview

  Causes of bronchiectasis include the following: […] Primary infections […] Bronchial obstruction […] Aspiration […] Cystic fibrosis […] Primary ciliary dyskinesia […] Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis […] Immunodeficiency states […] Congenital anatomic defects […] Connective-tissue disorders […] Alpha1-antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency […] Autoimmune diseases […] Idiopathic inflammatory disorders […] Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease […] Traction from other processes […] Toxic gas exposure. […] Bronchiectasis may be the sequela of a variety of necrotizing infections that are either inadequately treated or not treated at all. […] Typical offending organisms that have been known to cause bronchiectasis include the following: Klebsiella species, Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Nontuberculous mycobacteria, Measles virus, Pertussis virus, Influenza virus, Herpes simplex virus, Certain types of adenovirus.

• #2 Bronchiectasis 101: 5 Essential Facts You Need to Know | Temple Health

  https://www.templehealth.org/about/blog/5-things-to-know-about-bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is often caused by other conditions. […] Many people with bronchiectasis have an underlying disorder that damages the lungs. Cystic fibrosis, a genetic disorder that affects the lungs and other organs, is the most common of these. Nearly half of people with bronchiectasis have cystic fibrosis. […] Other conditions that can cause bronchiectasis include the following: Immune system disorders, such as HIV or immunoglobulin deficiency. Airway blockages caused by tumors or noncancerous growths. Inflammatory bowel disease, such as Crohns disease or ulcerative colitis. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), an inflammatory lung disease which includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Severe lung infections, including pneumonia or tuberculosis. […] Sometimes the underlying reason for bronchiectasis is unknown, but that doesn’t mean the condition itself can’t be treated.

• #2 Bronchiectasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296961-overview

  CF is a multisystem disorder that affects the chloride transport system in exocrine tissues, primarily secondary to a defect in the CF transmembrane regulator (CFTR) protein. […] CF and its variants are the most common cause of bronchiectasis in the United States and other industrialized nations. […] Young syndrome is clinically similar to CF and may represent a genetic variant of CF. […] Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a group of inherited disorders that may affect 1 in 15,000-30,000 population. […] Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is a hypersensitivity reaction to inhaled Aspergillus antigen that is characterized by bronchospasm, bronchiectasis, and immunologic evidence of a reaction to Aspergillus species. […] Immunodeficiency states may be congenital or acquired. […] Bronchiectasis can result from a variety of congenital anatomic defects.

• #2 Causes – Bronchiectasis

  https://bronchiectasis.com.au/bronchiectasis/bronchiectasis/causes

  Primary or secondary immune deficiency: Immunoglobulin G subclass deficiency, Hypogammaglobulinaemia, Lung and bone marrow transplantation, Malignancy, HIV/AIDS, Human T-Lymphotropic Virus 1 (HTLV-1). […] Asthma and fungal allergy: Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA). […] Mucociliary dysfunction: Cystic Fibrosis, Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia, Kartageners Syndrome. […] Recurrent small volume aspiration: Gastro-oesophageal reflux, Poor dentition/recurrent oral infection. […] Bronchial obstruction: Inhalation of foreign objects such as peanuts, Tumour, Airway compression, Lymph node. […] Systemic inflammatory diseases: Rheumatoid arthritis, Sjgrens Syndrome, Inflammatory bowel disease, Sarcoidosis. […] Structural lung disease: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Bronchiolitis, Interstitial lung disease. […] Treatable causes of bronchiectasis: Immune deficiency, ABPA, Mycobacterial infection, Airway obstruction, Inflammatory bowel disease, Rheumatoid arthritis, Aspiration.

• #2 Bronchiectasis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296961-overview

  Bronchiectasis has been noted to occur in this rare condition, both in patients with true AAT deficiency and in patients with heterozygous phenotypes. […] Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with bronchiectasis in a reported 3.2-35% of patients. […] Bronchiectasis has been noted in patients with Sjgren syndrome and may be secondary to increased viscosity of mucus with poor airway clearance. […] Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) patients have also been shown to have an increased incidence of bronchiectasis on radiographic screening. […] Traction bronchiectasis is distortion of the airways secondary to mechanical traction on the bronchi from fibrosis of the surrounding lung parenchyma. […] Exposure to toxic gas may often cause irreversible damage to the bronchial airways and cystic bronchiectasis.

• #2 Bronchiectasis – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/bronchiectasis-and-atelectasis/bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis also often coexists with more common conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. It is an increasingly recognized complication of chronic, recurrent aspiration and gastroesophageal reflux. […] Immunodeficiencies such as common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) may also lead to diffuse disease. […] In regions where tuberculosis is common, bronchiectasis is a common complication, particularly in patients with impaired immune function due to undernutrition or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. […] Rare abnormalities in airway structure may lead to diffuse bronchiectasis. […] Congenital defects in mucociliary clearance such as primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) syndromes may also be a cause, explaining almost 3% of cases that were previously thought to be idiopathic.

• #2 Bronchiectasis – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/bronchiectasis-and-atelectasis/bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis sometimes complicates autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjgren syndrome, and inflammatory bowel disease. It can also occur in patients with hematologic malignancy or organ transplant, or it may be due to the immunocompromise associated with treatment in these conditions. […] Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), a hypersensitivity reaction to Aspergillus species that occurs most commonly in people with asthma, but sometimes in patients with CF, can cause or contribute to bronchiectasis. […] Focal or localized bronchiectasis can develop as a result of untreated pneumonia or obstruction in the larger airways (eg, due to foreign bodies, tumors, postsurgical changes, lymphadenopathy). Mycobacteria (tuberculous or nontuberculous) can cause focal bronchiectasis and colonize the lungs of patients with bronchiectasis due to other disorders.

• #2 Bronchiectasis: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/lung/what-is-bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis is when the walls of your bronchi, the tubes that carry air into and out of your lungs, become thickened and damaged. […] Your bronchial walls can slowly get thicker because of inflammation and infections. Both of these things keep mucus from draining the way it should. That extra mucus can trap bacteria, causing more infections, scarring, and thickening. Over time, your lungs have to work harder to breathe. […] Acid reflux into your lungs, like with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), may also damage them.

• #2 What is bronchiectasis and what causes it? | Asthma + Lung UK

  https://www.asthmaandlung.org.uk/conditions/bronchiectasis/what-bronchiectasis-what-causes-it

  Bronchiectasis is sometimes called non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. This is because bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis have similar symptoms. However, the treatment and outlook are different for both conditions. […] Its not completely clear what causes bronchiectasis. For up to 50% of people diagnosed, theres no clear cause. However, known causes of bronchiectasis are: pneumonia, tuberculosis, whooping cough, measles, damage in the lung from breathing in a small object, primary ciliary dyskinesia, a weak immune system (immunodeficiency), inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, acid reflux, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA).

• #2 Bronchiectasis – Institute for Respiratory Health

  https://www.resphealth.org.au/health-information/bronchiectasis/

  Bronchiectasis is primarily caused by an infection or another condition that injures the walls of the airways or prevents the airways from clearing mucus. Some of these are: […] Other causes of bronchiectasis include: […] Lung infections that can lead to bronchiectasis: […] Recurrent, severe lung infections such as pneumonia, tuberculosis and fungal infections […] Exposure to chemical irritants (such as ammonia inhalation) may lead to airway inflammation and bronchiectasis […] Immunological deficiency disorders (HIV, hypogammaglobulinemia) […] Lung fibrosis (such as connective tissue diseases and pulmonary fibrosis) can increase tension on the bronchiectasis, resulting in dilated airways and traction bronchiectasis. […] Born with a predisposition to the disorder.

• #2

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02726189

  Bronchiectasis is a condition representing abnormal and permanent dilatation and distortion of medium sized bronchi, usually accompanied by destruction of the airway wall. […] Post inflammatory bronchiectasis remains very common in the developing countries as a sequel to pulmonary tuberculosis, whooping cough, and severe measles (among other causes). […] Cystic fibrosis is the most common cause of generalized bronchiectasis in developed countries.

• #2 Pathophysiology – Bronchiectasis

  https://bronchiectasis.com.au/bronchiectasis/bronchiectasis/pathophysiology

  As bronchiectasis is an acquired disorder, its pathophysiology is commonly described as distinct phases of infection and chronic inflammation. […] The first stage in the development of bronchiectasis is an initial infective insult to the airways, which triggers a mucociliary response. […] This loss of mucociliary transport renders the airways susceptible to microbial colonization. […] Common microbials which may cause infections in bronchiectasis are: […] The severity of airway obstruction and rate of decline in lung function may be influenced by the colonizing microorganisms.

• #2 Bronchiectasis Treatment London | Expert Consultation

  https://londonchestspecialist.co.uk/bronchiectasis-diagnosis-and-treatment-london-chest-specialist/

  Bronchiectasis is a complex disease with a multifactorial pathogenesis that involves damage to the airways and an ongoing cycle of infection and inflammation. […] The following are some of the key steps in the development and progression of bronchiectasis: Initial airway damage: Bronchiectasis may develop due to various causes that lead to initial damage of the airways, such as infections, genetic disorders, and conditions that cause airway obstruction. […] A detailed history and examination, as well as targeted investigations can identify the cause of bronchiectasis in many cases. However, a proportion will be labelled idiopathic where the cause is unknown. […] The inability to clear mucus and recurrent chest infections results in bronchiectasis. […] The impaired immune function predispose to recurrent and severe infections that often taken longer to improve on antibiotic therapy.

• #2 Bronchiectasis exacerbation: a narrative review of causes, risk factors, management and prevention

  https://atm.amegroups.org/article/view/104705/html

  In addition to pathogens and host inflammatory responses, environmental factors such as air pollution may be related to bronchiectasis exacerbations. […] A history of exacerbations should be discussed first. […] The concept of a frequent exacerbator phenotype in bronchiectasis is similar to that in COPD, which describes a patient group more susceptible to pulmonary exacerbation with no relation to lung function. […] Chronic infection, particularly with P. aeruginosa is associated with worse outcomes. […] When bronchiectasis is coupled with airway disease, the risk of exacerbation increases. […] Patients with bronchiectasis are often elderly and multimorbid, and a higher frequency of exacerbations has been shown to be associated with a higher frequency of co-morbid illnesses.

• #2 Mortality risk and causes of death in patients with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis | Respiratory Research | Full Text

  https://respiratory-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12931-019-1243-3

  Non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis is characterised by the irreversible dilation of the bronchial lumen caused by recurrent or chronic infection and inflammation. […] The present study showed that bronchiectasis is significantly associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality, respiratory death, and lung cancer-related death compared with control population without lung disease.

• #2 Bronchiectasis A guide for primary care

  https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2012/november/bronchiectasis

  Bronchiectasis can be caused by a broad range of disparate and esoteric conditions and is often idiopathic in nature. […] While the underlying cause of bronchiectasis may vary (or is even often undefined or idiopathic) it is ultimately due to injury to the airways, which is typically associated with chronic and recurrent inflammation because of an abnormality of airway anatomy, immunity or function. […] Despite extensive investigation, more than 80% of patients with bronchiectasis will have no clearly identified cause for their disease. […] The range of possible causes of bronchiectasis is listed in Table 1.7 […] The minimum recommended investigations for these is listed in Table 4.7 While all patients with a confirmed diagnosis of bronchiectasis warrant exclusion of secondary and preventable causes, many of these investigations require specialist support. […] The broad range of secondary causes of bronchiectasis has been outlined in Table 1.7

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