Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Male Breast Cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931115/

  Breast cancer is a rare disease in men representing nearly 1% of the total breast cancer cases worldwide. […] The gender-specific differences in breast cancer are among others related to the differing genetic and hormonal environment and the anatomic constitution in men. […] This review focuses on epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical findings of male breast cancer, and discusses current findings available to treat this disease. […] The etiology of MBC remains as poorly understood as that of female breast cancer, but genetic disorders and an imbalance by various mechanisms in the estrogen-testosterone ratio are probably implicated. […] Hormonal alterations due to testicular disease may be an important factor. […] The risk of breast cancer in these individuals is 2050 times higher than in 46XY men.

• #2 Male Breast Cancer

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/male-breast-cancer

  Male breast cancer is an uncommon but potentially deadly disorder. One man for every 100 women is affected. Male breast cancer is diagnosed and treated much like female breast cancer, with surgery the primary treatment. Other treatment modalities include radiation, hormone therapy with tamoxifen or aromatase inhibitors, biological agents such as trastuzumab, and chemotherapy with agents such as doxorubicin and paclitaxel. Because male breast cancer often metastasizes to the bone, bisphosphonates are used to prevent skeletal problems and alleviate pain. Survival is based on the extent of the cancer’s invasiveness (staging). […] Breast cancer is thought of as a woman’s disease; however, men’s breast tissue also can undergo cancerous alterations. The disease is rare in men, representing less than 1% of all cancers in the male population. Not too many years ago, male breast cancer was believed to have a poor prognosis; newer studies, however, have shown that the prognosis is similar to that for women at any given stage.

• #3 Breast Cancer in Men: Overview of Male Breast Cancer, Etiology, Diagnosis

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1954174-overview

  The etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of breast cancer in males is similar to that in females. Unlike breast cancer in females, however, breast cancer in men is rare. […] Environmental and genetic risk factors for male breast cancer have been identified. Male breast cancers are reported to be associated with the following: Older age (mean age at diagnosis is 60-70 years, although young men may be affected), Carriage of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, Family history of breast cancer, Thoracic radiation therapy, Klinefelter syndrome, Gynecomastia, Cirrhosis, Overweight and obesity, History of testicular pathology. […] Klinefelter syndrome is the strongest risk factor, although rates in those with the syndrome are still far lower than rates in women. Possible mechanisms may involve decreased micro-RNA expression and increased estrogen/progesterone receptor expression.

• #4 The molecular genetic make-up of male breast cancer in: Endocrine-Related Cancer Volume 26 Issue 10 (2019)

  https://erc.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/erc/26/10/ERC-19-0278.xml

  Male breast cancer (MBC) is extremely rare and accounts for less than 1% of all breast malignancies. Therefore, clinical management of MBC is currently guided by research on the disease in females. […] The genomic landscape of MBC to some extent recapitulated that of smFBC, with recurrent PIK3CA (36%) and GATA3 (15%) somatic mutations, and with 40% of the most frequently amplified genes overlapping between both sexes. […] MDM2 amplifications were frequent (13%), correlated with protein overexpression (P=0.001) and predicted poor outcome (P=0.007). […] In conclusion, despite similarities in the genomic landscape between MBC and smFBC, MBC is a molecularly unique and heterogeneous disease requiring its own clinical trials and treatment guidelines. […] Major genetic factors associated with an increased risk of MBC include BRCA2 and BRCA1 germline mutations, Klinefelter syndrome (KS) and family history.

• #5 Male breast cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/male-breast-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20374740

  Male breast cancer starts when cells in the breast tissue develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA holds the instructions that tell the cell what to do. In healthy cells, the DNA gives instructions to grow and multiply at a set rate. The instructions tell the cells to die at a set time. […] In cancer cells, the DNA changes give different instructions. The changes tell the cancer cells to make many more cells quickly. Cancer cells can keep living when healthy cells would die. This causes too many cells. […] The cancer cells might form a mass called a tumor. The tumor can grow to invade and destroy healthy body tissue. In time, cancer cells can break away and spread to other parts of the body. When cancer spreads, it’s called metastatic cancer.

• #6 Male breast cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/male-breast-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20374740

  Male breast cancer starts when cells in the breast tissue develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA holds the instructions that tell the cell what to do. In healthy cells, the DNA gives instructions to grow and multiply at a set rate. The instructions tell the cells to die at a set time. […] In cancer cells, the DNA changes give different instructions. The changes tell the cancer cells to make many more cells quickly. Cancer cells can keep living when healthy cells would die. This causes too many cells. […] The cancer cells might form a mass called a tumor. The tumor can grow to invade and destroy healthy body tissue. In time, cancer cells can break away and spread to other parts of the body. When cancer spreads, it’s called metastatic cancer.

• #7 Breast cancer: pathogenesis and treatments | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-02108-4

  The leading risk factors involve a combination of genetic predisposition, hormonal factors, reproductive history, and lifestyle choices. Hormonal factors such as long-term exposure to estrogen, nulliparity and no breastfeeding, late menopause, or early menarche increase the risk of breast cancer. […] Didactically, breast carcinogenesis is a series of genetic and environmental events that drive the multistep process of transformation of normal cells via the steps of hyperplasia, premalignant change, and in situ carcinoma. […] The pathological journey of breast cancer from in situ to invasive cancer is another complex process, starting with abnormally proliferating cells in the breast lobules. This transition is characterized by acquiring invasive and metastatic properties, facilitated by genetic alterations and interactions with the tumor microenvironment.

• #8 Breast cancer: pathogenesis and treatments | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-02108-4

  The clonal accumulation of cells leads histologically to ductal hyperplasia, initially without atypia. While in the promotion phase, the expansions of mutation clones form by stimulating the cellular proliferation of autocrine growth factors or recruiting inflammatory and stromal cells to produce these factors, evolving mechanisms to evade the immune system. […] The identification of breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1/2, whose proteins are involved in DNA repair through homologous recombination, has shed light on some mechanisms behind sporadic and hereditary breast cancers. The primary pathogenic mechanism contains genetic alternations, hormonal homeostasis changes, and immune interference, which are demonstrated as follows. […] Breast cancer cells develop within a complex microenvironment that includes various benign cell types and extracellular matrix. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the predominant cell type present; however, the breast cancer microenvironment is also populated by lymphocytes, macrophages, myeloid lineage cells, etc., which predominantly play roles in immune reactions. […] The interplay between breast cancer cells and host antitumor immunity determines co-existing mechanisms of immune escape within the same patient, highlighting the need for combinatory immunotherapies and biomarker development.

• #9 Male Breast Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526036/

  Also, in addition to a family history of breast cancer, males with a BRCA mutation appear to have an increased risk for breast cancer as well. […] The alterations in estrogen-to-androgen ratios are important to note when discussing the etiology of male breast cancer. Estrogen, which stimulates ductal development in breasts, has also been implicated as a potential risk factor for MBC, similar to women. […] Other potential triggers have also been identified and include obesity, marijuana use, hepatic dysfunction, thyroid disease, and estrogen-containing medications. […] Lastly, environmental factors have also been implicated in the possibility of increasing the risk of male breast cancer. […] The most common type of breast cancer seen in men is invasive ductal carcinoma, which constitutes approximately 90% of all male breast cancers.

• #10 Male breast cancer: a review of literature

  https://rcm.mums.ac.ir/article_8778.html

  Studies have devoted relatively scant attention to male breast cancer compared with female breast cancer. […] There is not comprehensive knowledge regarding the etiology of breast cancer in men. The environmental agents and genetic factors are proposed as the influential parameters in the pathogenesis of breast cancer. […] Male breast cancer has similar risk factors to those for postmenopausal women with breast cancer. […] Mutations in BRCA gene increase the risk of male breast cancer and BRCA2 mutation carries a higher risk of breast cancer compared to BRCA1 mutation. […] Conditions such as increasing estrogen to androgen ratio have linked to the higher risk of male breast cancer. […] Moreover, it has been proposed that individuals with the history of liver disease are at higher risk of breast cancer as the result of the liver role in steroid and estrogen metabolism.

• #11 Genetic Landscape of Male Breast Cancer

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/14/3535

  The genomic and epigenomic landscape of MBC is not as extensively characterized as FBC. […] Studies in MBC have revealed an evident family clustering of some cases and the contribution of the genes initially identified in the female population as risk factors for MBC as well. Indeed, PVs in BRCA1, and mainly in BRCA2, were the first to be associated with an increased risk of BC in men. […] The estimated lifetime risk of BC is 5–10% among male BRCA2 PV carriers, compared to a 0.1% risk in the general population. […] The prevalence of germline BRCA1/2 PVs in men and women with BC unselected for family history, age, ethnicity, or molecular subtype is estimated to range from 2.7% to 6.1%. […] Overall, the detection rates of MGPT in MBC patients ranged from 9.0% to 31.8%, and the majority of cases are still named “sporadic”, since they do not present a clear familial clustering, probably resulting from the interaction between multiple and poorly penetrant alterations in other genes with environmental factors.

• #12 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A risk factor is anything that affects your chance of getting a disease, such as breast cancer. […] We don’t yet completely understand the causes of breast cancer in men, but researchers have found several factors that may increase the risk of getting it. As with female breast cancer, many of these factors are related to your body’s sex hormone levels. […] Aging is an important risk factor for the development of breast cancer in men. The risk of breast cancer goes up as a man ages. […] Men with a mutation (defect) in the BRCA2 gene have an increased risk of breast cancer, with a lifetime risk of about 6 in 100. […] Mutations in CHEK2, PTEN and PALB2 genes might also be responsible for some breast cancers in men. […] Men with Klinefelter syndrome are more likely to get breast cancer than other men. Having this condition can increase the risk anywhere between 20 – 60 times the risk of a man in the general population.

• #13 Male breast cancer | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/male-breast-cancer?lang=us

  Male breast cancer is exceptionally rare and only accounts for less than 0.25% of male malignancies and ~0.5-1% of all breast cancer (both genders). […] Histologically, the vast majority are invasive ductal carcinoma (85-90%) or ductal carcinoma in situ. It should be noted that invasive lobular carcinoma is extremely rare in male patients because lobules and acini are not found in normal male breast tissue. […] The genetic predisposition for breast cancer can be inherited from both mother and father. First line family history includes both genders. […] Men with BRCA1/2 mutations are at increased risk for breast, prostate, pancreatic and some other cancers. The average man has a 0.1% breast cancer risk, although the risk is significantly increased to 7-8% with a BRCA2 mutation and 1% with a BRCA1 mutation. […] The overall prognosis tends to be worse than for female breast cancer, possibly due to the fact that men seek medical attention for the mass at later stages (i.e. when the mass has already become palpable).

• #14 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A risk factor is anything that affects your chance of getting a disease, such as breast cancer. […] We don’t yet completely understand the causes of breast cancer in men, but researchers have found several factors that may increase the risk of getting it. As with female breast cancer, many of these factors are related to your body’s sex hormone levels. […] Aging is an important risk factor for the development of breast cancer in men. The risk of breast cancer goes up as a man ages. […] Men with a mutation (defect) in the BRCA2 gene have an increased risk of breast cancer, with a lifetime risk of about 6 in 100. […] Mutations in CHEK2, PTEN and PALB2 genes might also be responsible for some breast cancers in men. […] Men with Klinefelter syndrome are more likely to get breast cancer than other men. Having this condition can increase the risk anywhere between 20 – 60 times the risk of a man in the general population.

• #15 Breast Cancer in Males: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/male-breast-cancer-513617

  While it is rare, men can develop breast cancer. […] Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) is the most common male breast cancer. IDC originates in the duct and breaks into, or invades, the surrounding fatty tissue. […] The following are known risk factors for male breast cancer. […] Those who have close family members (regardless of gender) with breast cancer are at increased risk of developing the condition. Inheriting the breast cancer variants of the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene increases the chance of developing breast cancer. […] Variants in the CHEK2, PTEN, and PALB2 genes (non-BRCA mutations that raise breast cancer risk) may also be associated with male breast cancer. […] Klinefelter’s syndrome is a rare genetic problem that is associated with a 20%30% increased risk in male breast cancer.

• #16 The molecular genetic make-up of male breast cancer in: Endocrine-Related Cancer Volume 26 Issue 10 (2019)

  https://erc.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/erc/26/10/ERC-19-0278.xml

  Male breast cancer (MBC) is extremely rare and accounts for less than 1% of all breast malignancies. Therefore, clinical management of MBC is currently guided by research on the disease in females. […] The genomic landscape of MBC to some extent recapitulated that of smFBC, with recurrent PIK3CA (36%) and GATA3 (15%) somatic mutations, and with 40% of the most frequently amplified genes overlapping between both sexes. […] MDM2 amplifications were frequent (13%), correlated with protein overexpression (P=0.001) and predicted poor outcome (P=0.007). […] In conclusion, despite similarities in the genomic landscape between MBC and smFBC, MBC is a molecularly unique and heterogeneous disease requiring its own clinical trials and treatment guidelines. […] Major genetic factors associated with an increased risk of MBC include BRCA2 and BRCA1 germline mutations, Klinefelter syndrome (KS) and family history.

• #17 The molecular genetic make-up of male breast cancer in: Endocrine-Related Cancer Volume 26 Issue 10 (2019)

  https://erc.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/erc/26/10/ERC-19-0278.xml

  Male breast cancer (MBC) is extremely rare and accounts for less than 1% of all breast malignancies. Therefore, clinical management of MBC is currently guided by research on the disease in females. […] The genomic landscape of MBC to some extent recapitulated that of smFBC, with recurrent PIK3CA (36%) and GATA3 (15%) somatic mutations, and with 40% of the most frequently amplified genes overlapping between both sexes. […] MDM2 amplifications were frequent (13%), correlated with protein overexpression (P=0.001) and predicted poor outcome (P=0.007). […] In conclusion, despite similarities in the genomic landscape between MBC and smFBC, MBC is a molecularly unique and heterogeneous disease requiring its own clinical trials and treatment guidelines. […] Major genetic factors associated with an increased risk of MBC include BRCA2 and BRCA1 germline mutations, Klinefelter syndrome (KS) and family history.

• #18

  https://journals.lww.com/cancerjournal/fulltext/2023/19050/copy_number_variations_in_male_breast_cancer.53.aspx

  A few array-based studies available for MBC suggest a difference in male and female breast cancer at the molecular level, indicating a potential different mechanism of tumorigenesis. […] This suggests that MBCs are represented by a cluster of candidate driver genes different from those of FBCs. […] In the present study, LOH was observed at chromosomal loci on chromosomes 4, 6, 7, 18, and 20, which harbor genes reported to be associated with progression. […] The gain of the Yq region has not been reported earlier in MBC. […] Thus, a possible association of an MBC predisposition phenotype with copy number variations affecting different genes is in line with the genetic heterogeneity reported in breast cancer.

• #19

  https://journals.lww.com/cancerjournal/fulltext/2023/19050/copy_number_variations_in_male_breast_cancer.53.aspx

  Common copy number variations often contain cancer-related genes and are likely to play a role in carcinogenesis. […] Different mechanisms of tumorigenesis are suggested in female and male breast cancer because of different molecular profiles. […] Cytogenetic analysis found aberrations previously implicated in cancer. […] SNP array analysis in patients revealed a gain of Xp11.23, 8p23.2, Yq11.221, Yq11.3 (AZF region), 12p11.21, 18q12.1, and 17q21.3; a loss of Yq11.222 and 7q11.21; and a loss of heterozygosity of 4p16.3, 6p12.3, 6p22.2-p21.31, 7p14.2-14.1, 18q11.2-q12.1, 20p11.23-11.1, 20q11.21-11.23, 1q25.2-q25.3, 2q11.1-q11.2, 5q23.1-23.2, 11p15.4-15.3, and 22q13.1-13.31. […] Chromosomal loci identified by SNP array harbor genes were reported to be associated with cancer progression and metastasis, indicating their involvement in MBC also.

• #20

  https://journals.lww.com/cancerjournal/fulltext/2023/19050/copy_number_variations_in_male_breast_cancer.53.aspx

  A few array-based studies available for MBC suggest a difference in male and female breast cancer at the molecular level, indicating a potential different mechanism of tumorigenesis. […] This suggests that MBCs are represented by a cluster of candidate driver genes different from those of FBCs. […] In the present study, LOH was observed at chromosomal loci on chromosomes 4, 6, 7, 18, and 20, which harbor genes reported to be associated with progression. […] The gain of the Yq region has not been reported earlier in MBC. […] Thus, a possible association of an MBC predisposition phenotype with copy number variations affecting different genes is in line with the genetic heterogeneity reported in breast cancer.

• #21 Male Breast Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526036/

  Also, in addition to a family history of breast cancer, males with a BRCA mutation appear to have an increased risk for breast cancer as well. […] The alterations in estrogen-to-androgen ratios are important to note when discussing the etiology of male breast cancer. Estrogen, which stimulates ductal development in breasts, has also been implicated as a potential risk factor for MBC, similar to women. […] Other potential triggers have also been identified and include obesity, marijuana use, hepatic dysfunction, thyroid disease, and estrogen-containing medications. […] Lastly, environmental factors have also been implicated in the possibility of increasing the risk of male breast cancer. […] The most common type of breast cancer seen in men is invasive ductal carcinoma, which constitutes approximately 90% of all male breast cancers.

• #22 Male Breast Cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931115/

  Breast cancer is a rare disease in men representing nearly 1% of the total breast cancer cases worldwide. […] The gender-specific differences in breast cancer are among others related to the differing genetic and hormonal environment and the anatomic constitution in men. […] This review focuses on epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical findings of male breast cancer, and discusses current findings available to treat this disease. […] The etiology of MBC remains as poorly understood as that of female breast cancer, but genetic disorders and an imbalance by various mechanisms in the estrogen-testosterone ratio are probably implicated. […] Hormonal alterations due to testicular disease may be an important factor. […] The risk of breast cancer in these individuals is 2050 times higher than in 46XY men.

• #23

  http://waocp.com/journal/index.php/apjcc/article/view/1040

  Male breast cancer is a rare disease, accounting for approximately 0.5-1% of all breast cancer cases. […] The disease typically presents in older men, often in their sixth or seventh decade of life, and is often diagnosed at an advanced stage with a poorer prognosis than female breast cancer. […] Male breast cancer etiology mostly includes the genetic or environmental risk factors. […] Risk of male breast cancer increases if they have first or second degree relative with breast cancer which is similar to cancer seen in women. […] Along with family history, increased risk for breast cancer in males is seen with BRCA mutation. […] The alterations in oestrogen to androgen ratios is important in etiology of male breast cancer and carries an important role. […] Other potential triggers include obesity, marijuana use, hepatic dysfunction, thyroid disease, and oestrogen-containing medications.

• #24 Breast Cancer in Men: Overview of Male Breast Cancer, Etiology, Diagnosis

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1954174-overview

  The etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of breast cancer in males is similar to that in females. Unlike breast cancer in females, however, breast cancer in men is rare. […] Environmental and genetic risk factors for male breast cancer have been identified. Male breast cancers are reported to be associated with the following: Older age (mean age at diagnosis is 60-70 years, although young men may be affected), Carriage of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, Family history of breast cancer, Thoracic radiation therapy, Klinefelter syndrome, Gynecomastia, Cirrhosis, Overweight and obesity, History of testicular pathology. […] Klinefelter syndrome is the strongest risk factor, although rates in those with the syndrome are still far lower than rates in women. Possible mechanisms may involve decreased micro-RNA expression and increased estrogen/progesterone receptor expression.

• #25 About Breast Cancer in Men | Breast Cancer | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/breast-cancer/about/men.html

  Klinefelter syndrome is a rare genetic condition in which a male has an extra X chromosome. This can lead to the body making higher levels of estrogen and lower levels of androgens (hormones that help develop and maintain male sex characteristics). […] Liver disease. Cirrhosis (scarring) of the liver can lower androgen levels and raise estrogen levels in men, increasing the risk of breast cancer. […] In men, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes can increase the risk of breast cancer, high-grade prostate cancer, and pancreatic cancer. […] Treatment for breast cancer in men depends on how big the tumor is and how far it has spread. Treatment may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, and targeted therapy.

• #26 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A risk factor is anything that affects your chance of getting a disease, such as breast cancer. […] We don’t yet completely understand the causes of breast cancer in men, but researchers have found several factors that may increase the risk of getting it. As with female breast cancer, many of these factors are related to your body’s sex hormone levels. […] Aging is an important risk factor for the development of breast cancer in men. The risk of breast cancer goes up as a man ages. […] Men with a mutation (defect) in the BRCA2 gene have an increased risk of breast cancer, with a lifetime risk of about 6 in 100. […] Mutations in CHEK2, PTEN and PALB2 genes might also be responsible for some breast cancers in men. […] Men with Klinefelter syndrome are more likely to get breast cancer than other men. Having this condition can increase the risk anywhere between 20 – 60 times the risk of a man in the general population.

• #27 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A man whose chest area has been treated with radiation (such as for the treatment of a cancer in the chest, like lymphoma) has an increased risk of developing breast cancer. […] Heavy drinking (of alcoholic beverages) increases the risk of breast cancer in men. […] The liver plays an important role in balancing the levels of sex hormones. […] Men with liver disease can also have a higher chance of developing benign male breast growth (gynecomastia) and also have an higher risk of developing breast cancer. […] Estrogen-related drugs were once used in hormonal therapy for men with prostate cancer. This treatment may slightly increase breast cancer risk. […] Studies have shown that women’s breast cancer risk is increased by excess body weight after menopause. Excess weight is a risk factor for male breast cancer as well. […] Certain conditions, such as having an undescended testicle, having mumps as an adult, or having one or both testicles surgically removed (orchiectomy) may increase male breast cancer risk.

• #28 Male breast cancer: a review of literature

  https://rcm.mums.ac.ir/article_8778.html

  Studies have devoted relatively scant attention to male breast cancer compared with female breast cancer. […] There is not comprehensive knowledge regarding the etiology of breast cancer in men. The environmental agents and genetic factors are proposed as the influential parameters in the pathogenesis of breast cancer. […] Male breast cancer has similar risk factors to those for postmenopausal women with breast cancer. […] Mutations in BRCA gene increase the risk of male breast cancer and BRCA2 mutation carries a higher risk of breast cancer compared to BRCA1 mutation. […] Conditions such as increasing estrogen to androgen ratio have linked to the higher risk of male breast cancer. […] Moreover, it has been proposed that individuals with the history of liver disease are at higher risk of breast cancer as the result of the liver role in steroid and estrogen metabolism.

• #29 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A man whose chest area has been treated with radiation (such as for the treatment of a cancer in the chest, like lymphoma) has an increased risk of developing breast cancer. […] Heavy drinking (of alcoholic beverages) increases the risk of breast cancer in men. […] The liver plays an important role in balancing the levels of sex hormones. […] Men with liver disease can also have a higher chance of developing benign male breast growth (gynecomastia) and also have an higher risk of developing breast cancer. […] Estrogen-related drugs were once used in hormonal therapy for men with prostate cancer. This treatment may slightly increase breast cancer risk. […] Studies have shown that women’s breast cancer risk is increased by excess body weight after menopause. Excess weight is a risk factor for male breast cancer as well. […] Certain conditions, such as having an undescended testicle, having mumps as an adult, or having one or both testicles surgically removed (orchiectomy) may increase male breast cancer risk.

• #30 The Radiology Assistant : Pathology of the Male Breast

  https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/male-breast/pathology-of-the-male-breast

  Male breast cancer presents as a unilateral painless subareolar mass. […] This subareolar location is just like in gynecomastia, but usually it is eccentric to the nipple. […] Male breast cancer presents as a round, oval or irregular mass. […] There is a long list of carcinoma risk factors and they are the same as in women: Advanced age, Family history, Jewish heritage, Chest wall irradiation, Hyperestrogenism, Hyperthyroidism, Exposure to hepatotoxins, Occupational exposure to high heat (steel industry), BRCA 2 is seen in 4 – 16% of male breast cancer patients (40% in Iceland), Undescended testes, Orchiectomy and orchitis, Klinefelter’s syndrome (47, XXY – 6% of all male breast cancer is in Klinefelter – 3% lifetime risk). […] Malignancies other than ductal carcinoma are uncommon.

• #31 Male Breast Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526036/

  Also, in addition to a family history of breast cancer, males with a BRCA mutation appear to have an increased risk for breast cancer as well. […] The alterations in estrogen-to-androgen ratios are important to note when discussing the etiology of male breast cancer. Estrogen, which stimulates ductal development in breasts, has also been implicated as a potential risk factor for MBC, similar to women. […] Other potential triggers have also been identified and include obesity, marijuana use, hepatic dysfunction, thyroid disease, and estrogen-containing medications. […] Lastly, environmental factors have also been implicated in the possibility of increasing the risk of male breast cancer. […] The most common type of breast cancer seen in men is invasive ductal carcinoma, which constitutes approximately 90% of all male breast cancers.

• #32 Can men get breast cancer? 10 things to know | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/male-breast-cancer-what-men-should-know.h00-158826489.html

  Much like breast cancer in women, we dont ultimately know what causes male breast cancer. […] Changes in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 are strongly associated with male breast cancer, particularly BRCA2. […] Obesity is often associated with higher levels of estrogen in the body. This can increase mens risk for breast cancer. […] Some liver conditions can raise estrogen levels in the body, increasing the risk of male breast cancer. […] This condition occurs when a male is born with an extra X chromosome. […] Most men have breast cancers that are estrogen receptor positive. So, we often use tamoxifen to block estrogen as part of their treatment. […] Male breast cancer is curable in most cases. Curability depends on the cancers stage at diagnosis. […] In general, the survival rate for men diagnosed with breast cancer is slightly lower than it is for women. On average, men are diagnosed at an older age and when the disease is more advanced. […] We are working to better understand this rare disease and improve patients treatment options and quality of life.

• #33 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A man whose chest area has been treated with radiation (such as for the treatment of a cancer in the chest, like lymphoma) has an increased risk of developing breast cancer. […] Heavy drinking (of alcoholic beverages) increases the risk of breast cancer in men. […] The liver plays an important role in balancing the levels of sex hormones. […] Men with liver disease can also have a higher chance of developing benign male breast growth (gynecomastia) and also have an higher risk of developing breast cancer. […] Estrogen-related drugs were once used in hormonal therapy for men with prostate cancer. This treatment may slightly increase breast cancer risk. […] Studies have shown that women’s breast cancer risk is increased by excess body weight after menopause. Excess weight is a risk factor for male breast cancer as well. […] Certain conditions, such as having an undescended testicle, having mumps as an adult, or having one or both testicles surgically removed (orchiectomy) may increase male breast cancer risk.

• #34 Male Breast Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526036/

  In breast cancer in men, approximately 90% express the estrogen receptor (ER), and 81% express the progesterone receptor. […] Treatment and management of male breast cancer typically follow the same rationale as breast cancer in women, which consists of resection followed by adjuvant endocrine therapy, chemotherapy (CT), or radiotherapy. […] Most male breast cancers are hormone receptor-positive. […] As described above, is characterized by estrogen receptor (ER) expression, and thus, endocrine therapy is a vital part of management. Tamoxifen is the common choice of treatment, although aromatase inhibitors have been identified as a potential therapy; however, its role as isolated adjuvant therapy is limited. […] The staging workup regarding male breast cancer is classified similarly to breast cancer in women and consists of the tumor, node, and metastasis (TMN) staging system. […] Due to delayed diagnosis commonly found in male breast cancer, the overall 5-year survival is approximately 40% to 65%.

• #35 Male Breast Cancer

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/male-breast-cancer

  The presence of ERs and PRs– intracellular receptors that selectively bind to estrogen and progesterone–in breast cancer cells has considerable implications for treatment of the disease. The presence or absence of these receptors gives insight into the biological behavior of the cancer and potential responsiveness to hormonal therapy. About 76% of male breast cancers are ER-positive (sensitive) and 83% are PR-positive. As in women, male breast cancers that do not express these receptors (ER/PR-negative) are considered more aggressive and unresponsive to hormonal therapy. […] In addition to hormonal status, male breast cancers are screened for the expression of HER2. This receptor is involved in the growth of cancer cells. Recent data suggest that there is a smaller percentage of HER2 overexpression in male breast cancer than is seen in female breast cancer.

• #36 What You Need To Know About Male Breast Cancer | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/news/what-you-need-know-about-male-breast-cancer

  Medical oncologist Ayca Gucalp is an expert in the treatment of male breast cancer. […] The current treatments for men with breast cancer are largely based on what doctors have learned from treating women. […] Increased amounts of the hormone estrogen above the low level that is normal for men as well as decreased levels of testosterone can also result in a higher risk for male breast cancer. […] Studies have shown that more than 90% of male breast cancer is estrogen receptor-positive meaning that the cancer may receive signals from estrogen that could promote tumor growth. […] The most important message is that we should not extrapolate the results of studies we do in female breast cancer to male breast cancer, Dr. Reis-Filho says. […] The most common treatment for male breast cancer is mastectomy surgical removal of all breast tissue.

• #37 Male Breast Cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931115/

  The role of the androgen receptor in MBC is unclear. […] The predominant histological type of disease is invasive ductal which forms more than 90% of all male breast tumors. […] Male breast cancers have high rates of hormone receptor expression. […] The HER2 proto-oncogene is less likely to be overexpressed in cancers of the male breast. […] The role of adjuvant hormonal therapy is widely accepted in MBC patients with hormone receptor-positive tumors. […] There is a substantial need to obtain more detailed information about the etiology, pathogenesis, and clinical aspects of MBC as well as therapeutic options.

• #38 Male Breast Cancer

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/male-breast-cancer

  The presence of ERs and PRs– intracellular receptors that selectively bind to estrogen and progesterone–in breast cancer cells has considerable implications for treatment of the disease. The presence or absence of these receptors gives insight into the biological behavior of the cancer and potential responsiveness to hormonal therapy. About 76% of male breast cancers are ER-positive (sensitive) and 83% are PR-positive. As in women, male breast cancers that do not express these receptors (ER/PR-negative) are considered more aggressive and unresponsive to hormonal therapy. […] In addition to hormonal status, male breast cancers are screened for the expression of HER2. This receptor is involved in the growth of cancer cells. Recent data suggest that there is a smaller percentage of HER2 overexpression in male breast cancer than is seen in female breast cancer.

• #39 Male Breast Cancer

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/male-breast-cancer

  The presence of ERs and PRs– intracellular receptors that selectively bind to estrogen and progesterone–in breast cancer cells has considerable implications for treatment of the disease. The presence or absence of these receptors gives insight into the biological behavior of the cancer and potential responsiveness to hormonal therapy. About 76% of male breast cancers are ER-positive (sensitive) and 83% are PR-positive. As in women, male breast cancers that do not express these receptors (ER/PR-negative) are considered more aggressive and unresponsive to hormonal therapy. […] In addition to hormonal status, male breast cancers are screened for the expression of HER2. This receptor is involved in the growth of cancer cells. Recent data suggest that there is a smaller percentage of HER2 overexpression in male breast cancer than is seen in female breast cancer.

• #40 Male Breast Cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931115/

  The role of the androgen receptor in MBC is unclear. […] The predominant histological type of disease is invasive ductal which forms more than 90% of all male breast tumors. […] Male breast cancers have high rates of hormone receptor expression. […] The HER2 proto-oncogene is less likely to be overexpressed in cancers of the male breast. […] The role of adjuvant hormonal therapy is widely accepted in MBC patients with hormone receptor-positive tumors. […] There is a substantial need to obtain more detailed information about the etiology, pathogenesis, and clinical aspects of MBC as well as therapeutic options.

• #41

  https://journals.lww.com/ijpm/fulltext/2021/64010/potential_role_of_significant_gata3_mutation_in.32.aspx

  Previous studies showed that AR mutation was related to the development of male breast cancer and proposed as a new target for treatment of male breast cancer. […] GATA3 is a zinc finger transcriptional factor and plays an essential role in the normal development and function of the mammary gland where it promotes a transcriptional program specifying luminal cell identity. […] GATA3 S408Afs*99 mutation in this case, therefore, may presumably be important for development of the disease by enhancing ER signaling and contribute to the sensitivity of anti-estrogen endocrine therapy. […] Although GATA3 was identified as a driver gene of female breast cancer and a biomarker of response to aromatase inhibitor therapy, function of GATA3 in male breast cancer remains controversial, and roles of GATA3 mutation in the development and anti-estrogen endocrine therapy of male breast cancer necessitate further study.

• #42

  https://journals.lww.com/ijpm/fulltext/2021/64010/potential_role_of_significant_gata3_mutation_in.32.aspx

  Previous studies showed that AR mutation was related to the development of male breast cancer and proposed as a new target for treatment of male breast cancer. […] GATA3 is a zinc finger transcriptional factor and plays an essential role in the normal development and function of the mammary gland where it promotes a transcriptional program specifying luminal cell identity. […] GATA3 S408Afs*99 mutation in this case, therefore, may presumably be important for development of the disease by enhancing ER signaling and contribute to the sensitivity of anti-estrogen endocrine therapy. […] Although GATA3 was identified as a driver gene of female breast cancer and a biomarker of response to aromatase inhibitor therapy, function of GATA3 in male breast cancer remains controversial, and roles of GATA3 mutation in the development and anti-estrogen endocrine therapy of male breast cancer necessitate further study.

• #43 Male Breast Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526036/

  Also, in addition to a family history of breast cancer, males with a BRCA mutation appear to have an increased risk for breast cancer as well. […] The alterations in estrogen-to-androgen ratios are important to note when discussing the etiology of male breast cancer. Estrogen, which stimulates ductal development in breasts, has also been implicated as a potential risk factor for MBC, similar to women. […] Other potential triggers have also been identified and include obesity, marijuana use, hepatic dysfunction, thyroid disease, and estrogen-containing medications. […] Lastly, environmental factors have also been implicated in the possibility of increasing the risk of male breast cancer. […] The most common type of breast cancer seen in men is invasive ductal carcinoma, which constitutes approximately 90% of all male breast cancers.

• #44 Male Breast Cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2931115/

  The role of the androgen receptor in MBC is unclear. […] The predominant histological type of disease is invasive ductal which forms more than 90% of all male breast tumors. […] Male breast cancers have high rates of hormone receptor expression. […] The HER2 proto-oncogene is less likely to be overexpressed in cancers of the male breast. […] The role of adjuvant hormonal therapy is widely accepted in MBC patients with hormone receptor-positive tumors. […] There is a substantial need to obtain more detailed information about the etiology, pathogenesis, and clinical aspects of MBC as well as therapeutic options.

• #45 Male breast cancer | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/male-breast-cancer?lang=us

  Male breast cancer is exceptionally rare and only accounts for less than 0.25% of male malignancies and ~0.5-1% of all breast cancer (both genders). […] Histologically, the vast majority are invasive ductal carcinoma (85-90%) or ductal carcinoma in situ. It should be noted that invasive lobular carcinoma is extremely rare in male patients because lobules and acini are not found in normal male breast tissue. […] The genetic predisposition for breast cancer can be inherited from both mother and father. First line family history includes both genders. […] Men with BRCA1/2 mutations are at increased risk for breast, prostate, pancreatic and some other cancers. The average man has a 0.1% breast cancer risk, although the risk is significantly increased to 7-8% with a BRCA2 mutation and 1% with a BRCA1 mutation. […] The overall prognosis tends to be worse than for female breast cancer, possibly due to the fact that men seek medical attention for the mass at later stages (i.e. when the mass has already become palpable).

• #46 Male breast cancer | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/male-breast-cancer?lang=us

  Male breast cancer is exceptionally rare and only accounts for less than 0.25% of male malignancies and ~0.5-1% of all breast cancer (both genders). […] Histologically, the vast majority are invasive ductal carcinoma (85-90%) or ductal carcinoma in situ. It should be noted that invasive lobular carcinoma is extremely rare in male patients because lobules and acini are not found in normal male breast tissue. […] The genetic predisposition for breast cancer can be inherited from both mother and father. First line family history includes both genders. […] Men with BRCA1/2 mutations are at increased risk for breast, prostate, pancreatic and some other cancers. The average man has a 0.1% breast cancer risk, although the risk is significantly increased to 7-8% with a BRCA2 mutation and 1% with a BRCA1 mutation. […] The overall prognosis tends to be worse than for female breast cancer, possibly due to the fact that men seek medical attention for the mass at later stages (i.e. when the mass has already become palpable).

• #47 The Radiology Assistant : Pathology of the Male Breast

  https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/male-breast/pathology-of-the-male-breast

  Male breast cancer presents as a unilateral painless subareolar mass. […] This subareolar location is just like in gynecomastia, but usually it is eccentric to the nipple. […] Male breast cancer presents as a round, oval or irregular mass. […] There is a long list of carcinoma risk factors and they are the same as in women: Advanced age, Family history, Jewish heritage, Chest wall irradiation, Hyperestrogenism, Hyperthyroidism, Exposure to hepatotoxins, Occupational exposure to high heat (steel industry), BRCA 2 is seen in 4 – 16% of male breast cancer patients (40% in Iceland), Undescended testes, Orchiectomy and orchitis, Klinefelter’s syndrome (47, XXY – 6% of all male breast cancer is in Klinefelter – 3% lifetime risk). […] Malignancies other than ductal carcinoma are uncommon.

• #48 The Radiology Assistant : Pathology of the Male Breast

  https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/male-breast/pathology-of-the-male-breast

  Male breast cancer presents as a unilateral painless subareolar mass. […] This subareolar location is just like in gynecomastia, but usually it is eccentric to the nipple. […] Male breast cancer presents as a round, oval or irregular mass. […] There is a long list of carcinoma risk factors and they are the same as in women: Advanced age, Family history, Jewish heritage, Chest wall irradiation, Hyperestrogenism, Hyperthyroidism, Exposure to hepatotoxins, Occupational exposure to high heat (steel industry), BRCA 2 is seen in 4 – 16% of male breast cancer patients (40% in Iceland), Undescended testes, Orchiectomy and orchitis, Klinefelter’s syndrome (47, XXY – 6% of all male breast cancer is in Klinefelter – 3% lifetime risk). […] Malignancies other than ductal carcinoma are uncommon.

• #49 Breast cancer: pathogenesis and treatments | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-02108-4

  The clonal accumulation of cells leads histologically to ductal hyperplasia, initially without atypia. While in the promotion phase, the expansions of mutation clones form by stimulating the cellular proliferation of autocrine growth factors or recruiting inflammatory and stromal cells to produce these factors, evolving mechanisms to evade the immune system. […] The identification of breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1/2, whose proteins are involved in DNA repair through homologous recombination, has shed light on some mechanisms behind sporadic and hereditary breast cancers. The primary pathogenic mechanism contains genetic alternations, hormonal homeostasis changes, and immune interference, which are demonstrated as follows. […] Breast cancer cells develop within a complex microenvironment that includes various benign cell types and extracellular matrix. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the predominant cell type present; however, the breast cancer microenvironment is also populated by lymphocytes, macrophages, myeloid lineage cells, etc., which predominantly play roles in immune reactions. […] The interplay between breast cancer cells and host antitumor immunity determines co-existing mechanisms of immune escape within the same patient, highlighting the need for combinatory immunotherapies and biomarker development.

• #50 Breast cancer: pathogenesis and treatments | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-02108-4

  The clonal accumulation of cells leads histologically to ductal hyperplasia, initially without atypia. While in the promotion phase, the expansions of mutation clones form by stimulating the cellular proliferation of autocrine growth factors or recruiting inflammatory and stromal cells to produce these factors, evolving mechanisms to evade the immune system. […] The identification of breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1/2, whose proteins are involved in DNA repair through homologous recombination, has shed light on some mechanisms behind sporadic and hereditary breast cancers. The primary pathogenic mechanism contains genetic alternations, hormonal homeostasis changes, and immune interference, which are demonstrated as follows. […] Breast cancer cells develop within a complex microenvironment that includes various benign cell types and extracellular matrix. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the predominant cell type present; however, the breast cancer microenvironment is also populated by lymphocytes, macrophages, myeloid lineage cells, etc., which predominantly play roles in immune reactions. […] The interplay between breast cancer cells and host antitumor immunity determines co-existing mechanisms of immune escape within the same patient, highlighting the need for combinatory immunotherapies and biomarker development.

• #51 Male Breast Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526036/

  Also, in addition to a family history of breast cancer, males with a BRCA mutation appear to have an increased risk for breast cancer as well. […] The alterations in estrogen-to-androgen ratios are important to note when discussing the etiology of male breast cancer. Estrogen, which stimulates ductal development in breasts, has also been implicated as a potential risk factor for MBC, similar to women. […] Other potential triggers have also been identified and include obesity, marijuana use, hepatic dysfunction, thyroid disease, and estrogen-containing medications. […] Lastly, environmental factors have also been implicated in the possibility of increasing the risk of male breast cancer. […] The most common type of breast cancer seen in men is invasive ductal carcinoma, which constitutes approximately 90% of all male breast cancers.

• #52 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A man whose chest area has been treated with radiation (such as for the treatment of a cancer in the chest, like lymphoma) has an increased risk of developing breast cancer. […] Heavy drinking (of alcoholic beverages) increases the risk of breast cancer in men. […] The liver plays an important role in balancing the levels of sex hormones. […] Men with liver disease can also have a higher chance of developing benign male breast growth (gynecomastia) and also have an higher risk of developing breast cancer. […] Estrogen-related drugs were once used in hormonal therapy for men with prostate cancer. This treatment may slightly increase breast cancer risk. […] Studies have shown that women’s breast cancer risk is increased by excess body weight after menopause. Excess weight is a risk factor for male breast cancer as well. […] Certain conditions, such as having an undescended testicle, having mumps as an adult, or having one or both testicles surgically removed (orchiectomy) may increase male breast cancer risk.

• #53 Breast Cancer in Men: An Overview of General Features and Molecular Pathology

  https://www.onlinescientificresearch.com/articles/breast-cancer-in-men-an-overview-of-general-features-and-molecular-pathology.html

  MBC often presents unique genetic and molecular profiles. […] Men with mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are at a significantly higher risk of developing breast cancer. […] A family history of breast cancer elevates the risk of developing MBC. […] Men who have elevated levels of estrogen have an increased risk of acquiring breast cancer. […] Excessive exposure to radiation especially to the chest area or the treatment of other cancers can elevate the risk for MBC. […] Lifestyle factors such as smoking and a lack of physical exercise are contributing factors to MBC. […] Transgender men who undergo estrogen hormone therapy have an elevated risk of developing MBC. […] The histopathology of MBC is an important area of study because of the rarity and subtle biological differences as compared to womens breast cancer cases.

• #54 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A man whose chest area has been treated with radiation (such as for the treatment of a cancer in the chest, like lymphoma) has an increased risk of developing breast cancer. […] Heavy drinking (of alcoholic beverages) increases the risk of breast cancer in men. […] The liver plays an important role in balancing the levels of sex hormones. […] Men with liver disease can also have a higher chance of developing benign male breast growth (gynecomastia) and also have an higher risk of developing breast cancer. […] Estrogen-related drugs were once used in hormonal therapy for men with prostate cancer. This treatment may slightly increase breast cancer risk. […] Studies have shown that women’s breast cancer risk is increased by excess body weight after menopause. Excess weight is a risk factor for male breast cancer as well. […] Certain conditions, such as having an undescended testicle, having mumps as an adult, or having one or both testicles surgically removed (orchiectomy) may increase male breast cancer risk.

• #55 Breast Cancer in Males: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/male-breast-cancer-513617

  Radiation therapy and chemotherapy are associated with an increased risk of cancer. […] Cancer treatment that alters hormone levels, such as androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer and orchiectomy for testicular cancer, is also associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in those assigned male at birth. […] Hormone imbalance, whether caused by disease or medication use, can increase the risk of breast cancer in those assigned male at birth. […] Smoking is one of the leading causes of breast cancer. Heavy alcohol use also is associated with breast cancer, possibly, in part, because alcohol can increase estrogen levels. […] Gynecomastia is not thought to increase risk of breast cancer, but you should discuss it with a healthcare provider, as there may be a medical cause behind it.

• #56 The Radiology Assistant : Pathology of the Male Breast

  https://radiologyassistant.nl/breast/male-breast/pathology-of-the-male-breast

  Male breast cancer presents as a unilateral painless subareolar mass. […] This subareolar location is just like in gynecomastia, but usually it is eccentric to the nipple. […] Male breast cancer presents as a round, oval or irregular mass. […] There is a long list of carcinoma risk factors and they are the same as in women: Advanced age, Family history, Jewish heritage, Chest wall irradiation, Hyperestrogenism, Hyperthyroidism, Exposure to hepatotoxins, Occupational exposure to high heat (steel industry), BRCA 2 is seen in 4 – 16% of male breast cancer patients (40% in Iceland), Undescended testes, Orchiectomy and orchitis, Klinefelter’s syndrome (47, XXY – 6% of all male breast cancer is in Klinefelter – 3% lifetime risk). […] Malignancies other than ductal carcinoma are uncommon.

• #57 Male Breast Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526036/

  Also, in addition to a family history of breast cancer, males with a BRCA mutation appear to have an increased risk for breast cancer as well. […] The alterations in estrogen-to-androgen ratios are important to note when discussing the etiology of male breast cancer. Estrogen, which stimulates ductal development in breasts, has also been implicated as a potential risk factor for MBC, similar to women. […] Other potential triggers have also been identified and include obesity, marijuana use, hepatic dysfunction, thyroid disease, and estrogen-containing medications. […] Lastly, environmental factors have also been implicated in the possibility of increasing the risk of male breast cancer. […] The most common type of breast cancer seen in men is invasive ductal carcinoma, which constitutes approximately 90% of all male breast cancers.

• #58

  http://waocp.com/journal/index.php/apjcc/article/view/1040

  Male breast cancer is a rare disease, accounting for approximately 0.5-1% of all breast cancer cases. […] The disease typically presents in older men, often in their sixth or seventh decade of life, and is often diagnosed at an advanced stage with a poorer prognosis than female breast cancer. […] Male breast cancer etiology mostly includes the genetic or environmental risk factors. […] Risk of male breast cancer increases if they have first or second degree relative with breast cancer which is similar to cancer seen in women. […] Along with family history, increased risk for breast cancer in males is seen with BRCA mutation. […] The alterations in oestrogen to androgen ratios is important in etiology of male breast cancer and carries an important role. […] Other potential triggers include obesity, marijuana use, hepatic dysfunction, thyroid disease, and oestrogen-containing medications.

• #59 The molecular genetic make-up of male breast cancer in: Endocrine-Related Cancer Volume 26 Issue 10 (2019)

  https://erc.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/erc/26/10/ERC-19-0278.xml

  Male breast cancer (MBC) is extremely rare and accounts for less than 1% of all breast malignancies. Therefore, clinical management of MBC is currently guided by research on the disease in females. […] The genomic landscape of MBC to some extent recapitulated that of smFBC, with recurrent PIK3CA (36%) and GATA3 (15%) somatic mutations, and with 40% of the most frequently amplified genes overlapping between both sexes. […] MDM2 amplifications were frequent (13%), correlated with protein overexpression (P=0.001) and predicted poor outcome (P=0.007). […] In conclusion, despite similarities in the genomic landscape between MBC and smFBC, MBC is a molecularly unique and heterogeneous disease requiring its own clinical trials and treatment guidelines. […] Major genetic factors associated with an increased risk of MBC include BRCA2 and BRCA1 germline mutations, Klinefelter syndrome (KS) and family history.

• #60 Breast Cancer in Men: Overview of Male Breast Cancer, Etiology, Diagnosis

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1954174-overview

  The etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of breast cancer in males is similar to that in females. Unlike breast cancer in females, however, breast cancer in men is rare. […] Environmental and genetic risk factors for male breast cancer have been identified. Male breast cancers are reported to be associated with the following: Older age (mean age at diagnosis is 60-70 years, although young men may be affected), Carriage of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, Family history of breast cancer, Thoracic radiation therapy, Klinefelter syndrome, Gynecomastia, Cirrhosis, Overweight and obesity, History of testicular pathology. […] Klinefelter syndrome is the strongest risk factor, although rates in those with the syndrome are still far lower than rates in women. Possible mechanisms may involve decreased micro-RNA expression and increased estrogen/progesterone receptor expression.

• #61

  https://journals.lww.com/cancerjournal/fulltext/2023/19050/copy_number_variations_in_male_breast_cancer.53.aspx

  A few array-based studies available for MBC suggest a difference in male and female breast cancer at the molecular level, indicating a potential different mechanism of tumorigenesis. […] This suggests that MBCs are represented by a cluster of candidate driver genes different from those of FBCs. […] In the present study, LOH was observed at chromosomal loci on chromosomes 4, 6, 7, 18, and 20, which harbor genes reported to be associated with progression. […] The gain of the Yq region has not been reported earlier in MBC. […] Thus, a possible association of an MBC predisposition phenotype with copy number variations affecting different genes is in line with the genetic heterogeneity reported in breast cancer.

• #62 The molecular genetic make-up of male breast cancer in: Endocrine-Related Cancer Volume 26 Issue 10 (2019)

  https://erc.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/erc/26/10/ERC-19-0278.xml

  The majority of MBCs are invasive ductal carcinomas with high estrogen (ER) and progesterone (PR) receptor levels without overexpression of HER2. […] Recent large-scale cross-platform projects have provided a detailed characterization of the genomic landscape of FBC. […] Genomic data on MBC are scarce. On a molecular level, like FBC, MBC is a heterogeneous disease with differences in transcriptional, copy number, microRNA and methylation patterns. […] Thus, MBCs share many features with FBCs, but there is evidence for distinct differences with potential implications for clinical management. […] The pattern of somatic mutations found in PIK3CA resembled that of FBC: all mutations found in MBC were missense mutations and 75-80% affected the FBC hotspots.

• #63 Characterizing steroid hormone receptor chromatin binding landscapes in male and female breast cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-02856-2

  We have characterized DNA binding of six different hormone-related transcription factors in an understudied field of human pathophysiology: male breast cancer. Through multidimensional genomic data integration on the level of transcription factor binding, copy number cistrome profiling, transcriptomics and the enhancer enriched histone mark H3K4me1, we present a first comprehensive overview of male breast cancer, which we compared with the female counterpart. This comprehensive overview reveals gender-selective and genomic location-specific hormone receptor action, which associate with survival in MBC. […] MBC is ER-driven. Therefore, a one-to-one comparison of binding sites of ER with each factor was performed, where only samples were analyzed in which both ER and the other factor were profiled. A significant proportion of ER binding sites overlap with AR and GR sites as seen in cell line data which we confirmed in MBC. Interestingly, although PR modulates ER binding in FBC, many PR sites in MBC were devoid of ER.

• #64 Characterizing steroid hormone receptor chromatin binding landscapes in male and female breast cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-02856-2

  Our data reveal that genomic functions of ER and AR in male breast tumors are largely overlapping, which strongly co-localized with GR and PR at the same regions. Even though many sites for GATA3, FOXA1, and PR were not shared with ER, both AR and GR show virtually no unique binding sites with respect to ER binding. The observed genomic overlap of steroid hormone receptor binding profiles is likely due to the close sequence homology of DNA binding domains between all steroid hormone receptors, which warrants potential competition between them in DNA binding. […] Although, we found the vast majority of ER sites to be shared between male and female breast cancers, ER sites that are associated with patient outcome appeared gender-selective. In line with these results, genomic selectivity of combinatorial steroid hormone receptor action is associated with the gender-specific intrinsic MBC subtypes M1 and M2. While these data suggest ER function may be driving these subtypes, causality can only be illustrated when cell line models, organoids or patient-derived xenografts are available for mechanistic studies.

• #65 Characterizing steroid hormone receptor chromatin binding landscapes in male and female breast cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-02856-2

  Our data reveal that genomic functions of ER and AR in male breast tumors are largely overlapping, which strongly co-localized with GR and PR at the same regions. Even though many sites for GATA3, FOXA1, and PR were not shared with ER, both AR and GR show virtually no unique binding sites with respect to ER binding. The observed genomic overlap of steroid hormone receptor binding profiles is likely due to the close sequence homology of DNA binding domains between all steroid hormone receptors, which warrants potential competition between them in DNA binding. […] Although, we found the vast majority of ER sites to be shared between male and female breast cancers, ER sites that are associated with patient outcome appeared gender-selective. In line with these results, genomic selectivity of combinatorial steroid hormone receptor action is associated with the gender-specific intrinsic MBC subtypes M1 and M2. While these data suggest ER function may be driving these subtypes, causality can only be illustrated when cell line models, organoids or patient-derived xenografts are available for mechanistic studies.

• #66 Characterizing steroid hormone receptor chromatin binding landscapes in male and female breast cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-02856-2

  Our data reveal that genomic functions of ER and AR in male breast tumors are largely overlapping, which strongly co-localized with GR and PR at the same regions. Even though many sites for GATA3, FOXA1, and PR were not shared with ER, both AR and GR show virtually no unique binding sites with respect to ER binding. The observed genomic overlap of steroid hormone receptor binding profiles is likely due to the close sequence homology of DNA binding domains between all steroid hormone receptors, which warrants potential competition between them in DNA binding. […] Although, we found the vast majority of ER sites to be shared between male and female breast cancers, ER sites that are associated with patient outcome appeared gender-selective. In line with these results, genomic selectivity of combinatorial steroid hormone receptor action is associated with the gender-specific intrinsic MBC subtypes M1 and M2. While these data suggest ER function may be driving these subtypes, causality can only be illustrated when cell line models, organoids or patient-derived xenografts are available for mechanistic studies.

• #67 Male breast cancer – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_breast_cancer

  Features of male breast cancers that differ from those in females include variations in their presentations, associations with other diseases, associations with non-medical predisposing conditions, expressions of key breast cancer-related hormones, causes (including frequency and forms of genetic alterations), tumor types, and treatments. […] The estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), androgen (AR), and HER2/neu receptors are expressed by breast cancer cells and when active elicit various potentially pro-cancerous responses in their parent cells. […] The extremely high rate of estrogen receptor expression in MBC has led to commonly treating these men with a selective estrogen receptor modulator, tamoxifen. […] Similar to breast cancer tumors in women, MBC tumors are treated by surgical removal, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and/or hormonal therapy.

• #68 Male breast cancer – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male_breast_cancer

  However, there are key differences in these treatments between the two sexes. […] The most common surgical treatment for MBC tumors has been total mastectomy with breast-conserving surgery being performed in a much smaller proportion of males than females. […] These conditions increase the probability that breast-conserving surgery will leave some tumor cells behind and therefore increase the rate of tumor recurrences. […] In spite of these reservations, a recent review of 14,061 MBC cases found no statistically significant difference in the overall survival rates of men treated with mastectomy vs. breast-conserving surgery at 5 years. […] The study also found that men treated with adjuvant radiotherapy had significantly higher 5 year overall survival rates than men not treated with radiation therapy. […] Tamoxifen therapy improved overall survival rates compared to treatments not using tamoxifen at 5 years and 10 years. […] Tamoxifen is routinely and very commonly prescribed for treating all stages of MBC.

• #69 Male Breast Cancer: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9011-male-breast-cancer

  Breast cancer cells can have receptors on them that cause them to grow in response to specific hormones. Think of a receptor as a lock that fits a specific key (hormone). When the hormone attaches to the receptor, cancer cells divide and multiply. Most male breast cancers have receptors that cause cancer cells to grow in response to progesterone and estrogen. […] Providers use hormone therapy to lower estrogen levels or block their effects. Youll likely get this treatment if the cancer cells use hormones, like estrogen, to grow. Tamoxifen is a common medication used to treat male breast cancer. Other medicines that keep hormones from fueling cancer growth in males are aromatase inhibitors combined with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists. […] Targeted therapy treatments interfere with processes that allow cancer cells to grow. Targeted treatments only work on specific types of cancer cells. For example, some treatments only work on breast cancers with hormone receptors. Others, like PARP inhibitors, work on cancer cells with BRCA gene mutations.

• #70 Male Breast Cancer: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9011-male-breast-cancer

  Breast cancer cells can have receptors on them that cause them to grow in response to specific hormones. Think of a receptor as a lock that fits a specific key (hormone). When the hormone attaches to the receptor, cancer cells divide and multiply. Most male breast cancers have receptors that cause cancer cells to grow in response to progesterone and estrogen. […] Providers use hormone therapy to lower estrogen levels or block their effects. Youll likely get this treatment if the cancer cells use hormones, like estrogen, to grow. Tamoxifen is a common medication used to treat male breast cancer. Other medicines that keep hormones from fueling cancer growth in males are aromatase inhibitors combined with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists. […] Targeted therapy treatments interfere with processes that allow cancer cells to grow. Targeted treatments only work on specific types of cancer cells. For example, some treatments only work on breast cancers with hormone receptors. Others, like PARP inhibitors, work on cancer cells with BRCA gene mutations.

• #71 What You Need To Know About Male Breast Cancer | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/news/what-you-need-know-about-male-breast-cancer

  Medical oncologist Ayca Gucalp is an expert in the treatment of male breast cancer. […] The current treatments for men with breast cancer are largely based on what doctors have learned from treating women. […] Increased amounts of the hormone estrogen above the low level that is normal for men as well as decreased levels of testosterone can also result in a higher risk for male breast cancer. […] Studies have shown that more than 90% of male breast cancer is estrogen receptor-positive meaning that the cancer may receive signals from estrogen that could promote tumor growth. […] The most important message is that we should not extrapolate the results of studies we do in female breast cancer to male breast cancer, Dr. Reis-Filho says. […] The most common treatment for male breast cancer is mastectomy surgical removal of all breast tissue.

• #72 Clinicopathological characteristics and survival outcomes of male breast cancer according to race: A SEER population-based study | Oncotarget

  https://www.oncotarget.com/article/18265/text/

  To investigate the clinicopathological characteristics and survival outcomes of breast cancer in the male population, 8,607 cases of patients were identified in the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database, including white males (n = 7122), black males (n = 1111), and other males (American Indian/AK Native, Asian/Pacific Islander) (n = 374). […] The ER- and PR-positive rates were lower in black men than in whites and others. […] The distant metastasis rate was higher in blacks than in whites and others. […] Moreover, significant differences were also observed in OS among 1:1:1 matched white, black, and other groups (P 0.001). […] Differences in outcomes may be partially explained by differences in tumor grades, LN status, and ER and PR status between the 3 groups.

• #73 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A risk factor is anything that affects your chance of getting a disease, such as breast cancer. […] We don’t yet completely understand the causes of breast cancer in men, but researchers have found several factors that may increase the risk of getting it. As with female breast cancer, many of these factors are related to your body’s sex hormone levels. […] Aging is an important risk factor for the development of breast cancer in men. The risk of breast cancer goes up as a man ages. […] Men with a mutation (defect) in the BRCA2 gene have an increased risk of breast cancer, with a lifetime risk of about 6 in 100. […] Mutations in CHEK2, PTEN and PALB2 genes might also be responsible for some breast cancers in men. […] Men with Klinefelter syndrome are more likely to get breast cancer than other men. Having this condition can increase the risk anywhere between 20 – 60 times the risk of a man in the general population.

• #74 Genetic Landscape of Male Breast Cancer

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/14/3535

  The genomic and epigenomic landscape of MBC is not as extensively characterized as FBC. […] Studies in MBC have revealed an evident family clustering of some cases and the contribution of the genes initially identified in the female population as risk factors for MBC as well. Indeed, PVs in BRCA1, and mainly in BRCA2, were the first to be associated with an increased risk of BC in men. […] The estimated lifetime risk of BC is 5–10% among male BRCA2 PV carriers, compared to a 0.1% risk in the general population. […] The prevalence of germline BRCA1/2 PVs in men and women with BC unselected for family history, age, ethnicity, or molecular subtype is estimated to range from 2.7% to 6.1%. […] Overall, the detection rates of MGPT in MBC patients ranged from 9.0% to 31.8%, and the majority of cases are still named “sporadic”, since they do not present a clear familial clustering, probably resulting from the interaction between multiple and poorly penetrant alterations in other genes with environmental factors.

• #75 What Causes Breast Cancer in Men? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html

  Hormone levels […] Breast cells normally grow and divide in response to female hormones such as estrogen. The more cells divide, the more chances there are for mistakes to be made when they are copying their DNA. These DNA changes can eventually lead to cancer (see below). […] Factors that unbalance the levels of female and male hormones in the body can therefore have an effect on breast cancer risk. […] Researchers are making great progress in understanding how certain changes in DNA can cause normal cells to become cancerous. […] Some genes contain instructions for controlling when our cells grow, divide, and die. Certain genes that speed up cell division are called oncogenes. Others that slow down cell division or cause cells to die at the appropriate time are called tumor suppressor genes. Cancers can be caused by DNA mutations (defects) that turn on oncogenes or turn off tumor suppressor genes.

• #76

  https://journals.lww.com/cancerjournal/fulltext/2023/19050/copy_number_variations_in_male_breast_cancer.53.aspx

  Common copy number variations often contain cancer-related genes and are likely to play a role in carcinogenesis. […] Different mechanisms of tumorigenesis are suggested in female and male breast cancer because of different molecular profiles. […] Cytogenetic analysis found aberrations previously implicated in cancer. […] SNP array analysis in patients revealed a gain of Xp11.23, 8p23.2, Yq11.221, Yq11.3 (AZF region), 12p11.21, 18q12.1, and 17q21.3; a loss of Yq11.222 and 7q11.21; and a loss of heterozygosity of 4p16.3, 6p12.3, 6p22.2-p21.31, 7p14.2-14.1, 18q11.2-q12.1, 20p11.23-11.1, 20q11.21-11.23, 1q25.2-q25.3, 2q11.1-q11.2, 5q23.1-23.2, 11p15.4-15.3, and 22q13.1-13.31. […] Chromosomal loci identified by SNP array harbor genes were reported to be associated with cancer progression and metastasis, indicating their involvement in MBC also.

• #77 Characterizing steroid hormone receptor chromatin binding landscapes in male and female breast cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-02856-2

  The majority of male (and female) breast cancers are hormonally driven, where ER genomic action dictates transcriptional programs that drive tumor cell proliferation. Analogous to the female counterpart, male breast cancers are treated with endocrine therapies (such as tamoxifen) to block ER transcriptional activity, yet relapse after hormonal treatment has also been noted. Even though the genomic action of ER in MBC remains completely elusive, multiple reports have studied ER genomics in the female disease. […] AR and PR are favorable prognostic markers in female breast cancer. In addition, PR has recently been shown to modulate ER-DNA binding, directly reprogramming ER-driven transcriptional programs. GR expression has been associated with FOXA1 and GATA3 expression in ER-positive FBC, and is associated with a favorable outcome in this patient population. Its functional role in breast cancer in relation to other steroid hormone receptors is poorly characterized. Cumulatively, these data illuminate the likely interplay between different steroid hormone receptors in breast cancer.

• #78 The molecular genetic make-up of male breast cancer in: Endocrine-Related Cancer Volume 26 Issue 10 (2019)

  https://erc.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/erc/26/10/ERC-19-0278.xml

  The majority of MBCs are invasive ductal carcinomas with high estrogen (ER) and progesterone (PR) receptor levels without overexpression of HER2. […] Recent large-scale cross-platform projects have provided a detailed characterization of the genomic landscape of FBC. […] Genomic data on MBC are scarce. On a molecular level, like FBC, MBC is a heterogeneous disease with differences in transcriptional, copy number, microRNA and methylation patterns. […] Thus, MBCs share many features with FBCs, but there is evidence for distinct differences with potential implications for clinical management. […] The pattern of somatic mutations found in PIK3CA resembled that of FBC: all mutations found in MBC were missense mutations and 75-80% affected the FBC hotspots.

• #79 Breast cancer: pathogenesis and treatments | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-02108-4

  The clonal accumulation of cells leads histologically to ductal hyperplasia, initially without atypia. While in the promotion phase, the expansions of mutation clones form by stimulating the cellular proliferation of autocrine growth factors or recruiting inflammatory and stromal cells to produce these factors, evolving mechanisms to evade the immune system. […] The identification of breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1/2, whose proteins are involved in DNA repair through homologous recombination, has shed light on some mechanisms behind sporadic and hereditary breast cancers. The primary pathogenic mechanism contains genetic alternations, hormonal homeostasis changes, and immune interference, which are demonstrated as follows. […] Breast cancer cells develop within a complex microenvironment that includes various benign cell types and extracellular matrix. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are the predominant cell type present; however, the breast cancer microenvironment is also populated by lymphocytes, macrophages, myeloid lineage cells, etc., which predominantly play roles in immune reactions. […] The interplay between breast cancer cells and host antitumor immunity determines co-existing mechanisms of immune escape within the same patient, highlighting the need for combinatory immunotherapies and biomarker development.

• #80 Male breast cancer: a review of literature

  https://rcm.mums.ac.ir/article_8778.html

  According to the various studies, endocrine therapy exerts beneficial effects in men. […] Genetic testing should be offered to all male patients with breast cancer because of the increased risk of BRCA mutations, particularly in patients with a positive family history of ovarian or breast cancers. […] The etiology of male breast cancer and identification of the most effective therapeutic strategy are still under consideration. Further investigations are required to clarify the exact biological properties, efficacy of various treatments, and the quality of life in men with breast cancer.

• #81 Male breast cancer: a review of literature

  https://rcm.mums.ac.ir/article_8778.html

  According to the various studies, endocrine therapy exerts beneficial effects in men. […] Genetic testing should be offered to all male patients with breast cancer because of the increased risk of BRCA mutations, particularly in patients with a positive family history of ovarian or breast cancers. […] The etiology of male breast cancer and identification of the most effective therapeutic strategy are still under consideration. Further investigations are required to clarify the exact biological properties, efficacy of various treatments, and the quality of life in men with breast cancer.

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