Materiały źródłowe

• #1

  https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240090422

  Plague has caused millions of deaths in pandemics over the past 2,500 years. […] Plague is an acute bacterial infection caused by *Yersinia pestis*, with high mortality rates even though effective treatments exist, as outbreaks often occur in remote areas where diagnosis and care are challenging. […] This manual provides comprehensive information on plague epidemiology and recommendations for surveillance, diagnosis, clinical management, and prevention. […] These recommendations were published in 2021 and are based on evidence reviewed during an international expert meeting in 2020.

• #2 Epidemiology, microbiology and pathogenesis of plague (Yersinia pestis infection) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-microbiology-and-pathogenesis-of-plague-yersinia-pestis-infection

  Epidemiology, microbiology and pathogenesis of plague (Yersinia pestis infection) […] The epidemiology, microbiology and pathogenesis of Y. pestis will be reviewed here. […] Plague has afflicted humans for thousands of years; Y. pestis DNA has been identified in human teeth from Asia and Europe dating back between 2800 and 5000 years ago. […] Three major plague pandemics have been recorded in human history: the „Plague of Justinian” in the 6th century, again in the 14th century (known as the “Black Death,” which killed up to one-third of the European population or an estimated 17 to 28 million people), and at the end of 19th century following the spread of infection from China. […] The infection spread to various species of wild rodents, becoming entrenched in rural areas of the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

• #3 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  Plague occurs as 3 major clinical events: bubonic plague, septicemic plague, and pneumonic plague. […] Human-to-human transmission is uncommon except during epidemics of pneumonic plague. […] With the exception of Antarctica, plague is worldwide in distribution, with most of the human cases reported from developing countries with outbreaks reported regularly. […] Since the number of human cases has been rising and outbreaks are reappearing in a variety of countries after years of quiescence, the plague is considered a reemerging disease. […] Recent data pertaining to the period from 2010 through 2019 show that the following countries, from highest to lowest were Madagascar, Congo, Uganda, Peru, Tanzania and United States. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population.

• #3 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts. […] Survival of the bacillus in nature depends on flea-rodent interaction, and human infection does not contribute to the bacteria’s persistence in nature. […] The following are the modes of plague transmission in humans: Bites by fleas, Exposure to humans with pneumonic plague, Handling of infected carcasses, Scratches or bites from infected domestic cats, Exposure to aerosols containing plague-causing bacilli. […] Between 2010 and 2015, 39 cases of human plague were reported in the United States, resulting in 5 deaths.

• #4 Plague – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/plague/

  Plague is a disease caused by Yersinia pestis that affects rodents (e.g., squirrels, prairie dogs, or mice), other mammals (e.g., rabbits or hares), and humans. […] Plague is rare in the United States, with an average of seven human plague cases reported each year (range: 017 cases per year). […] Worldwide, about 1,0002,000 cases of plague are reported each year. […] Laboratory tests are needed to confirm the diagnosis of plague. […] Plague can be treated with antibiotics, but an infected person must be treated early in their illness to avoid serious complications and death. […] About 11% of all plague cases in the United States are fatal. […] People in close contact with pneumonic plague patients or those who have contact with infected body fluids or tissues may be evaluated and given preventive antibiotics to reduce their risk of infection.

• #4 Plague – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/plague/

  Travelers to and residents of areas where plague is more common should avoid contact with rodents and fleas, avoid handling sick or dead stray animals, and stay away from rodent-infested places. […] Yersinia pestis is considered a possible bioterrorism agent because it occurs in nature and could be isolated and grown in a laboratory.

• #5 Epidemiology of Plague | Encyclopedia MDPI

  https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/37134

  Globally about 600 cases of plague are reported a year. […] In 2017 and November 2019 the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Peru. […] The plague ultimately killed perhaps 40% of the city’s inhabitants, and then continued to kill up to a quarter of the human population of the eastern Mediterranean. […] The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries. […] According to Biraben, plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671. […] Plague cases were massively reduced during the second half of the 20th century, but outbreaks still occurred, especially in developing countries. […] Between 1954 and 1997, human plague was reported in 38 countries, making the disease a re-emerging threat to human health.

• #6 Epidemiology of Plague | Encyclopedia MDPI

  https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/37134

  In the 21st century, fewer than 200 people die of the plague worldwide each year, mainly due to lack of treatment. […] Plague is considered to be endemic in 26 countries around the world, with most cases found in remote areas of Africa. […] The three most endemic countries are Madagascar, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Peru. […] Outbreaks with dozens of deaths occurred in Madagascar in 2014 and 2017, in India in 1994, and Congo in 2006.

• #7 Plague | Epidemic Control Toolkit

  https://epidemics.ifrc.org/manager/disease/plague

  There is a risk of human plague wherever the presence of plague natural foci (the bacteria, an animal reservoir and a vector) and human populations co-exist. […] Outbreaks of the disease are of particular concern in settings where access to antibiotic treatment and early care is limited, such as in some overcrowded or resource-poor environments. […] During epizootics (outbreaks of epizootic diseases), humans are at high risk of transmission when rodents die in large numbers, attracting fleas that may afterwards bite humans. […] The attack rate is the risk of getting a disease during a specific time period (such as during an outbreak). […] Attack rates will vary from one outbreak to another. In case of an outbreak, consult the latest information provided by health authorities. […] Yersinia pestis bacterium (Y. pestis).

• #7 Plague | Epidemic Control Toolkit

  https://epidemics.ifrc.org/manager/disease/plague

  A reservoir of infection is a living organism or material in or on which an infectious agent lives and/or usually multiplies. […] A zoonotic disease or zoonosis is an infectious disease that has jumped from a non-human animal to humans. […] Bubonic plague (the most common form) is not transmitted from person to person. Only humans with pneumonic plague can transmit the infection to others. […] Pneumonic plague is invariably fatal unless treated early, but even bubonic plague has a case fatality ratio of 30-60 per cent without treatment, so early diagnosis and treatment is essential for survival and the reduction of complications. […] Rapid detection of cases and encouragement of early health-seeking behaviours at health care centres and treatment units. Early access to antibiotic treatment is key. […] People with pneumonic plague should be isolated to prevent droplet transmission and wear masks if in presence of other people. […] Healthcare workers and those who care for infected patients should use personal protective equipment.

• #8

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/plague

  Plague is transmitted between animals and humans by the bite of infected fleas, direct contact with infected tissues, and inhalation of infected respiratory droplets. […] Plague epidemics have occurred in Africa, Asia, and South America; but since the 1990s, most human cases have occurred in Africa. […] Surveillance and control requires investigating animal and flea species implicated in the plague cycle in the region and developing environmental management programmes to understand the natural zoonosis of the disease cycle and to limit spread. Active long-term surveillance of animal foci, coupled with a rapid response during animal outbreaks has successfully reduced numbers of human plague outbreaks. […] In order to effectively and efficiently manage plague outbreaks it is crucial to have an informed and vigilant health care work force (and community) to quickly diagnose and manage patients with infection, to identify risk factors, to conduct ongoing surveillance, to control vectors and hosts, to confirm diagnosis with laboratory tests, and to communicate findings with appropriate authorities. […] WHO aims to prevent plague outbreaks by maintaining surveillance and supporting at-risk countries to prepare.

• #9

  https://www.gov.uk/guidance/plague-epidemiology-outbreaks-and-guidance

  Plague is caused by infection with the bacterium Yersinia pestis, usually found in small mammals and their fleas. It is not found in the UK, but occurs in several countries in Africa, Asia, South America and the USA. Between 2010 and 2015, there were 3,248 cases reported worldwide. […] Annually, most human cases occur in Africa, with Madagascar considered to be the most highly endemic country. […] In Madagascar, a seasonal upsurge in plague cases (mostly the bubonic form) usually occurs each year between September and April. However, in 2017, the season began earlier than usual, was predominantly pneumonic and affected areas that do not usually experience plague. […] On 27 November 2017, the Ministry of Health of Madagascar officially announced that the acute urban pneumonic plague outbreak had been contained. However, further sporadic cases are likely until April 2018, when the season should end.

• #10 Maps and Statistics | Plague | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/plague/maps-statistics/index.html

  More recent plague epidemics have occurred in Africa, Asia, and South America, but most human cases since the 1990s have occurred in Africa. Almost all of the cases reported in the last 20 years have occurred among people living in small towns and villages or agricultural areas, rather than in larger towns and cities.

• #10 Maps and Statistics | Plague | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/plague/maps-statistics/index.html

  An average of seven human plague cases are reported each year in the United States. […] Plague occurs in the western U.S., with most cases in northern New Mexico and Arizona. […] More recent plague epidemics have occurred in Africa, Asia, and South America, but most human cases since the 1990s have occurred in Africa. […] Over 80% of United States plague cases have been the bubonic form. In recent decades, an average of seven human plague cases have been reported each year (range: 017 cases per year). Plague has occurred in people of all ages (infants up to age 96), though 50% of cases occur in people ages 1245. […] Since the mid20th century, plague in the United States has typically occurred in the rural West. Cases in the eastern United States are among people who traveled from the west or from laboratory exposure.

• #11 For health professionals – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/plague/health-professionals-plague.html

  Since the 1990s most human cases have occurred in Africa, with epidemic recurrences in Madagascar. […] There has been a large shift in case load from Asia to Africa, with more than 90% of cases occurring in Africa. […] The most common form is bubonic plague, but outbreaks of pneumonic plague still occur. […] It is possible that plague is more common in Africa as poor rural communities live in close proximity to rodents. […] Most human cases in the United States have occurred in two regions: Northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, and southern Colorado; and California, southern Oregon, and far western Nevada. […] In recent decades, the US has reported an average of 7 human plague cases each year with the range being 1 to 17 cases per year. […] Plague affects all age groups, though 50% of cases occur in ages 12 to 45. It affects both men and women.

• #11 For health professionals – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/plague/health-professionals-plague.html

  Plague is subject to the International Health Regulations (2005) and is notifiable to the World Health Organization (WHO). […] While plague is rare in Canada, it is a nationally notifiable disease. This means that the provinces and territories need to notify only confirmed cases of disease up to federal level on an urgent basis. […] You are required to report cases either directly or via your local public health authority to your provincial or territorial public health authority. They in turn notify the Public Health Agency of Canada. Refer to your provincial/territorial health system for further details. […] In Canada, human cases of plague are very rare. The last case was reported in 1939. […] From 2010 to 2015, the WHO reported 3248 cases worldwide, including 584 deaths. […] Globally, plague is present in: South America, large areas of Asia, the western part of North America and central, eastern and southern Africa.

• #12 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/967495-overview

  Plague occurs as 3 major clinical events: bubonic plague, septicemic plague, and pneumonic plague. […] Human-to-human transmission is uncommon except during epidemics of pneumonic plague. […] With the exception of Antarctica, plague is worldwide in distribution, with most of the human cases reported from developing countries with outbreaks reported regularly. […] Since the number of human cases has been rising and outbreaks are reappearing in a variety of countries after years of quiescence, the plague is considered a reemerging disease. […] Recent data pertaining to the period from 2010 through 2019 show that the following countries, from highest to lowest were Madagascar, Congo, Uganda, Peru, Tanzania and United States. These six countries accounted for a total of 4547 cases with 17% mortality (786 deaths).

• #13 Plague – Plague Disease | Occupational Safety and Health Administration

  https://www.osha.gov/plague/disease

  Plague is a disease caused by Yersinia pestis, a naturally-occurring bacterium found in many areas around the world, including the United States. […] The last plague epidemic in the United States occurred in Los Angeles in 1924. Since then, all human plague cases in the U.S. have been sporadic cases acquired from wild rodents or their fleas or from direct contact with plague-infected animals. […] WHO Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases – Chapter 3: Plague. World Health Organization (WHO), Department of Communicable Disease Surveillance and Response. Includes the background and history of plague, as well as information about disease transmission and trends. […] Current Description of Plague. The University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health. Provides basic information on plague, including identification, infectious agent, global occurrence, reservoir, mode of transmission, incubation period, communicability, susceptibility and resistance, methods of control, and more. Adapted from the Control of Communicable Diseases Manual 2000, American Public Health Association (APHA). […] Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. World Health Organization (WHO). Provides links to PDF documents that contain the comprehensive WHO manual on plague disease.

• #14 Plague – Disease Surveillance Epidemiology Program – MeCDC; DHHS Maine

  https://www.maine.gov/dhhs/mecdc/infectious-disease/epi/airborne/plague.shtml

  Plague is a disease caused by Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis), a bacterium found in rodents and their fleas in many areas around the world. […] People usually get plague from being bitten by a rodent flea that is carrying the plague bacterium or by handling an infected animal or Yersinia pestis used in an aerosol bioterrorist attack could cause cases of the pneumonic form of plague. […] In North America, plague is found in certain animals and their fleas from the Pacific Coast to the Great Plains, and from southwestern Canada to Mexico. […] Most human cases in the United States occur in two regions: 1) northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, and southern Colorado; and 2) California, southern Oregon, and far western Nevada. […] Plague also exists in Africa, Asia, and South America. […] To prevent a high risk of death, antibiotics (such as doxycycline) or a fluoroquinolone (such as ciprofloxacin) should be given within 24 hours of the first symptoms. […] Currently, no plague vaccine is available in the United States.

• #15 Department of Health | Communicable Disease Service | Plague

  https://www.nj.gov/health/cd/topics/plague.shtml

  Health care providers, administrators, and clinical laboratory directors should report confirmed or suspect cases immediately to their Local Health Department by telephone. […] Plague is a disease caused by bacteria and has three major forms that can affect either the lymph nodes (bubonic), blood (septicemic), or the lungs (pneumonic). […] Pneumonic plague can be spread from person to person when an infected person coughs. […] Bubonic and septicemic plague cannot spread from person to person. […] While a serious disease, plague can be treated with antibiotics. […] People who are exposed to plague can also take antibiotics to prevent the illness. […] Guidelines on Community Containment of Plague. […] CDC Information on Plague. […] CDC Guidelines for Antimicrobial Treatment and Prophylaxis of Plague (July 2021).

• #16 Surveillance and Control of Plague

  https://www.caister.com/hsp/abstracts/yersinia/12.html

  Surveillance focuses primarily on human cases, then on vectors and reservoirs, but it is important not to neglect the bacteria (virulence and resistance to antimicrobial agents). […] Recent re-emergences show the importance of monitoring historic foci considered as extinct. […] There is a need for surveillance in shantytowns, mines, refugee camps, etc., even far from known foci. […] Specific identification of reservoirs is necessary as their sensitivity or resistance to plague varies. […] Rodent surveillance should be based mainly by estimating their abundance, flea indexes and Yersinia pestis prevalence. […] Specific identification of fleas is also essential as the different species have not the same transmission efficiency and the same level of resistance to insecticides. […] Pest control must focus as a priority on the fleas, but it is imperative to combine rodent and flea control. […] As surveillance is costly, determining indicators easy to collect is essential and modeling of long-time series proved that it is possible.

• #17 Tracking of Mammals and Their Fleas for Plague Surveillance in Madagascar, 2018–2019

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9209941/

  Plague, a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, remains a major public health threat in Madagascar. To better understand the risk of transmission to humans and to guide targeted plague prevention and control measures, a survey of Y. pestis infection and exposure in mammals and their fleas was implemented. […] Conducting surveillance for Y. pestis circulation in animals and fleas could be useful for monitoring the risk of plague transmission to humans. […] The National Plague Control Program (NPCP) conducts routine surveillance for plague in humans, investigating all reported suspected cases, but no surveillance program in animals is conducted. […] This study highlights the potential use of animal-based surveillance to identify the risk of plague transmission in endemic and nonendemic foci for targeted prevention and control. […] Y. pestis surveillance among small mammals should be proposed as a strategy to monitor bacteria circulation and activate targeted prevention and control measures.

• #18 Plague – Frequently-Asked Questions – NICD

  https://www.nicd.ac.za/plague-frequently-asked-questions-2/

  Plague is still present in parts of Africa, the Americas and Asia, and is considered a re-emerging disease with 1,000 to 5,000 human cases reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) each year. […] There are 3 national plague surveillance sites (Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Coega area (Eastern Cape Province), eThekwini Municipality (KwaZulu-Natal Province) and the city of Johannesburg in Gauteng Province). Rodents are trapped and tested for plague antibodies; if there is a positive result then public health measures are put into place to prevent infection of humans. […] Rodent and flea control as well as surveillance for the disease in the wild rodent population are the main measures used to monitor the risk of outbreaks.

• #19 Climate-driven marmot-plague dynamics in Mongolia and China | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-38966-1

  Moreover, the QTP region is a major plague area in China and is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. […] Our analyses revealed marmot density to influence local precipitation-driven plague dynamics, and also a spatial heterogeneity in the effects of local temperature among marmot foci. […] We utilized marmot density as a threshold for judging the impact of precipitation on the occurrence of plague. […] This analysis revealed different interaction curves for precipitation and plague under two different regimes of marmot density. […] Our final model involves the explicit density of an animal reservoir and showed the interaction effect of climatic covariates and marmot density on the occurrence of plague. […] Increased precipitation characteristically benefits rodents, especially those living in typically dry habitats; for example, „good years” with high levels of precipitation improve their forage and water balance, which synergistically increases the risk of plague.

• #19 Climate-driven marmot-plague dynamics in Mongolia and China | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-38966-1

  The incidence of plague has rebounded in the Americas, Asia, and Africa alongside rapid globalization and climate change. […] Previous studies have shown local climate to have significant nonlinear effects on plague dynamics among rodent communities. […] Our results suggested a density-dependent effect of precipitation and a geographic location-dependent effect of temperature on marmot plague. […] The geographical heterogeneity of the temperature effect and the contrasting slopes of influence for the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) and other regions in the study (nQTP) were primarily related to diversity of climate and landscape types. […] Mongolia and China are two more high-risk countries in which occasional scattered cases of human plague have been regularly reported. […] It has been shown that plague spread faster in regions with low population density and a high proportion of pasture- or forestland compared with urban areas, which emphasize the importance of attention to marmot plague in China and Mongolia.

• #20 Tracking of Mammals and Their Fleas for Plague Surveillance in Madagascar, 2018–2019 in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 106 Issue 6 (2022)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/106/6/article-p1601.xml

  The resistance of arthropod vectors to insecticides is a global challenge due to the widespread use of insecticides. Most resistance studies show that the continuous and repeated application of the same class of insecticides creates high levels of resistance. In Madagascar, the NPCP has recommended the use of insecticides for decades to control flea populations in the event of plague cases. […] Y. pestis surveillance among small mammals should be proposed as a strategy to monitor bacteria circulation and activate targeted prevention and control measures. This study highlights the public health interest of ecological indicators such as presence of antibodies and Y. pestis carriage, flea index, and rodent diversity and presence for triggering targeted plague prevention and control measures.

• #20 Tracking of Mammals and Their Fleas for Plague Surveillance in Madagascar, 2018–2019 in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 106 Issue 6 (2022)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/106/6/article-p1601.xml

  The National Plague Control Program (NPCP) conducts routine surveillance for plague in humans, investigating all reported suspected cases, but no surveillance program in animals is conducted. To characterize the ecology of Y. pestis infection in endemic areas of Madagascar, estimate human risks, and guide targeted prevention and control measures, this study aimed to assess Y. pestis infection and exposure in small mammal reservoirs and their fleas, determine the proportion of domestic dogs with antiplague antibodies, and evaluate the susceptibility of wild-caught flea populations to various insecticides. […] During this study, Y. pestis F1 antibodies and/or antigens were detected in all small mammal species surveyed: Mus musculus, R. norvegicus, R. rattus, and S. murinus, but primarily in R. rattus. The presence of plague IgG antibodies in a young animal is an indication of recent exposure to Y. pestis.

• #20 Tracking of Mammals and Their Fleas for Plague Surveillance in Madagascar, 2018–2019 in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 106 Issue 6 (2022)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/106/6/article-p1601.xml

  In Tsiroanomandidy, a hyperendemic plague focus, 17 R. rattus were found positive for anti-F1 antigen IgG antibodies, and the detection of Y. pestis antigen in this species suggests active circulation of Y. pestis. In active plague areas, fleas may escape from infected rats to feed on available hosts including M. musculus of which 3.2% were found RDT positive. […] The majority of fleas collected from rats and shrews were X. cheopis, found across all 15 study sites. In the five districts, the flea index (FI) varied from 0.1 to 8.8. It has been documented that an FI greater than 1.0 indicates potential risk for human plague transmission. […] This study showed an inconsistency between Y. pestis antibody and antigen detection in small mammals and Y. pestis DNA detection in fleas. The detection of Y. pestis DNA in fleas appears to be a less sensitive surveillance method.

• #21 Using syndromic surveillance systems to detect pneumonic plague | Epidemiology & Infection | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/using-syndromic-surveillance-systems-to-detect-pneumonic-plague/95E2210DECD99EAE51B853E541C655C2

  Because syndromic surveillance systems use pre-diagnostic data for early detection of disease outbreaks, it is important to know how the earliest signs and symptoms of a disease might appear in these systems. […] The purpose of this paper is to summarize disease information from the literature on pneumonic plague infection with an emphasis on the earliest possible clues for detection, prior to laboratory confirmation, of a pneumonic plague outbreak or bioterrorist attack. Syndromic surveillance systems use sophisticated algorithms to look for unexpected changes in this prodromic or pre-diagnostic information available in electronic health data from a variety of sources, with the premise that such pre-diagnostic information may provide earlier indications of a disease outbreak rather than waiting for a confirmed diagnosis.

• #21 Using syndromic surveillance systems to detect pneumonic plague | Epidemiology & Infection | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/using-syndromic-surveillance-systems-to-detect-pneumonic-plague/95E2210DECD99EAE51B853E541C655C2

  These queries can be saved and reused as needed. New syndromic surveillance systems are also beginning to take advantage of electronic medical records (EMRs) that contain laboratory and radiology requests. […] Syndromic surveillance systems continue to advance and incorporate new and disparate sources of data. While such systems do not replace traditional surveillance, they may enhance decision-making by epidemiologists by providing them with access to a means of scanning vast amounts of data for statistical anomalies. […] Because syndromic surveillance systems primarily use pre-diagnostic data, selection criteria for relevant articles included an emphasis on the earliest signs and symptoms and their progression in time. […] The purpose of this report is to review the available literature on pneumonic plague in order to determine the earliest diagnostic clues to a possible pneumonic plague outbreak. These clues may then be used in syndromic surveillance of pre-diagnostic data and by clinicians. […] Therefore, syndromic surveillance systems may contain the earliest indicators of this disease in the gastrointestinal, rather than the respiratory, syndrome category.

• #22 JMIR Public Health and Surveillance – Google Trends Predicts Present and Future Plague Cases During the Plague Outbreak in Madagascar: Infodemiological Study

  https://publichealth.jmir.org/2019/1/e13142/

  In this study, we aimed to assess public reaction regarding the recent plague outbreak in Madagascar by quantitatively characterizing this interest and correlating it to epidemiological real-world data, in terms of incidence rate and spread pattern. […] Monitoring and analyzing Web search activity manifested by novel data streams (NDS), especially during outbreaks, is of great importance in terms of surveillance as shown by O’Shea in a recent systematic review. […] As such, event-based internet biosurveillance can act as an extension of traditional surveillance and monitoring systems and can be utilized as an additional data source, contributing, therefore, to a more comprehensive estimate of infectious diseases. […] Findings from the regression analyses showed the feasibility of exploiting NDS for predicting (ie, nowcasting and forecasting) plague cases.

• #22 JMIR Public Health and Surveillance – Google Trends Predicts Present and Future Plague Cases During the Plague Outbreak in Madagascar: Infodemiological Study

  https://publichealth.jmir.org/2019/1/e13142/

  Our study has shown an increase in digital Web searches with a unique pattern induced by the recent outbreak of plague in Madagascar. GT plays a highly important role in outbreak tracking and monitoring, in that it can capture public reaction and interest toward infectious disorders in real time before cases are formally communicated by the WHO. This earlier digital Web search reaction could potentially contribute to better management of outbreaks, for example, by designing ad hoc interventions that could contain the infection both locally and at the international level, reducing its spread.

• #23 Spatial analysis of plague in California: niche modeling predictions of the current distribution and potential response to climate change | International Journal of Health Geographics | Full Text

  https://ij-healthgeographics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-072X-8-38

  Plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is a public and wildlife health concern in California and the western United States. This study explores the spatial characteristics of positive plague samples in California and tests Maxent, a machine-learning method that can be used to develop niche-based models from presence-only data, for mapping the potential distribution of plague foci. […] Models of plague activity in California ground squirrels, based on recent climate conditions, accurately identified case locations (AUC of 0.913 to 0.948) and were significantly correlated with coyote samples. […] Nonetheless, niche modeling can be a useful tool for exploring and mapping the potential response of plague activity to climate change. […] The final models in this study were used to identify potential plague risk areas based on an ensemble of six future climate scenarios, which can help public managers decide where to allocate surveillance resources.

• #24 NWDP: Plague in Wildlife | Animal and Plant Health Inspection ServiceLockBack to top

  https://www.aphis.usda.gov/national-wildlife-programs/nwdp/plague-wildlife

  Plague has been identified as a disease of concern to human, wildlife, and domestic animal populations within the United States. It is also considered a „Category A” disease by the Department of Homeland Security, meaning it could potentially be used as a bioterrorist agent. […] In the United States, plague is almost exclusively restricted to the western half of the country (roughly west of the 100th meridian). This infectious disease is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and is primarily vectored by fleas, although other transmission routes also exist. […] Plague represents a health and safety threat to humans, especially in places where humans and rodents overlap. There are currently about a dozen human plague cases reported each year. […] The National Wildlife Disease Program works with partners nationwide to conduct disease monitoring and surveillance in wild animals and is the primary emergency response contact point within APHIS Wildlife Services. Our program coordinator is available for questions about wildlife disease monitoring and surveillance, the status of disease outbreaks and emerging disease events, and wildlife emergency response activities in natural disasters (floods, hurricanes, wildfires) or oil spills.

• #25 Reporting & Investigation of Plague | Health & Human Services

  https://hhs.iowa.gov/center-acute-disease-epidemiology/epi-manual/reportable-diseases/plague/reporting

  To identify potential sources of transmission in the United States (such as wild rodents or other animals). […] To identify sources of transmission and geographical areas of risk outside of the United States. […] To stop transmission from such sources. […] To identify cases and clusters of human illness that may be associated with a bioterrorist event. […] To assess appropriate treatment. […] The most important thing an LPHA can do if it learns of a suspect or confirmed case of plague, or a potential exposure that may be a bioterrorism event, is to immediately call IDPH, any time of the day or night. […] Case investigation of plague in Iowa residents will be directed by IDPH Center for Acute Disease Epidemiology. […] Disease control is an integral part of case investigation. It is the LPHA responsibility to understand, and, if necessary, institute the control guidelines listed in Controlling Spread.

• #26

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/plague

  Plague is a disease caused by bacteria. Over the past several hundred years, there have been three pandemics with high mortality rates. […] The main control measures are to reduce contact with wild rodents and their fleas and to establish surveillance and control programmes in risk areas.

• #27 Epidemiology, prevention, and control of plague | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/epidemiology-prevention-and-control-of-plague/63470252

  Plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and is typically transmitted via flea bites from infected rodents to humans. […] The document discusses the epidemiology, prevention, and control of plague. […] It provides details on the epidemiological determinants like the agent, host and environmental factors. […] The prevention and control section outlines methods like early diagnosis, notification, isolation, treatment with antibiotics, flea and rodent control, vaccination, chemoprophylaxis, and surveillance. […] The data shows that from 2004 to 2009, 12503 cases of human plague, including 843 deaths were reported by 16 countries in Africa, Asia and America. […] In 2004, India reported a localized outbreak of bubonic plague in the Dangud village district of Uttarkashi. […] Fifteen people have been infected with bubonic plague in 2015 in the United States, as told by the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention.

• #27 Epidemiology, prevention, and control of plague | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/epidemiology-prevention-and-control-of-plague/63470252

  Four of those cases were fatal. […] Infected rodents and fleas are the sources of infection. […] The most common vector is the rat flea, X. cheopsis. […] The document summarizes the epidemiology and prevention of plague. […] Key points are that plague is typically zoonotic, spreading from rodents to humans via flea bites. […] Prevention includes vaccination, respiratory droplet precautions, and post-exposure prophylaxis with antibiotics for exposed contacts to prevent person-to-person spread. […] In areas where natural plague foci exist, or where there is history of past infection, surveillance is essential.

• #28 Current perspectives on the spread of plague in Africa | RRTM

  https://www.dovepress.com/current-perspectives-on-the-spread-of-plague-in-africa-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM

  Effective prevention and control programs require up-to-date information on incidence and geographical distribution of the disease. The best means of obtaining such information is through a surveillance program that collects, analyzes, and interprets clinical, epidemiological, and epizootiological data on the disease. […] Many measures are recommended to lower the risk of getting plague in suspected disease foci. Public health education of citizens and the medical community is very important. […] Control of human plague involves diagnosis of the infection, isolation of the patient and immediate contacts, focal attack on the area invaded by plague through disinfestation of premises and persons with insecticide. […] Noteworthy, the WHO has recommended a four-phased system of plague prevention and control that can be adapted to the requirements and resources of different countries. The first two phases of this system address emergency measures to be implemented whenever a human plague case occurs. Phase one concentrates mainly on case recognition and medical intervention. Phase two of the program should be initiated immediately following phase one. It includes an intensive environmental investigation of potential exposure sites for the human case(s) and initiation of emergency control measures to prevent additional cases. […] Some preventive measures should be implemented in all the African countries, including surveillance of suspected natural foci, rodent and insect eradication campaigns, and public health education.

• #29 Controlling Spread of Plague | Health & Human Services

  https://hhs.iowa.gov/center-acute-disease-epidemiology/epi-manual/reportable-diseases/plague/controlling

  Droplet Precautions are indicated when caring for patients with plague until pneumonia is excluded and appropriate antibiotic therapy has been initiated. […] Cases with pneumonic plague are considered infectious throughout their symptomatic illness and for 72 hours following initiation of antibiotic treatment. […] If multiple cases of plague occur, or if an outbreak is suspected, an investigation to determine the source of infection and mode of transmission (e.g., contact with diseased rodents) is needed. […] The Center can help determine a course of action to prevent further cases and can perform surveillance for cases across county lines.

• #30 One Health: navigating plague in Madagascar amidst COVID-19 | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-023-01101-3

  The case fatality rate (CFR) of Bubonic plague stands at 20.8% with proper treatment, however in locations such as Madagascar, where superstitions, lack of financial resources, and limited access to medical facilities can impede the access to healthcare, the mortality rate can increase to 4070% in the absence of treatment. […] The National Plague Control Program (NPCP) carries out regular monitoring for plague in human populations, examining all reported cases deemed suspicious. However, no corresponding program for monitoring plague in animals is in place. […] The lack of biological diagnostic laboratories in rural settings is a significant barrier to identifying the disease at an early stage. […] Increased animal as well as human surveillance can aid in reducing the burden of the diseases which can be achieved through One Health.

• #30 One Health: navigating plague in Madagascar amidst COVID-19 | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-023-01101-3

  Africa sees the surge of plague cases in recent decades, with hotspots in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, and Peru. […] Presently, the biggest concern is the potential plague spread among humans during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. […] The lack of diagnostic laboratories equipped represents a major hurdle in the early detection of plague in rural areas. […] Despite being endemic to Madagascar, the outbreaks pace is unparalleled, and it may spread to non-endemic areas. […] The Ministry of Public Health typically reports almost 200 and 400 instances of plague each year, the majority of which are in the bubonic form. […] As of September 15th, 2021, the Ministry of Public Health has reported a total of 20 suspected and 22 confirmed cases of plague (19 with pneumonic plague and 3 with bubonic plague).

• #31 Ten years of surveillance of the Yulong plague focus in China and the molecular typing and source tracing of the isolates | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0006352

  Plague, caused by Yersinia pestis, was classified as a reemerging infectious disease by the World Health Organization. […] Active animal surveillance has been conducted annually in Yulong and neighboring areas since the focus was discovered. […] The confirming tests of animal plagues were performed according to the World Health Organizations criteria and the animal plague surveillance criteria issued by the China CDC (2008). […] During 2006-2016, 2 surveillance periods were conducted annually, one in the spring (April to May) and one in autumn (November to December), for approximately 15 days each time. […] Searching for dead mice was the most effective monitoring method in this plague focus. […] The evidence of bacterium isolation and immunoassays in local reservoirs indicates that continuous rodent plague has been prevalent in the Yulong plague focus since the focus was discovered in 2005. […] Different molecular subtyping methods are used for different purposes. […] The 10-year monitoring period showed that the plague epidemic continued to exist and expand among the host rodents in the Yulong plague focus.

• #32 The surveillance of plague among rodents and dogs in Western Iran | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0011722

  The causative agent of plague, Yersinia pestis, is maintained in nature via a flea-rodent cycle. Western Iran is an old focus for plague, and recent data indicate that rodents and dogs in this region have serological evidence of Y. pestis infection. The purpose of this study was to conduct a large-scale investigation of Y. pestis infection in shepherd dogs, rodents, and their fleas in old foci for plague in Western Iran. […] This primary survey of rodent reservoirs shows serological evidence of Y. pestis infection. Western Iran is an endemic plague focus, and as such, it requires ongoing surveillance. […] This article investigates the ongoing presence of the plague in Iran and stresses the importance of continuous monitoring in the western region, a major area for endemic plague. […] Given the new discoveries in Iran and the resurgence of the plague in neighboring countries, ongoing monitoring of plague infections in wildlife across various regions of the country is crucial for public health outcomes.

• #33 Manual for plague surveillance, diagnosis, prevention and control – World | ReliefWeb

  https://reliefweb.int/report/world/manual-plague-surveillance-diagnosis-prevention-and-control

  Plague has killed millions of people in pandemics during the past 25 centuries. […] Plague is of particular concern due to its high risk for human outbreaks, which makes it both a medical and a public health emergency. […] This manual was developed to provide comprehensive information about plague epidemiology and recommendations on surveillance, diagnosis, clinical management, and prevention and control. […] New evidence-based recommendations on these key areas were developed and published in 2021 in the WHO guidelines for plague management: revised recommendations for the use of rapid diagnostic tests, fluoroquinolones for case management and personal protective equipment for prevention of post-mortem transmission.

Zobacz więcej