Różnice w rozwoju płciowym
Rokowania, prognozy i postęp choroby

Różnice w rozwoju płciowym (DSD) to heterogenna grupa wrodzonych zaburzeń charakteryzujących się niezgodnością między płcią chromosomalną, gonadalną i/lub anatomiczną. Ocena rokowania i długoterminowych wyników leczenia wymaga uwzględnienia czynników biologicznych (np. obecność chromosomu Y, ekspozycja na androgeny, fenotyp narządów płciowych), psychologicznych oraz społeczno-kulturowych. Średni wiek diagnozy wynosi 2,2-3,8 lat dla DSD 46,XY, 2,4-4,6 lat dla DSD 46,XX oraz 5,3-5,8 lat dla DSD związanych z chromosomami płciowymi, a dla zespołu Turnera 4,7-5,5 lat. Ryzyko rozwoju raka komórek rozrodczych gonad (GGCC) jest podwyższone u wybranych podgrup, a identyfikacja zmian prekursorowych opiera się na markerach histologicznych takich jak OCT3/4, TSPY i KITLG. Opóźnienie orchiopeksji umożliwia eksplorację tożsamości płciowej, jednak brak jest skutecznych metod nadzoru ryzyka złośliwości przy pozostawieniu dysgenicznych gonad.

Prognozy długookresowe w różnicach w rozwoju płciowym (DSD)

Różnice w rozwoju płciowym (DSD, ang. Differences/Disorders of Sex Development) stanowią zróżnicowaną grupę wrodzonych stanów, w których występuje rozbieżność między chromosomalną, gonadalną i/lub anatomiczną płcią. Ocena rokowania i przewidywanie długoterminowych wyników leczenia u osób z DSD są złożone i wymagają uwzględnienia wielu czynników biologicznych, psychologicznych oraz społeczno-kulturowych.12 Obecnie istnieje coraz więcej danych dotyczących naturalnej ewolucji różnych stanów DSD w późniejszych etapach życia, jednak wiele pytań zdrowotnych pozostaje bez odpowiedzi.3

Tożsamość płciowa i wyniki psychoseksualne

Przewidywanie przyszłej tożsamości płciowej (tj. identyfikowania się jako mężczyzna, kobieta lub inna) u dzieci z DSD może być nieprecyzyjne, a obecna wiedza na temat rozwoju tożsamości płciowej u osób z DSD i bez DSD jest ograniczona. Niemniej jednak płeć wychowania jest najsilniejszym predyktorem tożsamości płciowej dla większości osób z różnymi stanami DSD.4 Przy podejmowaniu decyzji dotyczących płci wychowania należy wziąć pod uwagę czynniki biologiczne (np. posiadanie chromosomu Y, stopień i czas trwania pre- i postnatalnej ekspozycji na androgeny, fenotypową prezentację zewnętrznych narządów płciowych i potencjał płodności), czynniki społeczne i kulturowe, a także jakość życia.5

Długotrwałe badania wykazują, że standardyzacja oceny somatycznej jest kluczowa dla zapewnienia ważności łączenia danych z różnych ośrodków w celu ujawnienia dotychczas nierozpoznanych konsekwencji zdrowotnych i wyników. Skąpe dane sugerują, że dorośli z DSD doświadczają więcej problemów zdrowotnych niż populacja ogólna.6

Czynniki wpływające na diagnozę i wyniki leczenia

Wczesna diagnoza i leczenie są ogólnie uważane za istotne, ponieważ potencjalnie zapobiegają negatywnym skutkom zdrowotnym i poprawiają długoterminową jakość życia związaną ze zdrowiem.7 Badania wykazały, że średni wiek w momencie diagnozy wynosił 2,2-3,8 lat dla DSD 46,XY, 2,4-4,6 lat dla DSD 46,XX i 5,3-5,8 lat dla DSD związanego z chromosomami płciowymi.8 Dziewczęta z zespołem Turnera (TS) były diagnozowane w średnim wieku 4,7-5,5 lat.9

Czas przeprowadzenia orchiopeksji (operacyjne sprowadzenie jąder) jest bardzo zmienny, a na przykład 95% operacji było wykonywanych po pierwszym roku życia w szpitalach niemieckich. Wiek w momencie diagnozy u pacjentów z TS lub zespołem Klinefeltera (KS) oraz wiek w momencie operacji obustronnego wnętrostwa mogą służyć jako wskaźniki do monitorowania skuteczności diagnostycznej i leczenia pacjentów z DSD w różnych ośrodkach tercjarnych zapewniających opiekę tej wrażliwej grupie pacjentów.10

Ryzyko nowotworu i monitorowanie

Ryzyko raka komórek rozrodczych gonad (GGCC) jest zwiększone w wybranych podgrupach, między innymi u zdefiniowanych pacjentów z zaburzeniami rozwoju płciowego. Jednym z celów jest stratyfikacja osób o zwiększonym ryzyku na podstawie innych parametrów niż badanie histologiczne biopsji gonad.11 Nowotwory z komórek zarodkowych w jądrach (GCT) związane z wewnątrzcewkową neoplazją z komórek zarodkowych (GCNIS) charakteryzują się obecnością kilku dobrze rozpoznanych czynników ryzyka, w tym wnętrostwa, niepłodności lub subfertylności, predyspozycji rodzinnej, masy urodzeniowej i ewentualnie spodziectwa. Ponadto DSD okazało się głównym czynnikiem ryzyka tego typu GCT.12

Identyfikacja zmian prekursorowych, w oparciu o zdefiniowany zestaw biomarkerów opartych na histologii, w tym OCT3/4, TSPY i KITLG, jest kluczowa dla właściwej stratyfikacji ryzyka. Jednak biomarkery oparte na biopsji płynnej, informacyjne dla zmian prekursorowych, tj. GCNIS oraz GB, istotne dla badań przesiewowych pacjentów z DSD obciążonych ryzykiem, nadal nie są dostępne.13

Przewidywanie ryzyka rozwoju nowotworu komórek rozrodczych (GCT) w DSD jest obszarem trwających badań i zależy od obecności materiału GBY (gonadoblastoma on Y chromosome) w kariotypie, lokalizacji anatomicznej i stopnia dojrzałości gonady.14 Opóźnienie operacji usunięcia funkcjonalnych gonad daje czas na eksplorację tożsamości płciowej, która może różnić się od przypisanej płci; jednak ważne jest, aby pamiętać o braku solidnych metod nadzoru, które przewidywałyby ryzyko złośliwości, jeśli dysgeniczne gonady pozostaną na miejscu.15

Stan naglący i diagnoza molekularna w DSD

Spośród wszystkich przyczyn DSD tylko zespół wrodzonego przerostu nadnerczy (CAH) z utratą soli jest uważany za prawdziwy stan nagły. Nefropatia z utratą soli występuje u 75% niemowląt urodzonych z CAH, najczęstszej przyczyny niejednoznacznych narządów płciowych. Jeśli nie zostanie rozpoznana, wynikające z niej niedociśnienie może spowodować zapaść naczyniową i śmierć. Niemowlęta płci męskiej z tym zespołem mogą być fenotypowo prawidłowe, a diagnoza może zostać przeoczona.16

Inne przyczyny DSD nie są uważane za stany nagłe. Należy unikać presji czasowej. Nowoczesne leczenie niemowląt z niejednoznacznymi narządami płciowymi obejmuje podejście zorientowane na zespół. Ten zespół przypisujący płeć zwykle obejmuje neonatologów, genetyków, endokrynologów, chirurgów, doradców i etyków.17

Genetyka i diagnostyka molekularna

Zwiększona dostępność sekwencjonowania nowej generacji pozwoliła na identyfikację wielu nowych genów zaangażowanych w DSD, a pojawienie się i zwiększona dostępność tej technologii zmieniły podejście diagnostyczne i udoskonaliły molekularną diagnozę genetyczną w wielu przypadkach.1819

Analiza genetyczna może szybko i dokładnie wykryć etiologię DSD, ale przy wysokich kosztach i niskim wskaźniku penetracji – około 3/4 przypadków 46,XY DSD nie można postawić jednoznacznej diagnozy etiologicznej.20 Obecne zrozumienie genetycznej kontroli rozwoju płci jest nadal niepełne, co skutkuje niskim prawdopodobieństwem określenia molekularnej definicji wady przyczynowej u wielu pacjentów z DSD.21

Ostatecznym celem jest uzyskanie diagnozy na poziomie genetyki molekularnej, aby umożliwić prognozy i poradnictwo genetyczne oraz opracowanie zindywidualizowanego planu zarządzania. Chociaż pojawienie się technologii sekwencjonowania całego genomu poprawiło diagnostykę, cel ten nie może być osiągnięty u około 50% osób z 46,XY DSD, co podkreśla znaczenie dotychczas niezidentyfikowanych mechanizmów regulacyjnych.22

Dziedziczenie digeniczne i heterogeniczność fenotypowa

Dziedziczenie digeniczne może odgrywać kluczową rolę w spektrum fenotypowym 46,XY DSD związanego z wariantami genu NR5A1. Ta sama wariacja w genie NR5A1 może powodować znacznie różne stopnie wirylizacji u różnych osób, co oznacza, że trudno jest ustalić związek między genotypem a fenotypem.23

Badania wykazały, że nowe złożone warianty genów NR5A1 i MAP3K1 mogą zmieniać ekspresję SOX9 i ostatecznie prowadzić do nieprawidłowości w rozwoju płci. Te dwa warianty zostały przewidziane jako patogenne przez analizę bioinformatyczną.2425

Sposób dziedziczenia wcześniej zgłoszonych patogennych wariantów MAP3K1 jest autosomalny dominujący i ograniczony do płci. Istnieją podstawy, by uważać, że ten wariant jest patogenny, a patogenne warianty MAP3K1 mają wzorzec dziedziczenia autosomalnego dominującego ograniczonego do płci.26

Podejście multidyscyplinarne i standaryzacja opieki

Doświadczony zespół multidyscyplinarny, który stosuje podejście oparte na wspólnym podejmowaniu decyzji z wykorzystaniem ram medycznych, chirurgicznych, etycznych, psychologicznych i dotyczących praw człowieka, jest niezbędny do maksymalizacji długoterminowych pozytywnych wyników u osób urodzonych z różnicami w cechach płciowych.27

Ze względu na rzadkość wielu schorzeń dane dotyczące długoterminowych wyników są ograniczone, a grupy pacjentów, jak również specjaliści, zakwestionowali aspekty opieki klinicznej, które wcześniej były uważane za standardowe.28

Centralne ośrodki referencyjne i gromadzenie danych

Standaryzacja ocen somatycznych ma kluczowe znaczenie dla zapewnienia ważności łączenia danych z różnych ośrodków w celu ujawnienia dotychczas nierozpoznanych konsekwencji zdrowotnych i wyników.29 Aby osiągnąć te cele, kluczowe jest, aby kontrola pacjentów trwała przez całe ich życie w dedykowanych ośrodkach referencyjnych, tam gdzie to możliwe. Prospektywne wieloośrodkowe gromadzenie danych u dorosłych jest jedną z najpilniejszych potrzeb, biorąc pod uwagę, że była to długo zaniedbywana grupa w odniesieniu do badań klinicznych.30

Leczenie w ośrodkach doskonałości jest związane z poprawą wyników medycznych, chirurgicznych i psychoseksualnych. Niepewności dotyczące dorosłej tożsamości płciowej, optymalnego czasu operacji i wyników chirurgicznych, w tym czasu operacji, powinny być uwzględnione w świadomym podejmowaniu decyzji przez rodziców i pacjenta (gdy jest to odpowiednie do wieku).31

Leczenie hormonalne i operacje chirurgiczne

Chociaż większość bezpośrednich efektów hormonalnej terapii zastępczej (HTZ) i ich znaczenie dla ogólnego samopoczucia i jakości życia w dorosłości są dobrze znane, korzystne efekty HTZ na specyficzne funkcje mózgu, takie jak poznanie lub przetwarzanie emocjonalne, zwłaszcza u osób starszych, dopiero zaczynają być rozumiane.32

W przypadku braku długoterminowych danych wynikowych, które przemawiają za lub przeciw odraczaniu operacji narządów płciowych, obecnie istnieje niewiele dowodów na to, że praktyka chirurgiczna dramatycznie zmieniła się w ostatnich latach. Znalezienie sposobów na wychowanie odpornych dzieci z nietypowo wyglądającymi narządami płciowymi, określenie dokładnej roli (wczesnej) chirurgii narządów płciowych w leczeniu DSD oraz gromadzenie danych na temat psychospołecznego dostosowania i wyników zarówno u dzieci, które przeszły operację, jak i tych, które jej nie przeszły, są uważane za priorytety.33

Wyzwania diagnostyczne i terminologiczne

Niekompletna wiedza na temat mechanizmów genetycznych zaangażowanych w rozwój płci skutkuje niskim prawdopodobieństwem określenia molekularnej definicji defektu genetycznego u wielu pacjentów. Nasze wyniki podkreślają fakt, że każda kategoria DSD jest związana z dużą liczbą różnych zmian DNA, co wymaga wielu badań genetycznych w celu osiągnięcia precyzyjnej diagnostyki etiologicznej dla każdego pacjenta.34

Wyrażono obawy, że DSD jest zbyt szerokim terminem, który, przy obecnej nomenklaturze, jest używany do obejmowania stanów, w których nie przewiduje się problemów z wyglądem narządów płciowych lub tożsamością płciową; a także, że szeroki termin parasolowy, taki jak DSD, nie jest wystarczająco specyficzny, aby być pomocnym diagnostycznie i dlatego jest niepotrzebny. Wiele grup wsparcia i rzecznictwa nie akceptuje oznaczenia DSD i uważa, że powinno ono zostać porzucone przez społeczność medyczną. Zgadzamy się z koncepcją, że każdy pacjent powinien być identyfikowany przez konkretną diagnozę, a nie przez niedokładną kategoryzację pod parasolem DSD.35

Pełne ujawnienie i wsparcie

Pełne ujawnienie jest niezbędne, aby ludzie mogli podejmować świadome decyzje. Ponadto grupy wsparcia są coraz częściej angażowane w dyskusje na temat optymalnej opieki i określania priorytetów badawczych.36

Osoby z DSD mogą zgłaszać się w okresie noworodkowym z nietypowymi narządami płciowymi, w okresie dojrzewania z nietypowym rozwojem dojrzewania lub w dorosłości z problemami z płodnością. Zarządzanie DSD wymaga wysoce specjalistycznej, multidyscyplinarnej opieki obejmującej aspekty medyczne, chirurgiczne, psychospołeczne, psychoseksualne oraz związane z prawami człowieka/etyczne.37

Różnice w wynikach w zależności od płci

Identyfikacja różnic w wynikach i toksyczności między mężczyznami a kobietami w badaniach klinicznych onkologicznych jest ważna i została również nakazana przez National Institutes of Health. Tym samym, podczas gdy porównania statystyczne między płciami w badaniach onkologicznych są rzadko raportowane, istnieją istotne różnice w wynikach i toksyczności. Te znaczne różnice w wynikach i toksyczności podkreślają potrzebę bardziej dokładnego raportowania różnic między płciami w przyszłości.38

Ogólnie, znaleziono 288 badań ze statystyczną analizą wyników SOR. Ten zestaw zawierał 47 (16,3%) badań ze znaczącymi dowodami na korzyść mężczyzn, 122 (42,4%) badań ze znaczącymi dowodami na korzyść kobiet i 119 (41,3%) badań z dowodami statystycznymi niewskazującymi na różnicę między mężczyznami a kobietami.39

Ogólnie 97 (18,2%) wszystkich porównań, które znaleziono, dotyczyło działań niepożądanych po leczeniu (SE), często w badaniach leków mających na celu łagodzenie działań niepożądanych. Porównania SE z dowodami wielowymiarowymi lub jednowymiarowymi były przeprowadzone w 44 badaniach. Obejmują one 22 badania (50%), które wykazały statystycznie istotnie mniejsze działania niepożądane u mężczyzn, 13 (29,5%) u kobiet i 9 (20,5%) bez istotnej różnicy.40

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  1. 12.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Gender identity outcomes in children with disorders/differences of sex development: Predictive factors – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28478086/
    Disorders/differences of sex development (DSD) comprise multiple congenital conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, and/or anatomical sex are discordant. The prediction of future gender identity (i.e., self-identifying as male, female, or other) in children with DSD can be imprecise, and current knowledge about the development of gender identity in people with, and without DSD, is limited. However, sex of rearing is the strongest predictor of gender identity for the majority of individuals with various DSD conditions. […] When making decisions regarding sex of rearing biological factors (e.g., possession of a Y chromosome, degree and duration of pre- and postnatal androgen exposure, phenotypic presentation of the external genitalia, and fertility potential), social and cultural factors, as well as quality of life should be considered. Information on gender identity outcomes across a range of DSD diagnoses is presented to aid in sex of rearing assignment.
  • #2 Disorders or Differences of Sex Development | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-23709-7_1
    Disorders or Differences of sex development (DSD) refer to a diverse group of conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomic sex development is atypical. […] DSDs may present at various ages, ranging from the prenatal period to adulthood. […] Many different health care professionals may be involved and diagnostic evaluation as well as long-term care is ideally provided by a multidisciplinary team. […] The increased availability of next generation sequencing has allowed for the identification of many new genes involved in DSD and the advent and increased accessibility of this technology has changed the diagnostic approach and refined the molecular genetic diagnosis in many cases. […] In addition, support groups are increasingly involved in discussions about optimal care and in defining research priorities.
  • #3 Caring for individuals with a difference of sex development (DSD): a Consensus Statement | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-018-0010-8
    The term differences of sex development (DSDs; also known as disorders of sex development) refers to a heterogeneous group of congenital conditions affecting human sex determination and differentiation. […] Many adults with a DSD have health-related questions that remain unanswered owing to a lack of evidence pertaining to the natural evolution of the various conditions in later life stages. […] The lack of conclusive outcome data for patients with DSDs has triggered large-scale collaborative research that initially focused on basic science projects and since 2012 began addressing clinically oriented issues and outcomes. […] These clinically oriented studies have provided new insight on historical trends, comorbidities and outcomes of specific conditions. […] Standardizing the longitudinal assessment of individuals with a DSD across centres might also provide evidence for or against controversial procedures such as surgical management of genitalia with an atypical appearance.
  • #4 Gender identity outcomes in children with disorders/differences of sex development: Predictive factors – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28478086/
    Disorders/differences of sex development (DSD) comprise multiple congenital conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, and/or anatomical sex are discordant. The prediction of future gender identity (i.e., self-identifying as male, female, or other) in children with DSD can be imprecise, and current knowledge about the development of gender identity in people with, and without DSD, is limited. However, sex of rearing is the strongest predictor of gender identity for the majority of individuals with various DSD conditions. […] When making decisions regarding sex of rearing biological factors (e.g., possession of a Y chromosome, degree and duration of pre- and postnatal androgen exposure, phenotypic presentation of the external genitalia, and fertility potential), social and cultural factors, as well as quality of life should be considered. Information on gender identity outcomes across a range of DSD diagnoses is presented to aid in sex of rearing assignment.
  • #5 Gender identity outcomes in children with disorders/differences of sex development: Predictive factors – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28478086/
    Disorders/differences of sex development (DSD) comprise multiple congenital conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, and/or anatomical sex are discordant. The prediction of future gender identity (i.e., self-identifying as male, female, or other) in children with DSD can be imprecise, and current knowledge about the development of gender identity in people with, and without DSD, is limited. However, sex of rearing is the strongest predictor of gender identity for the majority of individuals with various DSD conditions. […] When making decisions regarding sex of rearing biological factors (e.g., possession of a Y chromosome, degree and duration of pre- and postnatal androgen exposure, phenotypic presentation of the external genitalia, and fertility potential), social and cultural factors, as well as quality of life should be considered. Information on gender identity outcomes across a range of DSD diagnoses is presented to aid in sex of rearing assignment.
  • #6 Caring for individuals with a difference of sex development (DSD): a Consensus Statement | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-018-0010-8
    The standardization of somatic assessments is crucial to secure the validity of cross-centre data pooling with the aim of revealing hitherto unrecognized health consequences and outcomes. […] Indeed, scarce data suggest that adults who have a DSD experience more health problems than the general population. […] Not surprisingly, morbidities related to deficiencies in or treatment with sex steroids or glucocorticoids are over-represented. […] Although most immediate effects of HRT, and their importance for general well-being and quality of life in adulthood, are well known, the beneficial effects of HRT on specific brain functions, such as cognition or emotional processing, especially in elderly persons, are only beginning to be understood. […] The establishment of proper genotype-phenotype correlations and addressing the identified gaps in our current knowledge are primary tasks of future research.
  • #7 Disorders of sex development: timing of diagnosis and management in a single large tertiary center in: Endocrine Connections Volume 7 Issue 4 (2018)
    https://ec.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/ec/7/4/EC-18-0070.xml
    We describe the phenotypic spectrum and timing of diagnosis and management in a large series of patients with disorders of sexual development (DSD) treated in a single pediatric tertiary center. […] Our results show that (i) Turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome, the most frequent single DSD diagnoses, are still diagnosed relatively late; (ii) a temporal shift was observed in the management of bilateral cryptorchidism, which may favorably influence patients adulthood semen quality and (iii) next-generation sequencing methods are not fully employed in the diagnostics of DSD patients. […] It is generally agreed that timely diagnosis and management are important as they potentially prevent adverse health outcomes and improve long-term, health-related quality of life. […] The mean age at diagnosis was 2.2-3.8 years for 46,XY DSD, 2.4-4.6 years for 46,XX DSD and 5.3-5.8 years for sex chromosome DSD.
  • #8 Disorders of sex development: timing of diagnosis and management in a single large tertiary center in: Endocrine Connections Volume 7 Issue 4 (2018)
    https://ec.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/ec/7/4/EC-18-0070.xml
    We describe the phenotypic spectrum and timing of diagnosis and management in a large series of patients with disorders of sexual development (DSD) treated in a single pediatric tertiary center. […] Our results show that (i) Turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome, the most frequent single DSD diagnoses, are still diagnosed relatively late; (ii) a temporal shift was observed in the management of bilateral cryptorchidism, which may favorably influence patients adulthood semen quality and (iii) next-generation sequencing methods are not fully employed in the diagnostics of DSD patients. […] It is generally agreed that timely diagnosis and management are important as they potentially prevent adverse health outcomes and improve long-term, health-related quality of life. […] The mean age at diagnosis was 2.2-3.8 years for 46,XY DSD, 2.4-4.6 years for 46,XX DSD and 5.3-5.8 years for sex chromosome DSD.
  • #9 Disorders of sex development: timing of diagnosis and management in a single large tertiary center in: Endocrine Connections Volume 7 Issue 4 (2018)
    https://ec.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/ec/7/4/EC-18-0070.xml
    The girls with TS (n=109) were diagnosed at the mean age of 4.7-5.5 years. […] The timing of orchiopexy is highly variable, and for example, 95% of surgeries were performed after the first year of life in German hospitals. […] Our finding is in line with the results published from Sweden and Norway. […] It is feasible that age at diagnosis in patients with TS or KS and the age at operation of bilateral cryptorchidism could serve as indices for monitoring the diagnostic efficiency and management of DSD patients within and between different tertiary centers providing care for this vulnerable patient group.
  • #10 Disorders of sex development: timing of diagnosis and management in a single large tertiary center in: Endocrine Connections Volume 7 Issue 4 (2018)
    https://ec.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/ec/7/4/EC-18-0070.xml
    The girls with TS (n=109) were diagnosed at the mean age of 4.7-5.5 years. […] The timing of orchiopexy is highly variable, and for example, 95% of surgeries were performed after the first year of life in German hospitals. […] Our finding is in line with the results published from Sweden and Norway. […] It is feasible that age at diagnosis in patients with TS or KS and the age at operation of bilateral cryptorchidism could serve as indices for monitoring the diagnostic efficiency and management of DSD patients within and between different tertiary centers providing care for this vulnerable patient group.
  • #11 Predicting Gonadal Germ Cell Cancer in People with Disorders of Sex Development; Insights from Developmental Biology
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/20/20/5017
    The risk of gonadal germ cell cancer (GGCC) is increased in selective subgroups, amongst others, defined patients with disorders of sex development (DSD). […] One of the aims is to stratify individuals with an increased risk based on other parameters than histological investigation of a gonadal biopsy. […] The GCNIS-related (testicular) GCTs are known for the presence of a number of well-recognized risk factors, including cryptorchidism, in-/subfertility, familial predisposition, birth weight, and possibly hypospadias. In addition, the aforementioned DSD has been found to be a major risk factor for this type of GCT. […] Identification of the precursor lesion, based on a defined set of histology-based biomarkers, including OCT3/4, TSPY, and KITLG, is crucial for proper risk stratification. […] However, liquid biopsy-based informative biomarkers for the precursor lesions, i.e., GCNIS as well as GB, relevant for screening of DSD patients at risk are still lacking.
  • #12 Predicting Gonadal Germ Cell Cancer in People with Disorders of Sex Development; Insights from Developmental Biology
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/20/20/5017
    The risk of gonadal germ cell cancer (GGCC) is increased in selective subgroups, amongst others, defined patients with disorders of sex development (DSD). […] One of the aims is to stratify individuals with an increased risk based on other parameters than histological investigation of a gonadal biopsy. […] The GCNIS-related (testicular) GCTs are known for the presence of a number of well-recognized risk factors, including cryptorchidism, in-/subfertility, familial predisposition, birth weight, and possibly hypospadias. In addition, the aforementioned DSD has been found to be a major risk factor for this type of GCT. […] Identification of the precursor lesion, based on a defined set of histology-based biomarkers, including OCT3/4, TSPY, and KITLG, is crucial for proper risk stratification. […] However, liquid biopsy-based informative biomarkers for the precursor lesions, i.e., GCNIS as well as GB, relevant for screening of DSD patients at risk are still lacking.
  • #13 Predicting Gonadal Germ Cell Cancer in People with Disorders of Sex Development; Insights from Developmental Biology
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/20/20/5017
    The risk of gonadal germ cell cancer (GGCC) is increased in selective subgroups, amongst others, defined patients with disorders of sex development (DSD). […] One of the aims is to stratify individuals with an increased risk based on other parameters than histological investigation of a gonadal biopsy. […] The GCNIS-related (testicular) GCTs are known for the presence of a number of well-recognized risk factors, including cryptorchidism, in-/subfertility, familial predisposition, birth weight, and possibly hypospadias. In addition, the aforementioned DSD has been found to be a major risk factor for this type of GCT. […] Identification of the precursor lesion, based on a defined set of histology-based biomarkers, including OCT3/4, TSPY, and KITLG, is crucial for proper risk stratification. […] However, liquid biopsy-based informative biomarkers for the precursor lesions, i.e., GCNIS as well as GB, relevant for screening of DSD patients at risk are still lacking.
  • #14 A guide to differences/disorders of sex development/intersex in children and adolescents
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/july/differences-disorders-of-sex-development-intersex
    Differences/disorders of sex development (DSD) or intersex encompass a broad range of congenital variations in the complex pathways involved in the development of sex characteristics. […] An experienced multidisciplinary team that uses a shared decision-making approach with a medical, surgical, ethical, psychological and human rights framework is required to maximise long-term positive outcomes for people born with variations in sex characteristics. […] As a result of the rarity of many conditions, data on long-term outcomes are limited, and patient groups as well as professionals have challenged aspects of clinical care that were previously considered as standard. […] Predicting the risk of germ cell tumour (GCT) development in DSD is an area of ongoing research and varies depending on the presence of gonadoblastoma on Y chromosome (GBY) material in the karyotype, anatomical localisation and degree of maturation of the gonad.
  • #15 A guide to differences/disorders of sex development/intersex in children and adolescents
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/july/differences-disorders-of-sex-development-intersex
    Delaying surgery for functional gonads allows time for exploration of gender identity, which may differ from assigned sex; however, it is important to bear in mind the lack of robust surveillance methods to predict malignancy risk if dysgenetic gonads are left in situ. […] Individuals with DSD may present in the newborn period with atypical genitalia, during adolescence with atypical pubertal development, or in adulthood with fertility issues. Management of DSD requires highly specialised multidisciplinary care encompassing medical, surgical, psychosocial, psychosexual and human rights/ethical aspects.
  • #16 Differences (Disorders) of Sex Development (DSDs): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1015520-overview
    Among all causes of DSDs, only salt-wasting CAH is considered a true medical emergency. Salt-wasting nephropathy occurs in 75% of infants born with CAH, the most common cause of ambiguous genitalia. If unrecognized, the resulting hypotension can cause vascular collapse and death. Male infants with this syndrome may be phenotypically normal, and the diagnosis may be missed. […] Other causes of DSDs are not considered medical emergencies. Time pressure should be avoided. Modern treatment of infants with ambiguous genitalia involves a team-oriented approach. This gender-assignment team usually involves neonatologists, geneticists, endocrinologists, surgeons, counselors, and ethicists. The goal is to provide appropriate medical support and counseling regarding care and therapy. Management decisions should only be made after all the available information is explained to the family and thoroughly discussed with the multidisciplinary team. The topic of early gender reassignment remains contentious.
  • #17 Differences (Disorders) of Sex Development (DSDs): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1015520-overview
    Among all causes of DSDs, only salt-wasting CAH is considered a true medical emergency. Salt-wasting nephropathy occurs in 75% of infants born with CAH, the most common cause of ambiguous genitalia. If unrecognized, the resulting hypotension can cause vascular collapse and death. Male infants with this syndrome may be phenotypically normal, and the diagnosis may be missed. […] Other causes of DSDs are not considered medical emergencies. Time pressure should be avoided. Modern treatment of infants with ambiguous genitalia involves a team-oriented approach. This gender-assignment team usually involves neonatologists, geneticists, endocrinologists, surgeons, counselors, and ethicists. The goal is to provide appropriate medical support and counseling regarding care and therapy. Management decisions should only be made after all the available information is explained to the family and thoroughly discussed with the multidisciplinary team. The topic of early gender reassignment remains contentious.
  • #18 Disorders or Differences of Sex Development | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-23709-7_1
    Disorders or Differences of sex development (DSD) refer to a diverse group of conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomic sex development is atypical. […] DSDs may present at various ages, ranging from the prenatal period to adulthood. […] Many different health care professionals may be involved and diagnostic evaluation as well as long-term care is ideally provided by a multidisciplinary team. […] The increased availability of next generation sequencing has allowed for the identification of many new genes involved in DSD and the advent and increased accessibility of this technology has changed the diagnostic approach and refined the molecular genetic diagnosis in many cases. […] In addition, support groups are increasingly involved in discussions about optimal care and in defining research priorities.
  • #19 Disorders or Differences of Sex Development | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-18901-3_1-1
    Disorders or Differences of sex development (DSD) refer to a diverse group of conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomic sex development is atypical. […] DSDs may present at various ages, ranging from the prenatal period to adulthood. […] Many different health care professionals may be involved and diagnostic evaluation as well as long-term care is ideally provided by a multidisciplinary team. […] The increased availability of next generation sequencing has allowed for the identification of many new genes involved in DSD and the advent and increased accessibility of this technology has changed the diagnostic approach and refined the molecular genetic diagnosis in many cases. […] Full disclosure is essential for people to be able to make informed decisions. […] In addition, support groups are increasingly involved in discussions about optimal care and in defining research priorities.
  • #20 Characteristics and possible mechanisms of 46, XY differences in sex development caused by novel compound variants in NR5A1 and MAP3K1 | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-021-01908-z
    Dozens of genes are involved in 46, XY differences in sex development (DSD). Notably, about 3/4 of patients cannot make a clear etiology diagnosis and single gene variant identified cannot fully explain the clinical heterogeneity of 46, XY DSD. […] Genetic analysis can quickly and accurately detect the etiology of DSD, but with high cost and low penetration rate about 3/4 of 46, XY DSD cannot make an unambiguous etiology diagnosis. […] Our findings suggested the novel compound variants of NR5A1 and MAP3K1 can alter the expression of SOX9 and ultimately lead to abnormality of sex development. […] These two variants were predicted to be pathogenic by bioinformatic analysis. […] Therefore, we hypothesize that these two identified variants are the exclusive etiology of the phenotype in our patient.
  • #21 Disorders of sex development: a genetic study of patients in a multidisciplinary clinic in: Endocrine Connections Volume 3 Issue 4 (2014)
    https://ec.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/ec/3/4/180.xml
    Sex development is a process under genetic control directing both the bi-potential gonads to become either a testis or an ovary, and the consequent differentiation of internal ducts and external genitalia. […] Incomplete knowledge of the genetic mechanisms involved in sex development results in a low probability of determining the molecular definition of the genetic defect in many of the patients. […] In conclusion, our results highlight the fact that each category of DSD is related to a large number of different DNA alterations, thus requiring multiple genetic studies to achieve a precise etiological diagnosis for each patient. […] Current understanding of the genetic control of sex development is still incomplete, resulting a low probability of determining the molecular definition of the causal defect in many of the patients with DSD. […] Our results highlight that each category of DSD is related to a large number of different DNA alterations, thus requiring multiple genetic studies to possibly achieve a precise etiological diagnosis in every patient.
  • #22 Caring for individuals with a difference of sex development (DSD): a Consensus Statement | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-018-0010-8
    In the absence of long-term outcome data that support or disfavour deferring genital surgery, there is currently little evidence that surgical practice has dramatically changed in recent years. […] Finding ways to raise resilient children with atypical-appearing genitalia, defining the precise role of (early) genital surgery in the management of DSDs and collecting data on psychosocial adjustment and outcomes in both children who have undergone surgery and those who have not are considered top priorities. […] The ultimate goal is to obtain a diagnosis at the molecular genetics level to allow prognostic predictions and genetic counselling and to set up an individualized management plan. […] Although the advent of genome-wide sequencing technologies has improved diagnostics, this goal cannot be achieved in ~50% of individuals with a 46,XY DSD, which highlights the importance of hitherto unidentified regulatory mechanisms.
  • #23 Characteristics and possible mechanisms of 46, XY differences in sex development caused by novel compound variants in NR5A1 and MAP3K1 | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-021-01908-z
    Digenic inheritance may play a vital role in the phenotype spectrum of 46, XY DSD associated with NR5A1 variants. […] The same variant in the NR5A1 gene may cause significantly different degrees of virilization in different individuals, which means that it is difficult to establish a link between genotype and phenotype. […] The findings further highlighted the possibility that digenic inheritance may play a significant role in the phenotype heterogeneity associated with the NR5A1 variant in 46, XY DSD. […] The pattern of inheritance of previously reported pathogenic MAP3K1 variants is autosomal dominant and sex-limited. […] Based on the discussion above, we have reasons to consider that this variant is pathogenic and pathogenic MAP3K1 variants has the pattern of inheritance of sex-limited autosomal dominant.
  • #24 Characteristics and possible mechanisms of 46, XY differences in sex development caused by novel compound variants in NR5A1 and MAP3K1 | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-021-01908-z
    Dozens of genes are involved in 46, XY differences in sex development (DSD). Notably, about 3/4 of patients cannot make a clear etiology diagnosis and single gene variant identified cannot fully explain the clinical heterogeneity of 46, XY DSD. […] Genetic analysis can quickly and accurately detect the etiology of DSD, but with high cost and low penetration rate about 3/4 of 46, XY DSD cannot make an unambiguous etiology diagnosis. […] Our findings suggested the novel compound variants of NR5A1 and MAP3K1 can alter the expression of SOX9 and ultimately lead to abnormality of sex development. […] These two variants were predicted to be pathogenic by bioinformatic analysis. […] Therefore, we hypothesize that these two identified variants are the exclusive etiology of the phenotype in our patient.
  • #25 Characteristics and possible mechanisms of 46, XY differences in sex development caused by novel compound variants in NR5A1 and MAP3K1 | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-021-01908-z
    In summary, our study identified novel compound variants of the NR5A1 and MAP3K1 genes which can alter the expression of SOX9 and ultimately resulted in a specific phenotype of a patient with 46, XY DSD. Digenic inheritance may play a key role in the phenotypic spectrum of 46, XY DSD associated with NR5A1 variants.
  • #26 Characteristics and possible mechanisms of 46, XY differences in sex development caused by novel compound variants in NR5A1 and MAP3K1 | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text
    https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13023-021-01908-z
    Digenic inheritance may play a vital role in the phenotype spectrum of 46, XY DSD associated with NR5A1 variants. […] The same variant in the NR5A1 gene may cause significantly different degrees of virilization in different individuals, which means that it is difficult to establish a link between genotype and phenotype. […] The findings further highlighted the possibility that digenic inheritance may play a significant role in the phenotype heterogeneity associated with the NR5A1 variant in 46, XY DSD. […] The pattern of inheritance of previously reported pathogenic MAP3K1 variants is autosomal dominant and sex-limited. […] Based on the discussion above, we have reasons to consider that this variant is pathogenic and pathogenic MAP3K1 variants has the pattern of inheritance of sex-limited autosomal dominant.
  • #27 A guide to differences/disorders of sex development/intersex in children and adolescents
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/july/differences-disorders-of-sex-development-intersex
    Differences/disorders of sex development (DSD) or intersex encompass a broad range of congenital variations in the complex pathways involved in the development of sex characteristics. […] An experienced multidisciplinary team that uses a shared decision-making approach with a medical, surgical, ethical, psychological and human rights framework is required to maximise long-term positive outcomes for people born with variations in sex characteristics. […] As a result of the rarity of many conditions, data on long-term outcomes are limited, and patient groups as well as professionals have challenged aspects of clinical care that were previously considered as standard. […] Predicting the risk of germ cell tumour (GCT) development in DSD is an area of ongoing research and varies depending on the presence of gonadoblastoma on Y chromosome (GBY) material in the karyotype, anatomical localisation and degree of maturation of the gonad.
  • #28 A guide to differences/disorders of sex development/intersex in children and adolescents
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/july/differences-disorders-of-sex-development-intersex
    Differences/disorders of sex development (DSD) or intersex encompass a broad range of congenital variations in the complex pathways involved in the development of sex characteristics. […] An experienced multidisciplinary team that uses a shared decision-making approach with a medical, surgical, ethical, psychological and human rights framework is required to maximise long-term positive outcomes for people born with variations in sex characteristics. […] As a result of the rarity of many conditions, data on long-term outcomes are limited, and patient groups as well as professionals have challenged aspects of clinical care that were previously considered as standard. […] Predicting the risk of germ cell tumour (GCT) development in DSD is an area of ongoing research and varies depending on the presence of gonadoblastoma on Y chromosome (GBY) material in the karyotype, anatomical localisation and degree of maturation of the gonad.
  • #29 Caring for individuals with a difference of sex development (DSD): a Consensus Statement | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-018-0010-8
    The standardization of somatic assessments is crucial to secure the validity of cross-centre data pooling with the aim of revealing hitherto unrecognized health consequences and outcomes. […] Indeed, scarce data suggest that adults who have a DSD experience more health problems than the general population. […] Not surprisingly, morbidities related to deficiencies in or treatment with sex steroids or glucocorticoids are over-represented. […] Although most immediate effects of HRT, and their importance for general well-being and quality of life in adulthood, are well known, the beneficial effects of HRT on specific brain functions, such as cognition or emotional processing, especially in elderly persons, are only beginning to be understood. […] The establishment of proper genotype-phenotype correlations and addressing the identified gaps in our current knowledge are primary tasks of future research.
  • #30 Caring for individuals with a difference of sex development (DSD): a Consensus Statement | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-018-0010-8
    To reach these goals, it is crucial that patient follow-up continues throughout their lives in dedicated reference centres, where possible. […] Prospective multicentre data collection in adults is one of the most urgent needs given that this has been a long-neglected group with respect to clinical research.
  • #31 Management of the infant with atypical genital appearance (difference of sex development) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/management-of-the-infant-with-atypical-genital-appearance-difference-of-sex-development
    Individuals with a congenital discrepancy between the appearance of their external genitalia and gonadal and chromosomal sex are classified as having differences (or disorders) of sex development (DSD). Discrepancies sufficient to prompt evaluation (excluding uncomplicated cases of cryptorchidism and hypospadias) occur in approximately 1 in 4500 live births. […] The birth of an infant with atypical genital appearance presents a unique set of challenging management issues. This is because psychosexual development is influenced by multiple factors, including the genes involved in sexual development, prenatal androgen exposure, societal and cultural factors, and family dynamics. Long-term outcome data are now available to help predict gender identity for many infants with specific DSD diagnoses and provide insight into appropriate early management decisions. Nonetheless, there is ongoing controversy about some aspects of management. The uncertainties about adult gender identity, optimal timing of surgery, and surgical outcomes including timing of surgery should be included in informed decision-making by the parents and patient (when age appropriate). Management at centers of excellence is associated with improved medical, surgical, and psychosexual outcomes. […] The management of infants with clinically significant DSD will be discussed here.
  • #32 Caring for individuals with a difference of sex development (DSD): a Consensus Statement | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-018-0010-8
    The standardization of somatic assessments is crucial to secure the validity of cross-centre data pooling with the aim of revealing hitherto unrecognized health consequences and outcomes. […] Indeed, scarce data suggest that adults who have a DSD experience more health problems than the general population. […] Not surprisingly, morbidities related to deficiencies in or treatment with sex steroids or glucocorticoids are over-represented. […] Although most immediate effects of HRT, and their importance for general well-being and quality of life in adulthood, are well known, the beneficial effects of HRT on specific brain functions, such as cognition or emotional processing, especially in elderly persons, are only beginning to be understood. […] The establishment of proper genotype-phenotype correlations and addressing the identified gaps in our current knowledge are primary tasks of future research.
  • #33 Caring for individuals with a difference of sex development (DSD): a Consensus Statement | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-018-0010-8
    In the absence of long-term outcome data that support or disfavour deferring genital surgery, there is currently little evidence that surgical practice has dramatically changed in recent years. […] Finding ways to raise resilient children with atypical-appearing genitalia, defining the precise role of (early) genital surgery in the management of DSDs and collecting data on psychosocial adjustment and outcomes in both children who have undergone surgery and those who have not are considered top priorities. […] The ultimate goal is to obtain a diagnosis at the molecular genetics level to allow prognostic predictions and genetic counselling and to set up an individualized management plan. […] Although the advent of genome-wide sequencing technologies has improved diagnostics, this goal cannot be achieved in ~50% of individuals with a 46,XY DSD, which highlights the importance of hitherto unidentified regulatory mechanisms.
  • #34 Disorders of sex development: a genetic study of patients in a multidisciplinary clinic in: Endocrine Connections Volume 3 Issue 4 (2014)
    https://ec.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/ec/3/4/180.xml
    Sex development is a process under genetic control directing both the bi-potential gonads to become either a testis or an ovary, and the consequent differentiation of internal ducts and external genitalia. […] Incomplete knowledge of the genetic mechanisms involved in sex development results in a low probability of determining the molecular definition of the genetic defect in many of the patients. […] In conclusion, our results highlight the fact that each category of DSD is related to a large number of different DNA alterations, thus requiring multiple genetic studies to achieve a precise etiological diagnosis for each patient. […] Current understanding of the genetic control of sex development is still incomplete, resulting a low probability of determining the molecular definition of the causal defect in many of the patients with DSD. […] Our results highlight that each category of DSD is related to a large number of different DNA alterations, thus requiring multiple genetic studies to possibly achieve a precise etiological diagnosis in every patient.
  • #35 Management of the infant with atypical genital appearance (difference of sex development) – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/management-of-the-infant-with-atypical-genital-appearance-difference-of-sex-development
    Concerns have been raised that DSD is an overly broad term that, with current nomenclature, is used to encompass conditions in which no issues with genital appearance or gender identity are expected; and also that a broad umbrella term like DSD lacks sufficient specificity to be helpful diagnostically and is therefore unnecessary. Many support and advocacy groups do not accept the DSD designation and feel that it should be abandoned by the medical community. We agree with the concept that each patient should be identified by a specific diagnosis and not the inexact umbrella DSD categorization.
  • #36 Disorders or Differences of Sex Development | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-18901-3_1-1
    Disorders or Differences of sex development (DSD) refer to a diverse group of conditions in which chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomic sex development is atypical. […] DSDs may present at various ages, ranging from the prenatal period to adulthood. […] Many different health care professionals may be involved and diagnostic evaluation as well as long-term care is ideally provided by a multidisciplinary team. […] The increased availability of next generation sequencing has allowed for the identification of many new genes involved in DSD and the advent and increased accessibility of this technology has changed the diagnostic approach and refined the molecular genetic diagnosis in many cases. […] Full disclosure is essential for people to be able to make informed decisions. […] In addition, support groups are increasingly involved in discussions about optimal care and in defining research priorities.
  • #37 A guide to differences/disorders of sex development/intersex in children and adolescents
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/july/differences-disorders-of-sex-development-intersex
    Delaying surgery for functional gonads allows time for exploration of gender identity, which may differ from assigned sex; however, it is important to bear in mind the lack of robust surveillance methods to predict malignancy risk if dysgenetic gonads are left in situ. […] Individuals with DSD may present in the newborn period with atypical genitalia, during adolescence with atypical pubertal development, or in adulthood with fertility issues. Management of DSD requires highly specialised multidisciplinary care encompassing medical, surgical, psychosocial, psychosexual and human rights/ethical aspects.
  • #38 Outcome differences by sex in oncology clinical trials | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46945-x
    Identifying sex differences in outcomes and toxicity between males and females in oncology clinical trials is important and has also been mandated by National Institutes of Health policies. […] Thus, while statistical comparisons between sexes in oncology trials are rarely reported, important differences in outcome and toxicity exist. These considerable outcome and toxicity differences highlight the need for reporting sex differences more thoroughly going forward. […] Overall, we found 288 trials with statistical analysis of SOR outcomes. This set contained 47 (16.3%) trials with significant evidence favoring males, 122 (42.4%) trials with significant evidence favoring females, and 119 (41.3%) trials with statistical evidence showing no difference between males and females. […] Overall, 97 (18.2%) of all comparisons we found were regarding post-treatment side effects (SE), often in trials of drugs intended to mitigate side effects. SE comparisons with multivariate or univariate evidence were performed in 44 trials. Those 44 include 22 trials (50%) that showed statistically significant lesser side effects in males, 13 (29.5%) in females, and 9 (20.5%) with no significant difference. […] This analysis relies on Trialtrove curation to capture reported sex differences from published papers.
  • #39 Outcome differences by sex in oncology clinical trials | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46945-x
    Identifying sex differences in outcomes and toxicity between males and females in oncology clinical trials is important and has also been mandated by National Institutes of Health policies. […] Thus, while statistical comparisons between sexes in oncology trials are rarely reported, important differences in outcome and toxicity exist. These considerable outcome and toxicity differences highlight the need for reporting sex differences more thoroughly going forward. […] Overall, we found 288 trials with statistical analysis of SOR outcomes. This set contained 47 (16.3%) trials with significant evidence favoring males, 122 (42.4%) trials with significant evidence favoring females, and 119 (41.3%) trials with statistical evidence showing no difference between males and females. […] Overall, 97 (18.2%) of all comparisons we found were regarding post-treatment side effects (SE), often in trials of drugs intended to mitigate side effects. SE comparisons with multivariate or univariate evidence were performed in 44 trials. Those 44 include 22 trials (50%) that showed statistically significant lesser side effects in males, 13 (29.5%) in females, and 9 (20.5%) with no significant difference. […] This analysis relies on Trialtrove curation to capture reported sex differences from published papers.
  • #40 Outcome differences by sex in oncology clinical trials | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46945-x
    Identifying sex differences in outcomes and toxicity between males and females in oncology clinical trials is important and has also been mandated by National Institutes of Health policies. […] Thus, while statistical comparisons between sexes in oncology trials are rarely reported, important differences in outcome and toxicity exist. These considerable outcome and toxicity differences highlight the need for reporting sex differences more thoroughly going forward. […] Overall, we found 288 trials with statistical analysis of SOR outcomes. This set contained 47 (16.3%) trials with significant evidence favoring males, 122 (42.4%) trials with significant evidence favoring females, and 119 (41.3%) trials with statistical evidence showing no difference between males and females. […] Overall, 97 (18.2%) of all comparisons we found were regarding post-treatment side effects (SE), often in trials of drugs intended to mitigate side effects. SE comparisons with multivariate or univariate evidence were performed in 44 trials. Those 44 include 22 trials (50%) that showed statistically significant lesser side effects in males, 13 (29.5%) in females, and 9 (20.5%) with no significant difference. […] This analysis relies on Trialtrove curation to capture reported sex differences from published papers.