Materiały źródłowe

• #1 About Plague | Plague | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/plague/about/index.html

  Plague is a potentially life-threatening disease caused by the bacterium, Yersinia pestis. […] Plague is a disease that affects humans and other mammals. It is caused by the bacterium, Yersinia pestis.

• #2 Plague – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549855/

  Plague is caused by Yersinia pestis, perhaps one of the most important bacterial pathogens in human history. […] The sundry clinical presentations of plague result from a single bacterium of the enterobacteria family, Yersinia pestis. […] The bacterium is enzootic in rodents with insects serving as the primary vector. […] Humans contract the bacterium typically through the bite of an infected flea but may contract the disease in many other ways. […] The most critical risk factor is exposure to the insect vector and rodent host in an area where the disease is active. […] The prognosis of all presentations of plague is poor. Bubonic plague has an estimated mortality of 50 to 90% untreated. […] Proper diagnosis and early treatment of both of these etiologies decrease the mortality to 5 to 15%. […] Pneumonic plague is considered invariably fatal unless treated immediately following the exposure or within the first day of illness. […] Even with proper treatment, mortality is greater than 50%.

• #3 Yersinia pestis–etiologic agent of plague.

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC172914/

  Plague is a widespread zoonotic disease that is caused by Yersinia pestis and has had devastating effects on the human population throughout history. […] The flea/rodent life cycle of Y. pestis, a gram-negative obligate pathogen, exposes it to very different environmental conditions and has resulted in some novel traits facilitating transmission and infection. […] Studies characterizing virulence determinants of Y. pestis have identified novel mechanisms for overcoming host defenses. […] Regulatory systems controlling the expression of some of these virulence factors have proven quite complex. […] These areas of research have provide new insights into the host-parasite relationship. […] This review will update our present understanding of the history, etiology, epidemiology, clinical aspects, and public health issues of plague.

• #4 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #5 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/967495-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #6 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #7 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/967495-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #8 Plague: Yersinia pestis

  https://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/plague.htm

  Virulence is enhanced by another 9.5-kb plasmid (pPst or pPCP1) that encodes the outer membrane protein plasminogen activator (Pla). […] Yet another 100-kb plasmid (pFra or pMT1) also enhances virulence. […] Without treatment, fatality rates: up to 90% for bubonic plague, 100% for septicemic or pneumonic plague.

• #9 Department of Agriculture | Plague

  https://www.nj.gov/agriculture/divisions/ah/diseases/plague.html

  Plague results from infection by Yersinia pestis, a non-motile, facultatively intracellular, Gram negative rod (family Enterobacteriaceae). […] Plague is usually spread between rodents or humans by the bites of infected fleas. […] Y. pestis can survive for long periods of time in organic material; it may remain viable for up to 100 days in blood and for as long as 9 months in human bodies. […] Y. pestis is susceptible to a number of disinfectants including 1% sodium hypochlorite, 70% ethanol, 2% glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde and iodine-based and phenolic disinfectants. […] The mortality rate is approximately 50 to 60% for untreated bubonic plague and nearly 100% for untreated pneumonic plague. […] In endemic areas, many rodents – including chipmunks, wood rats, ground squirrels, deer mice and voles – suffer occasional epidemics. Mortality in some rodent species can be high; infections are fatal in nearly 100% of prairie dogs.

• #10 Department of Agriculture | Plague

  https://www.nj.gov/agriculture/divisions/ah/diseases/plague.html

  Plague results from infection by Yersinia pestis, a non-motile, facultatively intracellular, Gram negative rod (family Enterobacteriaceae). […] Plague is usually spread between rodents or humans by the bites of infected fleas. […] Y. pestis can survive for long periods of time in organic material; it may remain viable for up to 100 days in blood and for as long as 9 months in human bodies. […] Y. pestis is susceptible to a number of disinfectants including 1% sodium hypochlorite, 70% ethanol, 2% glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde and iodine-based and phenolic disinfectants. […] The mortality rate is approximately 50 to 60% for untreated bubonic plague and nearly 100% for untreated pneumonic plague. […] In endemic areas, many rodents – including chipmunks, wood rats, ground squirrels, deer mice and voles – suffer occasional epidemics. Mortality in some rodent species can be high; infections are fatal in nearly 100% of prairie dogs.

• #11 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #12 How Plague Spreads | Plague | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/plague/causes/index.html

  The bacterium that causes plague, Yersinia pestis, is transmitted by fleas and cycles naturally among wild rodents. […] Plague is a disease that affects humans and other mammals. It is caused by the bacterium, Yersinia pestis.

• #13 Plague (disease) – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)

  Yersinia pestis circulates in animal reservoirs, particularly in rodents, in the natural foci of infection found on all continents except Australia. […] Rodent-borne infection in a human occurs when a person is bitten by a flea that has been infected by biting a rodent that itself has been infected by the bite of a flea carrying the disease. […] Serious outbreaks of plague are usually started by other disease outbreaks in rodents or a rise in the rodent population. […] A 21st-century study of a 1665 outbreak of plague in the village of Eyam in England’s Derbyshire Dales which isolated itself during the outbreak, facilitating modern study found that three-quarters of cases are likely to have been due to human-to-human transmission, especially within families, a much larger proportion than previously thought.

• #14 Plague in Animals – Infectious Diseases – Merck Veterinary Manual

  https://www.merckvetmanual.com/infectious-diseases/plague/plague-in-animals

  Plague is a serious, life-threatening disease caused by infection with the bacterium Yersinia pestis. […] The bacterium that causes plague is sustained in a rodent-flea transmission cycle involving numerous wild rodent species. […] Plague’s causative bacterium, Y pestis, is a gram-negative, facultative, nonspore-forming coccobacillus that belongs to the Enterobacteriaceae family. […] In nature, the bacterium causing plague, Y pestis, is maintained between various rodent species (including chipmunks, squirrels and prairie dogs) and their associated fleas. […] The most common route of infection to pet animals is consuming infected rodents and lagomorphs or being bitten by an infected flea. […] Risk factors for pets include roaming in enzootic areas, hunting or consuming wild rodents and lagomorphs, and exposure to infected fleas.

• #15 What Causes Plague? Symptoms and History

  https://resources.healthgrades.com/right-care/infections-and-contagious-diseases/plague

  Plague refers to diseases caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It can affect humans and other mammals, and humans can get it after handling an animal with the disease. […] Plague occurs as a result of the bacterium Y. pestis. Y. pestis is usually present on rodents and rodent fleas. […] Common animals that carry plague include chipmunks, prairie dogs, ground squirrels, mice, woodrats. […] You can contract plague if you handle an infected rodent or get bitten by an infected rodent flea. […] Pneumonic plague is the only type of plague that can transmit from one human to another. You can get pneumonic plague if you inhale infected particles in the air. […] It is also possible for plague to transmit through contaminated fluid or tissue. If you come into contact with the bodily fluids or tissues of an infected animal, you may contract the disease. This most often occurs with bubonic or septicemic plague.

• #16 Plague: Causes, Symptoms, Treatments And More

  https://www.lybrate.com/topic/plague

  Plague is a serious infection caused by bacteria, which is a deadly disease. Plague is also often referred as black death. This disease is caused by a bacterium strain known as Yersinia pestis. […] The bacteria that cause plague are known as Yersinia pestis. In the normal state, the bacteria infect wild rodents. The World Health Organization states that between 1,000-2,000 cases are reported of pneumonic plague every year around the world, though they are estimated to be more cases that go unreported. The Yersinia pestis bacteria are found in the U.S. in semi-arid regions of the southwest. […] Rodent fleas (Xenopsylla species) that feed off of infected animals transmit the bacteria to other animals. Rodents, ground squirrels, mice, prairie dogs, chipmunks, voles, and hares are examples of animals that may carry the plague bacteria. The bacteria are believed to persist at a low level in the natural populations of these animals.

• #17 Causes of plague – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/plague/causes-plague.html

  Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. This disease can affect both animals and humans. […] You can become infected with plague from: […] Plague bacteria can be found in small animals such as: […] It is found on all continents except Oceania. […] Historically, outbreaks of human plague have occurred in: […] Since the 1990s, most human cases have occurred in Africa. […] Plague is most common in the following countries: […] In North America, people are rarely infected with plague. About 7 cases of plague occur each year in the southwestern United States. Human to human transmission of the plague has not been confirmed in the U.S. since 1925. […] In Canada, human cases of plague are very uncommon. The last case was reported in 1939. […] It has been absent from Europe for over half a century.

• #18 Plague: Overview, Symptoms, and Types (Bubonic, Septicemic and Pneumonic)

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/plague-faq

  Plague is an infectious disease that affects people and animals. […] It’s caused by bacteria called Yersinia pestis. […] Plague outbreaks can happen anywhere people come in contact with those reservoirs of bacteria. […] Some living conditions can make outbreaks of plague more likely. […] The bacteria that causes plague may live in certain animals without causing them to die.

• #19 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/967495-overview

  Survival of the bacillus in nature depends on flea-rodent interaction, and human infection does not contribute to the bacteria’s persistence in nature. […] The following are the modes of plague transmission in humans: Bites by fleas, Exposure to humans with pneumonic plague, Handling of infected carcasses, Scratches or bites from infected domestic cats, Exposure to aerosols containing plague-causing bacilli. […] Another potential mode of plague transmission in humans is contact with an infected dog. […] The risk of plague-related death depends on the type of plague and whether the infected individual receives appropriate treatment. […] The following are the estimated mortality rates associated with the different types of plague: Pneumonic plague – Untreated, 100%; treated, 50%; Bubonic plague – Untreated, up to 60%; treated, 5% when appropriate antibiotics are used; Septicemic plague – 20%-25%.

• #20 Plague – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/plague/symptoms-causes/syc-20351291

  Plague is a serious illness caused by a germ called Yersinia pestis. […] Plague is caused by a bacteria called Yersinia pestis. The bacteria circulate in populations of small animals and their fleas. […] People are most likely to get plague from a flea bite. The fleas are likely to come from small wild animals or from pets. […] People also can get plague from direct contact with tissues of a sick animal. For example, a hunter can pick up the disease while skinning or handling an animal with the illness. […] Pneumonic plague can be passed from animals to humans, or from humans to humans. Tiny droplets in the air can carry the bacteria when a person or animal coughs or sneezes. People can become infected when they inhale the droplets or touch coughed-up mucus.

• #21 Plague: Types, History, Causes & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17782-plague

  Plague is an illness you get from Yersinia pestis bacterium. […] The bacterium Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis) causes plague. […] Y. pestis gets into your lymph nodes, bloodstream or lungs and makes you sick. […] You can get plague: By getting bitten by fleas or lice. […] Directly from an infected animal. […] From another person. […] Bubonic and septicemic plague are not contagious, but pneumonic plague is. […] Pneumonic plague can spread from person to person through coughing, sneezing and close contact. […] Plague needs to be treated with antibiotics right away. […] Without treatment, plague is nearly always fatal. […] With treatment, there’s a 5 to 15% mortality (death) rate for bubonic plague and around a 50% mortality rate for pneumonic and septicemic plague.

• #22 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  The following are the modes of plague transmission in humans: Bites by fleas, Exposure to humans with pneumonic plague, Handling of infected carcasses, Scratches or bites from infected domestic cats, Exposure to aerosols containing plague-causing bacilli. […] The risk of plague-related death depends on the type of plague and whether the infected individual receives appropriate treatment. […] The following are the estimated mortality rates associated with the different types of plague: Pneumonic plague – Untreated, 100%; treated, 50%; Bubonic plague – Untreated, up to 60%; treated, 5% when appropriate antibiotics are used; Septicemic plague – 20%-25%.

• #23 Plague – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/plague/symptoms-causes/syc-20351291

  Plague is a serious illness caused by a germ called Yersinia pestis. […] Plague is caused by a bacteria called Yersinia pestis. The bacteria circulate in populations of small animals and their fleas. […] People are most likely to get plague from a flea bite. The fleas are likely to come from small wild animals or from pets. […] People also can get plague from direct contact with tissues of a sick animal. For example, a hunter can pick up the disease while skinning or handling an animal with the illness. […] Pneumonic plague can be passed from animals to humans, or from humans to humans. Tiny droplets in the air can carry the bacteria when a person or animal coughs or sneezes. People can become infected when they inhale the droplets or touch coughed-up mucus.

• #24 Plague Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/plague

  Plague is caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. Rodents, such as rats, carry the disease, which is spread by fleas. […] People can get plague in the following ways: […] Being bitten by a flea that carries the plague bacteria from an infected animal. […] Handling an infected animal and coming into contact with body fluid or tissue. […] Breathing in respiratory droplets from an infected human or animal. Plague lung infection is called pneumonic plague. […] Pneumonic plague is an infection of the lungs. This is the most serious form and is what can cause epidemics to occur. […] Human-to-human transmission of plague has not occurred in the United States since 1925.

• #25 Plague Disease (Black Death): Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/plague/article_em.htm

  Plague is an infectious disease caused by plague bacillus (bacterium), Yersinia pestis. […] The bacterium (Yersinia pestis) that causes plague can be transmitted from a host such as a rat to a human through the bite of an animal or insect (such as a flea). […] The vector is usually the rat flea. Thirty different flea species have been identified as vectors of the plague. Other vectors of plague include ticks and human lice. […] Bubonic plague: The bacteria that cause plague can thrive and grow in the flea’s esophagus. […] Pneumonic plague: Direct inhalation of the plague-causing germs results in pneumonic plague. […] Septicemic plague: This form of the serious disease may occur quickly and causes severe blood infection throughout the body (primary). […] The death rate is about 13% for those treated for bubonic plague.

• #26 Plague Disease (Black Death): Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/plague/article_em.htm

  Plague is an infectious disease caused by plague bacillus (bacterium), Yersinia pestis. […] The bacterium (Yersinia pestis) that causes plague can be transmitted from a host such as a rat to a human through the bite of an animal or insect (such as a flea). […] The vector is usually the rat flea. Thirty different flea species have been identified as vectors of the plague. Other vectors of plague include ticks and human lice. […] Bubonic plague: The bacteria that cause plague can thrive and grow in the flea’s esophagus. […] Pneumonic plague: Direct inhalation of the plague-causing germs results in pneumonic plague. […] Septicemic plague: This form of the serious disease may occur quickly and causes severe blood infection throughout the body (primary). […] The death rate is about 13% for those treated for bubonic plague.

• #27 Consider plague risk when dealing with fleas, rodents — and cats | Pest Management Professional

  https://www.mypmp.net/consider-plague-risk-when-dealing-with-fleas-rodents-and-cats/

  Humans and animals with plague pneumonia can sometimes cough droplets containing plague bacteria into the air. […] Cats are particularly susceptible to plague and can be infected by eating infected rodents. Cats with plague (also) pose a risk of transmitting infectious plague droplets to their owners or to veterinarians. […] In the U.S., the CDC says, most cases occur in the rural areas of northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, southern Colorado, California, southern Oregon and far western Nevada. While several flea species are capable of transmitting the bacterium, the most common carrier is the rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis).

• #28 Plague – Sutter Yuba Mosquito & Vector Control District

  https://sutter-yubamvcd.org/public-information/other-vector-borne-diseases/plague/

  Plague is a disease caused by infection with the bacteria, Yersinia pestis, which maintains its existence in a cycle involving rodents and their fleas. […] Many types of rodents such as ground squirrels, woodrats, prairie dogs, chipmunks, marmots, and mice are important hosts of plague. […] Fleas pick up the bacteria when they bite and feed on animals infected with plague. […] The infected fleas can then bite other animals and people, spreading the disease. […] Additional methods of transmission include handling of infected animals (live or dead) and airborne infection, particularly by a pet cat. […] An infected cat will often become very ill and can directly infect humans when they sneeze infectious droplets into the air (pneumonic plague). […] Symptoms of bubonic plague include sudden onset of fever, headache, chills, weakness and one or more swollen, tender and painful lymph nodes (called buboes).

• #29 Plague – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/plague/symptoms-causes/syc-20351291

  Plague is a serious illness caused by a germ called Yersinia pestis. […] Plague is caused by a bacteria called Yersinia pestis. The bacteria circulate in populations of small animals and their fleas. […] People are most likely to get plague from a flea bite. The fleas are likely to come from small wild animals or from pets. […] People also can get plague from direct contact with tissues of a sick animal. For example, a hunter can pick up the disease while skinning or handling an animal with the illness. […] Pneumonic plague can be passed from animals to humans, or from humans to humans. Tiny droplets in the air can carry the bacteria when a person or animal coughs or sneezes. People can become infected when they inhale the droplets or touch coughed-up mucus.

• #30 Plague Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/plague/fact_sheet.htm

  Plague is a severe disease that affects humans and other mammals caused by an infection with a type of bacteria, Yersinia pestis. Plague occurs naturally in the western United States and is transmitted by the bite of an infected flea, by handling infected animals, or inhaling droplets from the cough of an infected person or animal. […] The most common way that plague is spread to people is by the bite of an infected flea. Other important ways it spreads includes the handling of infected animals (especially cats, rabbits, rats, mice, and squirrels), inhaling droplets from humans or household pets with plague, or by laboratory exposure. […] Plague can be treated successfully with intravenous antibiotics if appropriate therapy is started early. The duration of treatment is generally 10-14 days. If a person diagnosed with bubonic plague is not treated promptly, the bacteria can spread to other parts of the body and cause septicemic or pneumonic plague. […] There is no vaccine to prevent plague. Immunity after plague recovery is variable and may not provide complete protection.

• #31 Plague in Animals – Infectious Diseases – Merck Veterinary Manual

  https://www.merckvetmanual.com/infectious-diseases/plague/plague-in-animals

  There have been at least two dogs documented in the literature that died from plague in the US. […] Domestic production animals have rarely been reported infected with Y pestis. […] Clinical plague is present in wildlife species including antelope, deer, and felids (bobcat, lynx). […] Every case of veterinary plague represents a potential risk for human exposure and illness. […] Public health officials, beginning with the state veterinarian, should be notified as soon as plague is suspected.

• #32 Consider plague risk when dealing with fleas, rodents — and cats | Pest Management Professional

  https://www.mypmp.net/consider-plague-risk-when-dealing-with-fleas-rodents-and-cats/

  Humans and animals with plague pneumonia can sometimes cough droplets containing plague bacteria into the air. […] Cats are particularly susceptible to plague and can be infected by eating infected rodents. Cats with plague (also) pose a risk of transmitting infectious plague droplets to their owners or to veterinarians. […] In the U.S., the CDC says, most cases occur in the rural areas of northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, southern Colorado, California, southern Oregon and far western Nevada. While several flea species are capable of transmitting the bacterium, the most common carrier is the rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis).

• #33 Plague: Types, History, Causes & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17782-plague

  Plague is an illness you get from Yersinia pestis bacterium. […] The bacterium Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis) causes plague. […] Y. pestis gets into your lymph nodes, bloodstream or lungs and makes you sick. […] You can get plague: By getting bitten by fleas or lice. […] Directly from an infected animal. […] From another person. […] Bubonic and septicemic plague are not contagious, but pneumonic plague is. […] Pneumonic plague can spread from person to person through coughing, sneezing and close contact. […] Plague needs to be treated with antibiotics right away. […] Without treatment, plague is nearly always fatal. […] With treatment, there’s a 5 to 15% mortality (death) rate for bubonic plague and around a 50% mortality rate for pneumonic and septicemic plague.

• #34 The Plague: Types, Causes, and Symptoms

  https://www.healthline.com/health/plague

  The plague is a serious bacterial infection that can be deadly. Sometimes referred to as the black plague, the disease is caused by a bacterial strain called Yersinia pestis. This bacterium is found in animals throughout the world and is usually transmitted to humans through fleas. […] People usually get the plague through the bite of fleas that have previously fed on infected animals like mice, rats, rabbits, squirrels, chipmunks, and prairie dogs. It can also be spread through direct contact with a person or animal that has the infection or by eating an infected animal. […] Pneumonic plague can be spread from person to person through cough droplets that contain plague bacteria. Its rare for bubonic plague or septicemic plague to spread from one human to another.

• #35 Plague Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/plague

  Plague is caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. Rodents, such as rats, carry the disease, which is spread by fleas. […] People can get plague in the following ways: […] Being bitten by a flea that carries the plague bacteria from an infected animal. […] Handling an infected animal and coming into contact with body fluid or tissue. […] Breathing in respiratory droplets from an infected human or animal. Plague lung infection is called pneumonic plague. […] Pneumonic plague is an infection of the lungs. This is the most serious form and is what can cause epidemics to occur. […] Human-to-human transmission of plague has not occurred in the United States since 1925.

• #36 Plague Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/plague

  Plague is caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. Rodents, such as rats, carry the disease, which is spread by fleas. […] People can get plague in the following ways: […] Being bitten by a flea that carries the plague bacteria from an infected animal. […] Handling an infected animal and coming into contact with body fluid or tissue. […] Breathing in respiratory droplets from an infected human or animal. Plague lung infection is called pneumonic plague. […] Pneumonic plague is an infection of the lungs. This is the most serious form and is what can cause epidemics to occur. […] Human-to-human transmission of plague has not occurred in the United States since 1925.

• #37 Causes of plague – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/plague/causes-plague.html

  Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. This disease can affect both animals and humans. […] You can become infected with plague from: […] Plague bacteria can be found in small animals such as: […] It is found on all continents except Oceania. […] Historically, outbreaks of human plague have occurred in: […] Since the 1990s, most human cases have occurred in Africa. […] Plague is most common in the following countries: […] In North America, people are rarely infected with plague. About 7 cases of plague occur each year in the southwestern United States. Human to human transmission of the plague has not been confirmed in the U.S. since 1925. […] In Canada, human cases of plague are very uncommon. The last case was reported in 1939. […] It has been absent from Europe for over half a century.

• #38 Plague (disease) – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)

  Disease caused by Yersinia pestis bacterium […] Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. […] Causes Yersinia pestis. […] The bubonic and septicemic forms are generally spread by flea bites or handling an infected animal, whereas pneumonic plague is generally spread between people through the air via infectious droplets. […] Transmission of Y. pestis to an uninfected individual is possible by any of the following means: droplet contact coughing or sneezing on another person, direct physical contact touching an infected person, including sexual contact, indirect contact usually by touching soil contamination or a contaminated surface, airborne transmission if the microorganism can remain in the air for long periods, fecal-oral transmission usually from contaminated food or water sources, vector borne transmission carried by insects or other animals.

• #39 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  The following are the modes of plague transmission in humans: Bites by fleas, Exposure to humans with pneumonic plague, Handling of infected carcasses, Scratches or bites from infected domestic cats, Exposure to aerosols containing plague-causing bacilli. […] The risk of plague-related death depends on the type of plague and whether the infected individual receives appropriate treatment. […] The following are the estimated mortality rates associated with the different types of plague: Pneumonic plague – Untreated, 100%; treated, 50%; Bubonic plague – Untreated, up to 60%; treated, 5% when appropriate antibiotics are used; Septicemic plague – 20%-25%.

• #40 Black Death – Causes, Symptoms & Impact

  https://www.history.com/articles/black-death

  The Black Death was a devastating global epidemic of bubonic plague that struck Europe and Asia in the mid-1300s. […] The plague is thought to have originated in Asia over 2,000 years ago and was likely spread by trading ships, though recent research has indicated the pathogen responsible for the Black Death may have existed in Europe as early as 3000 B.C. […] Today, scientists understand that the Black Death, now known as the plague, is spread by a bacillus called Yersinia pestis. […] They know that the bacillus travels from person to person through the air, as well as through the bite of infected fleas and rats. […] No one knew exactly how the Black Death was transmitted from one patient to another, and no one knew how to prevent or treat it. […] The Black Death epidemic had run its course by the early 1350s, but the plague reappeared every few generations for centuries. […] Modern sanitation and public-health practices have greatly mitigated the impact of the disease but have not eliminated it.

• #41 Plague: symptoms, treatment, prevention – Institut Pasteur

  https://www.pasteur.fr/en/medical-center/disease-sheets/plague

  Plague is a disease caused by Yersinia pestis, a bacterium measuring approximately 1 to 3m long. Yersinia pestis is extremely virulent. […] Plague is mainly transmitted to humans by bites from fleas infected with Yersinia pestis, often carried by rodents such as rats. […] Nearly 50,000 human cases of plague were reported to WHO by 26 different countries between 1990 and 2020. […] One of the characteristics of plague outbreaks is their ability to „disappear” for a number of years and then suddenly resurface and cause a further outbreak.

• #42 Plague: symptoms, treatment, prevention – Institut Pasteur

  https://www.pasteur.fr/en/medical-center/disease-sheets/plague

  Plague is a disease caused by Yersinia pestis, a bacterium measuring approximately 1 to 3m long. Yersinia pestis is extremely virulent. […] Plague is mainly transmitted to humans by bites from fleas infected with Yersinia pestis, often carried by rodents such as rats. […] Nearly 50,000 human cases of plague were reported to WHO by 26 different countries between 1990 and 2020. […] One of the characteristics of plague outbreaks is their ability to „disappear” for a number of years and then suddenly resurface and cause a further outbreak.

• #43 Causes of plague – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/plague/causes-plague.html

  Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. This disease can affect both animals and humans. […] You can become infected with plague from: […] Plague bacteria can be found in small animals such as: […] It is found on all continents except Oceania. […] Historically, outbreaks of human plague have occurred in: […] Since the 1990s, most human cases have occurred in Africa. […] Plague is most common in the following countries: […] In North America, people are rarely infected with plague. About 7 cases of plague occur each year in the southwestern United States. Human to human transmission of the plague has not been confirmed in the U.S. since 1925. […] In Canada, human cases of plague are very uncommon. The last case was reported in 1939. […] It has been absent from Europe for over half a century.

• #44 Causes of plague – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/plague/causes-plague.html

  Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. This disease can affect both animals and humans. […] You can become infected with plague from: […] Plague bacteria can be found in small animals such as: […] It is found on all continents except Oceania. […] Historically, outbreaks of human plague have occurred in: […] Since the 1990s, most human cases have occurred in Africa. […] Plague is most common in the following countries: […] In North America, people are rarely infected with plague. About 7 cases of plague occur each year in the southwestern United States. Human to human transmission of the plague has not been confirmed in the U.S. since 1925. […] In Canada, human cases of plague are very uncommon. The last case was reported in 1939. […] It has been absent from Europe for over half a century.

• #45 Consider plague risk when dealing with fleas, rodents — and cats | Pest Management Professional

  https://www.mypmp.net/consider-plague-risk-when-dealing-with-fleas-rodents-and-cats/

  Humans and animals with plague pneumonia can sometimes cough droplets containing plague bacteria into the air. […] Cats are particularly susceptible to plague and can be infected by eating infected rodents. Cats with plague (also) pose a risk of transmitting infectious plague droplets to their owners or to veterinarians. […] In the U.S., the CDC says, most cases occur in the rural areas of northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, southern Colorado, California, southern Oregon and far western Nevada. While several flea species are capable of transmitting the bacterium, the most common carrier is the rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis).

• #46 Causes of plague – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/plague/causes-plague.html

  Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. This disease can affect both animals and humans. […] You can become infected with plague from: […] Plague bacteria can be found in small animals such as: […] It is found on all continents except Oceania. […] Historically, outbreaks of human plague have occurred in: […] Since the 1990s, most human cases have occurred in Africa. […] Plague is most common in the following countries: […] In North America, people are rarely infected with plague. About 7 cases of plague occur each year in the southwestern United States. Human to human transmission of the plague has not been confirmed in the U.S. since 1925. […] In Canada, human cases of plague are very uncommon. The last case was reported in 1939. […] It has been absent from Europe for over half a century.

• #47 Plague – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549855/

  Plague is caused by Yersinia pestis, perhaps one of the most important bacterial pathogens in human history. […] The sundry clinical presentations of plague result from a single bacterium of the enterobacteria family, Yersinia pestis. […] The bacterium is enzootic in rodents with insects serving as the primary vector. […] Humans contract the bacterium typically through the bite of an infected flea but may contract the disease in many other ways. […] The most critical risk factor is exposure to the insect vector and rodent host in an area where the disease is active. […] The prognosis of all presentations of plague is poor. Bubonic plague has an estimated mortality of 50 to 90% untreated. […] Proper diagnosis and early treatment of both of these etiologies decrease the mortality to 5 to 15%. […] Pneumonic plague is considered invariably fatal unless treated immediately following the exposure or within the first day of illness. […] Even with proper treatment, mortality is greater than 50%.

• #48 Plague: Overview, Symptoms, and Types (Bubonic, Septicemic and Pneumonic)

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/plague-faq

  Plague is an infectious disease that affects people and animals. […] It’s caused by bacteria called Yersinia pestis. […] Plague outbreaks can happen anywhere people come in contact with those reservoirs of bacteria. […] Some living conditions can make outbreaks of plague more likely. […] The bacteria that causes plague may live in certain animals without causing them to die.

• #49 Plague in Animals – Infectious Diseases – Merck Veterinary Manual

  https://www.merckvetmanual.com/infectious-diseases/plague/plague-in-animals

  Plague is a serious, life-threatening disease caused by infection with the bacterium Yersinia pestis. […] The bacterium that causes plague is sustained in a rodent-flea transmission cycle involving numerous wild rodent species. […] Plague’s causative bacterium, Y pestis, is a gram-negative, facultative, nonspore-forming coccobacillus that belongs to the Enterobacteriaceae family. […] In nature, the bacterium causing plague, Y pestis, is maintained between various rodent species (including chipmunks, squirrels and prairie dogs) and their associated fleas. […] The most common route of infection to pet animals is consuming infected rodents and lagomorphs or being bitten by an infected flea. […] Risk factors for pets include roaming in enzootic areas, hunting or consuming wild rodents and lagomorphs, and exposure to infected fleas.

• #50 Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment of plague (Yersinia pestis infection) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-plague-yersinia-pestis-infection

  In the genus Yersinia, three species are important human pathogens: Yersinia pestis, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. The yersinioses are zoonotic infections of domestic and wild animals; humans are considered incidental hosts that do not contribute to the natural disease cycle. […] Y. pestis causes plague and is transmitted by fleas. The most common clinical manifestation is acute febrile lymphadenitis, called bubonic plague. Less common forms include septicemia, pneumonia, pharyngeal, and meningeal plague. […] Plague is a murine zoonosis; humans are incidental hosts. Humans acquire plague via bites of rodent fleas, scratches or bites from infected domestic cats, direct handling of infected animal tissues, inhalation of respiratory secretions from infected animals, inhalation of aerosolized droplets from infected humans, consumption of contaminated food, or by laboratory exposure.

• #51 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #52 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/967495-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #53 Plague: History, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and Types | Metropolis Healthcare

  https://www.metropolisindia.com/blog/preventive-healthcare/the-plague-history-symptoms-and-modern-day-treatment

  Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which is primarily transmitted through fleas that infest small mammals. […] Plague causes severe symptoms like high fever and weakness, and if untreated, it can be fatal. […] Pneumonic plague causes severe respiratory symptoms and is highly contagious, making it capable of causing outbreaks. […] Understanding plague types is important because each form has different transmission methods and treatment protocols. Recognising how plague causes illness in various ways is essential for developing effective prevention and treatment strategies. […] Plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which is found in small mammals and their fleas. […] Plague usually spreads through flea bites. […] Bubonic and septicemic plague types are not directly contagious between humans, but pneumonic plague can be transmitted through respiratory droplets expelled by infected individual or animal when they cough or sneezes.

• #54 Plague: MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/plague.html

  Plague is an infection caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. The bacteria are found mainly in rats and in the fleas that feed on them. People and other animals can get plague from rat or flea bites. […] In septicemic plague, bacteria multiply in the blood. […] Pneumonic plague is the most serious form. Bacteria enter the lungs and cause pneumonia. People with the infection can spread this form to others. This type could be a bioterror agent.

• #55 Bubonic Plague (Black Death): What Is It, Symptoms, Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21590-bubonic-plague

  Bubonic plague is an infection spread mostly to humans by infected fleas that travel on rodents. […] Plague is an infectious disease caused by a specific type of bacterium called Yersinia pestis. […] Bubonic plague is a type of infection caused by the Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis) bacterium which is spread mostly by fleas on rodents and other animals. […] Person-to-person spread is unlikely, except in rare cases of someone who has pneumonic plague (infected lungs) spreading plague through droplets sprayed into the air. […] Bubonic plague can be fatal if its not treated. It can create infection throughout the body (septicemic plague) and / or infect your lungs (pneumonic plague.) Without treatment, septicemic plague and pneumonic plague are both fatal.

• #56 Bubonic plague – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague

  Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. […] Bubonic plague is mainly spread by infected fleas from small animals. […] In the bubonic form of plague, the bacteria enter through the skin through a flea bite and travel via the lymphatic vessels to a lymph node, causing it to swell. […] The bubonic plague is an infection of the lymphatic system, usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea, Xenopsylla cheopis (the Oriental rat flea). […] The flea is parasitic on house and field rats and seeks out other prey when its rodent host dies. […] The bacteria form aggregates in the gut of infected fleas, and this results in the flea regurgitating ingested blood, which is now infected, into the bite site of a rodent or human host. […] The fleas that transmit the disease only directly infect humans when the rat population in the area is wiped out from a mass infection. […] The rat’s blood allows the rat to withstand a major concentration of the plague.

• #57 Great Plague of 1665-1666 – The National Archives

  https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/great-plague/

  This was the worst outbreak of plague in England since the black death of 1348. London lost roughly 15% of its population. While 68,596 deaths were recorded in the city, the true number was probably over 100,000. Other parts of the country also suffered. […] Rats carried the fleas that caused the plague. They were attracted by city streets filled with rubbish and waste, especially in the poorest areas. […] There are three types of plague. Most of the sick in 1665-1666 had bubonic plague. This created swellings (buboes) in the lymph nodes found in the armpits, groin and neck. Plague sufferers experienced headaches, vomiting and fever. They had a 30% chance of dying within two weeks. This type of plague spread from a bite caused by a black rat flea that carried the Yersinia pestis bacteria.

• #58 Plague – Sutter Yuba Mosquito & Vector Control District

  https://sutter-yubamvcd.org/public-information/other-vector-borne-diseases/plague/

  Plague is a disease caused by infection with the bacteria, Yersinia pestis, which maintains its existence in a cycle involving rodents and their fleas. […] Many types of rodents such as ground squirrels, woodrats, prairie dogs, chipmunks, marmots, and mice are important hosts of plague. […] Fleas pick up the bacteria when they bite and feed on animals infected with plague. […] The infected fleas can then bite other animals and people, spreading the disease. […] Additional methods of transmission include handling of infected animals (live or dead) and airborne infection, particularly by a pet cat. […] An infected cat will often become very ill and can directly infect humans when they sneeze infectious droplets into the air (pneumonic plague). […] Symptoms of bubonic plague include sudden onset of fever, headache, chills, weakness and one or more swollen, tender and painful lymph nodes (called buboes).

• #59 Bubonic Plague (Black Death): What Is It, Symptoms, Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21590-bubonic-plague

  Bubonic plague is an infection spread mostly to humans by infected fleas that travel on rodents. […] Plague is an infectious disease caused by a specific type of bacterium called Yersinia pestis. […] Bubonic plague is a type of infection caused by the Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis) bacterium which is spread mostly by fleas on rodents and other animals. […] Person-to-person spread is unlikely, except in rare cases of someone who has pneumonic plague (infected lungs) spreading plague through droplets sprayed into the air. […] Bubonic plague can be fatal if its not treated. It can create infection throughout the body (septicemic plague) and / or infect your lungs (pneumonic plague.) Without treatment, septicemic plague and pneumonic plague are both fatal.

• #60 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  The following are the modes of plague transmission in humans: Bites by fleas, Exposure to humans with pneumonic plague, Handling of infected carcasses, Scratches or bites from infected domestic cats, Exposure to aerosols containing plague-causing bacilli. […] The risk of plague-related death depends on the type of plague and whether the infected individual receives appropriate treatment. […] The following are the estimated mortality rates associated with the different types of plague: Pneumonic plague – Untreated, 100%; treated, 50%; Bubonic plague – Untreated, up to 60%; treated, 5% when appropriate antibiotics are used; Septicemic plague – 20%-25%.

• #61 Plague: Types, History, Causes & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17782-plague

  Plague is an illness you get from Yersinia pestis bacterium. […] The bacterium Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis) causes plague. […] Y. pestis gets into your lymph nodes, bloodstream or lungs and makes you sick. […] You can get plague: By getting bitten by fleas or lice. […] Directly from an infected animal. […] From another person. […] Bubonic and septicemic plague are not contagious, but pneumonic plague is. […] Pneumonic plague can spread from person to person through coughing, sneezing and close contact. […] Plague needs to be treated with antibiotics right away. […] Without treatment, plague is nearly always fatal. […] With treatment, there’s a 5 to 15% mortality (death) rate for bubonic plague and around a 50% mortality rate for pneumonic and septicemic plague.

• #62 Plague: MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/plague.html

  Plague is an infection caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. The bacteria are found mainly in rats and in the fleas that feed on them. People and other animals can get plague from rat or flea bites. […] In septicemic plague, bacteria multiply in the blood. […] Pneumonic plague is the most serious form. Bacteria enter the lungs and cause pneumonia. People with the infection can spread this form to others. This type could be a bioterror agent.

• #63 Septicemic plague: Symptoms, causes, treatment, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/septicemic-plague

  Septicemic plague is a complication of pneumonic or bubonic plague and can also occur independently. It develops when bacteria that cause plague multiply in the blood. […] The type of bacterium that causes plague is Yersinsia pestis. Septicemic plague is one of three types of plague the other two are bubonic and pneumonic. […] Septicemic plague is often a complication of bubonic or pneumonic plague, but it can develop independently if Yersinia pestis passes directly into the blood. […] Septicemic plague occurs when plague-causing bacteria cause infection in the blood directly or as a complication of other types of plague.

• #64 Plague – Sutter Yuba Mosquito & Vector Control District

  https://sutter-yubamvcd.org/public-information/other-vector-borne-diseases/plague/

  Without treatment, the bacteria can spread to other parts of the body. […] Septicemic (bloodstream) plague may cause added symptoms such as abdominal pain, shock and sometimes bleeding into the skin and other organs. […] These forms result from infected flea bites or from handling an infected animal. […] Pneumonic (lungs) plague also causes fever, headache and weakness and a rapidly developing pneumonia with shortness of breath, chest pain, cough and sometimes bloody or watery mucous. […] It develops from inhaling infectious airborne droplets or from bacteria reaching the lungs because of untreated bubonic or septicemic plague. […] Pneumonic plague is the most serious form of the disease, as it may cause respiratory failure and shock. […] This is the only form of the disease that can be spread from person to person.

• #65 Plague: Types, Symptoms, Causes, Prevention and Treatments

  https://www.acko.com/health-insurance/diseases/plague/

  Plague is commonly classified into three types based on the body parts infected by the Y. pestis-Bubonic, Septicemic, and Pneumonic. […] Untreated, Bubonic Plague is fatal in about 66% of cases and may lead to other kinds of Plague. […] Left untreated, this form of Plague can rapidly progress to multiple organ failures, leading to death. […] In this clinical form, the bacterium enters your bloodstream and rapidly spreads to various tissues and organs of your body, causing gangrene and organ failure. Serious complications are likely if not diagnosed and treated promptly. […] Because without treatment, Plague is always fatal. […] Bubonic and Septicaemic forms of Plague aren’t contagious. But Pneumonic Plague can get transmitted from person to person through the air during coughing, sneezing and close contact.

• #66 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  The following are the modes of plague transmission in humans: Bites by fleas, Exposure to humans with pneumonic plague, Handling of infected carcasses, Scratches or bites from infected domestic cats, Exposure to aerosols containing plague-causing bacilli. […] The risk of plague-related death depends on the type of plague and whether the infected individual receives appropriate treatment. […] The following are the estimated mortality rates associated with the different types of plague: Pneumonic plague – Untreated, 100%; treated, 50%; Bubonic plague – Untreated, up to 60%; treated, 5% when appropriate antibiotics are used; Septicemic plague – 20%-25%.

• #67 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/967495-overview

  Survival of the bacillus in nature depends on flea-rodent interaction, and human infection does not contribute to the bacteria’s persistence in nature. […] The following are the modes of plague transmission in humans: Bites by fleas, Exposure to humans with pneumonic plague, Handling of infected carcasses, Scratches or bites from infected domestic cats, Exposure to aerosols containing plague-causing bacilli. […] Another potential mode of plague transmission in humans is contact with an infected dog. […] The risk of plague-related death depends on the type of plague and whether the infected individual receives appropriate treatment. […] The following are the estimated mortality rates associated with the different types of plague: Pneumonic plague – Untreated, 100%; treated, 50%; Bubonic plague – Untreated, up to 60%; treated, 5% when appropriate antibiotics are used; Septicemic plague – 20%-25%.

• #68 Plague – El Paso County Public Health

  https://www.elpasocountyhealth.org/plague/

  Plague is a disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. There are three different forms of plague, depending on how a person becomes infected: […] Bubonic plague is caused when the bacteria enter a break in the skin, like during a flea bite. This is the most common form. […] Septicemic plague is caused when the bacteria get into the bloodstream. […] Pneumonic plague happens when people breathe in droplets that have the bacteria in them when an infected person or animal coughs. […] The bacteria is usually found in rodents and the fleas that bite them. Pneumonic plague is the most serious form and the only one that can spread between people.

• #69 Plague – Sutter Yuba Mosquito & Vector Control District

  https://sutter-yubamvcd.org/public-information/other-vector-borne-diseases/plague/

  Without treatment, the bacteria can spread to other parts of the body. […] Septicemic (bloodstream) plague may cause added symptoms such as abdominal pain, shock and sometimes bleeding into the skin and other organs. […] These forms result from infected flea bites or from handling an infected animal. […] Pneumonic (lungs) plague also causes fever, headache and weakness and a rapidly developing pneumonia with shortness of breath, chest pain, cough and sometimes bloody or watery mucous. […] It develops from inhaling infectious airborne droplets or from bacteria reaching the lungs because of untreated bubonic or septicemic plague. […] Pneumonic plague is the most serious form of the disease, as it may cause respiratory failure and shock. […] This is the only form of the disease that can be spread from person to person.

• #70 Plague – Sutter Yuba Mosquito & Vector Control District

  https://sutter-yubamvcd.org/public-information/other-vector-borne-diseases/plague/

  Without treatment, the bacteria can spread to other parts of the body. […] Septicemic (bloodstream) plague may cause added symptoms such as abdominal pain, shock and sometimes bleeding into the skin and other organs. […] These forms result from infected flea bites or from handling an infected animal. […] Pneumonic (lungs) plague also causes fever, headache and weakness and a rapidly developing pneumonia with shortness of breath, chest pain, cough and sometimes bloody or watery mucous. […] It develops from inhaling infectious airborne droplets or from bacteria reaching the lungs because of untreated bubonic or septicemic plague. […] Pneumonic plague is the most serious form of the disease, as it may cause respiratory failure and shock. […] This is the only form of the disease that can be spread from person to person.

• #71 Plague | Disease Outbreak Control Division

  https://health.hawaii.gov/docd/disease_listing/plague/

  Plague is a serious illness caused by bacteria called Yersinia pestis. The disease is carried by rodents (rats and mice) and their fleas, which can then spread the disease to humans as well as to other animals. […] The most common form of plague is bubonic plague which affects the bodys lymph glands. When the infection involves the lungs, the disease is called pneumonic plague. […] Pneumonic plague is causes fever, swelling of the lymph glands, cough, and chest pain. […] Bubonic plague is spread to humans from the bite of infected fleas, or by being scratched or bitten by infected animals. […] Pneumonic plaque can be spread through the air (through coughing or sneezing) and through direct and close contact with an infected person or animal. […] Antibiotics can be prescribed by a doctor to treat plague. It is very important to detect and treat the disease early in its course. If not treated, about half of those with bubonic plague will die.

• #72 Plague – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549855/

  Plague is caused by Yersinia pestis, perhaps one of the most important bacterial pathogens in human history. […] The sundry clinical presentations of plague result from a single bacterium of the enterobacteria family, Yersinia pestis. […] The bacterium is enzootic in rodents with insects serving as the primary vector. […] Humans contract the bacterium typically through the bite of an infected flea but may contract the disease in many other ways. […] The most critical risk factor is exposure to the insect vector and rodent host in an area where the disease is active. […] The prognosis of all presentations of plague is poor. Bubonic plague has an estimated mortality of 50 to 90% untreated. […] Proper diagnosis and early treatment of both of these etiologies decrease the mortality to 5 to 15%. […] Pneumonic plague is considered invariably fatal unless treated immediately following the exposure or within the first day of illness. […] Even with proper treatment, mortality is greater than 50%.

• #73 Plague Disease (Black Death): Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/plague/article_em.htm

  A person with primary or secondary septicemic plague (infection in the bloodstream with associated shock symptoms) has an approximate 40% death rate, even when treated. […] Pneumonic plague has about a 100% death rate if not treated within the first 24 hours. […] In the United States, most victims with human plague have the bubonic form. If the organisms were used as a biological warfare agent, it most likely would be spread through the air and inhaled by victims.

• #74 Yersinia pestis–etiologic agent of plague.

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC172914/

  Plague is a widespread zoonotic disease that is caused by Yersinia pestis and has had devastating effects on the human population throughout history. […] The flea/rodent life cycle of Y. pestis, a gram-negative obligate pathogen, exposes it to very different environmental conditions and has resulted in some novel traits facilitating transmission and infection. […] Studies characterizing virulence determinants of Y. pestis have identified novel mechanisms for overcoming host defenses. […] Regulatory systems controlling the expression of some of these virulence factors have proven quite complex. […] These areas of research have provide new insights into the host-parasite relationship. […] This review will update our present understanding of the history, etiology, epidemiology, clinical aspects, and public health issues of plague.

• #75 Plague: Yersinia pestis

  https://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/plague.htm

  Plague or black death is an infection of rodents caused by Yersinia pestis and accidentally transmitted to humans by the bite of infected fleas. […] Plague is endemic in the U.S. […] Yersinia pestis is primarily a rodent pathogen, with humans being an accidental host when bitten by an infected rat flea. […] The organisms then kill the macrophage and are released into the extracellular environment, where they resist phagocytosis (YopH and YopE; Yersinia outer membrane protein) by the polymorphs. […] As the epidemic of bubonic plague develops (especially under conditions of severe overcrowding, malnutrition, and heavy flea infestation), it eventually shifts into a predominately pneumonic form, which is far more difficult to control and which has 100 percent mortality. […] Important virulence factors include proteins encoded by three different plasmids:

• #76 Plague: Yersinia pestis

  https://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/plague.htm

  Virulence is enhanced by another 9.5-kb plasmid (pPst or pPCP1) that encodes the outer membrane protein plasminogen activator (Pla). […] Yet another 100-kb plasmid (pFra or pMT1) also enhances virulence. […] Without treatment, fatality rates: up to 90% for bubonic plague, 100% for septicemic or pneumonic plague.

• #77 Plague: Yersinia pestis

  https://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/plague.htm

  Plague or black death is an infection of rodents caused by Yersinia pestis and accidentally transmitted to humans by the bite of infected fleas. […] Plague is endemic in the U.S. […] Yersinia pestis is primarily a rodent pathogen, with humans being an accidental host when bitten by an infected rat flea. […] The organisms then kill the macrophage and are released into the extracellular environment, where they resist phagocytosis (YopH and YopE; Yersinia outer membrane protein) by the polymorphs. […] As the epidemic of bubonic plague develops (especially under conditions of severe overcrowding, malnutrition, and heavy flea infestation), it eventually shifts into a predominately pneumonic form, which is far more difficult to control and which has 100 percent mortality. […] Important virulence factors include proteins encoded by three different plasmids:

• #78 Plague: Yersinia pestis

  https://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/plague.htm

  Plague or black death is an infection of rodents caused by Yersinia pestis and accidentally transmitted to humans by the bite of infected fleas. […] Plague is endemic in the U.S. […] Yersinia pestis is primarily a rodent pathogen, with humans being an accidental host when bitten by an infected rat flea. […] The organisms then kill the macrophage and are released into the extracellular environment, where they resist phagocytosis (YopH and YopE; Yersinia outer membrane protein) by the polymorphs. […] As the epidemic of bubonic plague develops (especially under conditions of severe overcrowding, malnutrition, and heavy flea infestation), it eventually shifts into a predominately pneumonic form, which is far more difficult to control and which has 100 percent mortality. […] Important virulence factors include proteins encoded by three different plasmids:

• #79 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/235627-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #80 Plague: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/967495-overview

  Plague is an acute, contagious, febrile illness usually transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected flea. […] The disease is caused by a coccobacillus-shaped, gram negative bacterium referred to as Yersinia pestis. […] Three studies have shown that this bacterium emerged from the gut pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis shortly after the first epidemic. […] One reason for plague’s reemergence may be global warming, which is ideal for increasing the prevalence of Y pestis in the host population. […] The virulence of this bacterium results from the 32 Y pestis chromosomal genes and two Y pestis specific plasmids, constituting the only new genetic material acquired since its evolution from its predecessor. […] Plague is a zoonotic disease that primarily affects rodents; humans are incidental hosts.

• #81 Yersinia pestis–etiologic agent of plague.

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC172914/

  Plague is a widespread zoonotic disease that is caused by Yersinia pestis and has had devastating effects on the human population throughout history. […] The flea/rodent life cycle of Y. pestis, a gram-negative obligate pathogen, exposes it to very different environmental conditions and has resulted in some novel traits facilitating transmission and infection. […] Studies characterizing virulence determinants of Y. pestis have identified novel mechanisms for overcoming host defenses. […] Regulatory systems controlling the expression of some of these virulence factors have proven quite complex. […] These areas of research have provide new insights into the host-parasite relationship. […] This review will update our present understanding of the history, etiology, epidemiology, clinical aspects, and public health issues of plague.

• #82 How Plague Spreads | Plague | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/plague/causes/index.html

  The bacterium that causes plague, Yersinia pestis, is transmitted by fleas and cycles naturally among wild rodents. […] Plague is a disease that affects humans and other mammals. It is caused by the bacterium, Yersinia pestis.

• #83 Sylvatic Plague | U.S. Geological Survey

  https://www.usgs.gov/programs/fish-and-wildlife-disease/sylvatic-plague

  Sylvatic plague is a flea-borne bacterial disease of wild rodents. […] Sylvatic plague can decimate prairie dog colonies (90% or greater mortality rates), resulting in local extinctions and population reductions. […] Plague is a flea-borne zoonosis of rodents that often decimates prairie dog (Cynomys spp.) colonies in the western USA. […] The plague bacterium Yersinia pestis was introduced to California in 1900 and spread rapidly as a sylvatic disease of mammalian hosts and flea vectors, invading the Great Plains in the United States by the 1930s to 1940s. […] Sylvatic plague, caused by Yersinia pestis, frequently afflicts prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), causing population declines and local extirpations. […] Sylvatic plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is periodically responsible for large die-offs in rodent populations that can spillover and cause human mortalities. […] Prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) suffer high rates of mortality from plague. […] Plague, a disease caused by Yersinia pestis introduced into North America about 100 years ago, is devastating to prairie dogs and the highly endangered black-footed ferret.

• #84 Plague – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/plague/symptoms-causes/syc-20351291

  Plague is a serious illness caused by a germ called Yersinia pestis. […] Plague is caused by a bacteria called Yersinia pestis. The bacteria circulate in populations of small animals and their fleas. […] People are most likely to get plague from a flea bite. The fleas are likely to come from small wild animals or from pets. […] People also can get plague from direct contact with tissues of a sick animal. For example, a hunter can pick up the disease while skinning or handling an animal with the illness. […] Pneumonic plague can be passed from animals to humans, or from humans to humans. Tiny droplets in the air can carry the bacteria when a person or animal coughs or sneezes. People can become infected when they inhale the droplets or touch coughed-up mucus.

• #85 Plague (disease) – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)

  Yersinia pestis circulates in animal reservoirs, particularly in rodents, in the natural foci of infection found on all continents except Australia. […] Rodent-borne infection in a human occurs when a person is bitten by a flea that has been infected by biting a rodent that itself has been infected by the bite of a flea carrying the disease. […] Serious outbreaks of plague are usually started by other disease outbreaks in rodents or a rise in the rodent population. […] A 21st-century study of a 1665 outbreak of plague in the village of Eyam in England’s Derbyshire Dales which isolated itself during the outbreak, facilitating modern study found that three-quarters of cases are likely to have been due to human-to-human transmission, especially within families, a much larger proportion than previously thought.

• #86 Plague – Sutter Yuba Mosquito & Vector Control District

  https://sutter-yubamvcd.org/public-information/other-vector-borne-diseases/plague/

  Plague is a serious illness and must be treated promptly by medical providers. […] The discovery of the plague transmission cycle and modern antibiotics ended the era of large plague pandemics. […] However, smaller numbers of human plague cases still occur in rural and urban settings around the world including the United States. […] Plague was first introduced into the U.S. in 1900 in San Francisco by rat-infested steamships that had sailed from affected areas, mostly from Asia. […] Plague then spread from urban rats in port cities to rural rodent species and became enzootic in many areas of the western U.S. […] The last urban plague epidemic in the U.S. occurred in Los Angeles from 1924 to 1925 and plague has not been detected in urban areas of California since that time. […] In current times, plague is present in certain species of rodents in the mountains and foothills of California.

• #87 Plague – Sutter Yuba Mosquito & Vector Control District

  https://sutter-yubamvcd.org/public-information/other-vector-borne-diseases/plague/

  Plague is a serious illness and must be treated promptly by medical providers. […] The discovery of the plague transmission cycle and modern antibiotics ended the era of large plague pandemics. […] However, smaller numbers of human plague cases still occur in rural and urban settings around the world including the United States. […] Plague was first introduced into the U.S. in 1900 in San Francisco by rat-infested steamships that had sailed from affected areas, mostly from Asia. […] Plague then spread from urban rats in port cities to rural rodent species and became enzootic in many areas of the western U.S. […] The last urban plague epidemic in the U.S. occurred in Los Angeles from 1924 to 1925 and plague has not been detected in urban areas of California since that time. […] In current times, plague is present in certain species of rodents in the mountains and foothills of California.

• #88 Plague – Sutter Yuba Mosquito & Vector Control District

  https://sutter-yubamvcd.org/public-information/other-vector-borne-diseases/plague/

  Plague is a serious illness and must be treated promptly by medical providers. […] The discovery of the plague transmission cycle and modern antibiotics ended the era of large plague pandemics. […] However, smaller numbers of human plague cases still occur in rural and urban settings around the world including the United States. […] Plague was first introduced into the U.S. in 1900 in San Francisco by rat-infested steamships that had sailed from affected areas, mostly from Asia. […] Plague then spread from urban rats in port cities to rural rodent species and became enzootic in many areas of the western U.S. […] The last urban plague epidemic in the U.S. occurred in Los Angeles from 1924 to 1925 and plague has not been detected in urban areas of California since that time. […] In current times, plague is present in certain species of rodents in the mountains and foothills of California.

• #89 Causes and effects of the Black Death – Medieval medicine – KS3 History – homework help for year 7, 8 and 9. – BBC Bitesize

  https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zdkssk7

  The discovery that germs cause disease was not made until the 1800s. This meant there was a wide range of beliefs about what might be causing plague. […] Some of these were based on natural causes, such as miasma caused by the waste and poor sanitary conditions in towns. […] Other ideas were based on religious or supernatural causes. Some people believed God was the cause, as a punishment for people’s sins. […] As no one knew exactly what caused the Black Death, they could do little to stop future outbreaks. […] It wasn’t until the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in the 1800s that it was discovered germs are the cause of disease. The plague bacteria was finally discovered by Alexandre Yersin in 1894. The bacteria was named after him; ‘Yersinia pestis.’

• #90 Causes and effects of the Black Death – Medieval medicine – KS3 History – homework help for year 7, 8 and 9. – BBC Bitesize

  https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zdkssk7

  The discovery that germs cause disease was not made until the 1800s. This meant there was a wide range of beliefs about what might be causing plague. […] Some of these were based on natural causes, such as miasma caused by the waste and poor sanitary conditions in towns. […] Other ideas were based on religious or supernatural causes. Some people believed God was the cause, as a punishment for people’s sins. […] As no one knew exactly what caused the Black Death, they could do little to stop future outbreaks. […] It wasn’t until the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in the 1800s that it was discovered germs are the cause of disease. The plague bacteria was finally discovered by Alexandre Yersin in 1894. The bacteria was named after him; ‘Yersinia pestis.’

• #91 Causes of Plague

  https://infectiousdiseases.edwardworthlibrary.ie/plague/causes/

  The cause of the Plague is either Internal or External: but unto which soever we impute it, it is necessary to conclude, that there is a power of dissolving the natural Consistence of the Blood, and depriving the whole Body of its strength. […] As to the outward Causes, every one confesseth that there are such; but their Nature is known but to few: […] If you enquire into the Cause hereof from others, their answer will be various, but most of them very idle and impertinent. […] We know that the Air may be several wayes corrupted; from whence the Vapors which have been received from the Earth, are sent down again amongst us, which like Fire may inkindle our Blood, Corrupt waters, Carcasses either not at all buried, or else shallowly interred; the South-Wind, which may be supposed to promote the Putrefaction; Men already infected, and successively imparting the Contagion to the sound, and by that means spreading the Venom through the Bodies of Men, and the Air it self.

• #92 Causes and effects of the Black Death – Medieval medicine – KS3 History – homework help for year 7, 8 and 9. – BBC Bitesize

  https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zdkssk7

  The discovery that germs cause disease was not made until the 1800s. This meant there was a wide range of beliefs about what might be causing plague. […] Some of these were based on natural causes, such as miasma caused by the waste and poor sanitary conditions in towns. […] Other ideas were based on religious or supernatural causes. Some people believed God was the cause, as a punishment for people’s sins. […] As no one knew exactly what caused the Black Death, they could do little to stop future outbreaks. […] It wasn’t until the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in the 1800s that it was discovered germs are the cause of disease. The plague bacteria was finally discovered by Alexandre Yersin in 1894. The bacteria was named after him; ‘Yersinia pestis.’

• #93 A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Bubonic plague hits San Francisco

  https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dm00bu.html

  Bubonic plague, or „the black death,” had raged throughout Europe and Asia over the past centuries. In the twentieth century, it came to America. […] In 1894, two research physicians had simultaneously and independently identified the bacillus that causes bubonic plague. Shibasaburo Kitasato published his findings in Japanese and English; Alexandre Yersin published in French. […] That the plague had an identifiable „germ” was known. But other recent findings had not been disseminated — or believed. Most people felt that the germ infected humans through food or open wounds. […] Knowledge, like illness, spreads. In the next few years, information about the plague’s causes and transmission would be clarified. […] In 1897, Japanese physician Masanori Ogata wrote „one should pay attention to insects like fleas for, as the rat becomes cold after death, they leave their host and may transmit the plague virus directly to man.” Paul Louis Simmond put all the accumulated observations together, made his own observations (societal and microscopic), and experimented with the bacillus, rats, and fleas. He proved that rat fleas bit people (which went against received wisdom), and that a sick animal could not transmit the disease if it didn’t have fleas. […] In 1908, issued a report confirming all of Simmond’s conclusions (though not crediting him).

• #94 Black Death | Definition, Cause, Symptoms, Effects, Death Toll, & Facts | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/event/Black-Death

  The Black Death is believed to have been the result of plague, an infectious fever caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. […] The Black Death is widely believed to have been the result of plague, caused by infection with the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Modern genetic analyses indicate that the strain of Y. pestis introduced during the Black Death is ancestral to all extant circulating Y. pestis strains known to cause disease in humans. Hence, the origin of modern plague epidemics lies in the medieval period. Other scientific evidence has indicated that the Black Death may have been viral in origin.

• #95 What causes buboes? – OER Project Blog – OER Project Teacher Community – OER Project Community

  https://community.oerproject.com/b/blog/posts/what-causes-buboes

  We know the immediate cause of the fourteenth-century buboes. Bubonic plague is transmitted to humans from rodents when a flea carrying the bacterium Yersinia pestis lodges in a persons skin and vomits into their bloodstream. […] Most historians and scientists theorized that Yersinia pestis caused the Black Death, but until 2011, some experts blamed other diseases. […] The genetic evidence shows us that, around 1200 CE, 150 years before the Black Death, Yersinia pestis evolved into four distinct variantsan event that the geneticists called the Big Bang. […] Dr. Green concluded that Mongol grain shipments from the Tian Shan mountains were to blame for the Big Bang. […] The fourteenth-century pandemic that we call the Black Death started as what Dr. Green calls spillover events from these plague reservoirs established by the Mongol conquests a century earlier. […] Hows that for causation?

• #96 Plague | Epidemic Control Toolkit

  https://epidemics.ifrc.org/volunteer/disease/plague

  Plague is caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, a zoonotic bacterium usually found in small mammals and their fleas. […] Plague is considered a serious zoonotic disease, and it has the potential to be used as a biological weapon. Biological agents like this can potentially lead to epidemics within a short time. […] All forms can be deadly if untreated, and pneumonic plague is always deadly if left untreated. […] Every person in the community is vulnerable to pneumonic plague, especially those without proper personal protective equipment who are in contact with others who have pneumonic plague.

• #97

  https://www.amerikanhastanesi.org/mayo-clinic-care-network/mayo-clinic-health-information-library/diseases-conditions/plague

  Plague is a serious illness caused by a germ called Yersinia pestis. The germs mostly live in small rodents and their fleas. The most common way for humans to get plague is a flea bite. […] Plague is caused by a bacteria called Yersinia pestis. The bacteria circulate in populations of small animals and their fleas. […] People are most likely to get plague from a flea bite. The fleas are likely to come from small wild animals or from pets. […] People also can get plague from direct contact with tissues of a sick animal. For example, a hunter can pick up the disease while skinning or handling an animal with the illness. […] Pneumonic plague can be passed from animals to humans, or from humans to humans. Tiny droplets in the air can carry the bacteria when a person or animal coughs or sneezes. People can become infected when they inhale the droplets or touch coughed-up mucus. […] The U.S. government considers plague a possible biological weapon. Evidence exists of it being used or developed as a weapon in the past. The U.S. government has guidelines for treatment and prevention of plague used as a weapon.

• #98 Plague Disease (Black Death): Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/plague/article_em.htm

  A person with primary or secondary septicemic plague (infection in the bloodstream with associated shock symptoms) has an approximate 40% death rate, even when treated. […] Pneumonic plague has about a 100% death rate if not treated within the first 24 hours. […] In the United States, most victims with human plague have the bubonic form. If the organisms were used as a biological warfare agent, it most likely would be spread through the air and inhaled by victims.

• #99 Plague | 5-Minute Clinical Consult

  https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/816402/all/Plague

  Plague is rare in most developed countries. […] Except for pockets in the Southwest United States, endemic plague and transmission to humans is rare. […] Plague outbreaks still occur in some less developed regions of the world. […] The risk of imported cases and the concern for bioterrorism (pneumonic plague) remain public health and security concerns. […] The pathophysiology of plague infection (e.g., bubonic, pneumonic, pharyngeal, meningeal, or septicemic) is determined by complex host-agent interactions. The clinical outcome depends on early diagnosis and specific therapy, to include supportive care and public health measures. […] Y. pestis is transmitted after the bite from a flea previously infected through a rodent host. It is also transmitted secondarily through contact with infected tissue (e.g., ingestion of contaminated meat or handling infected tissue) or by aerosol (pneumonic). […] Untreated bubonic plague may progress to secondary pneumonic plague, which can be spread by respiratory droplets. […] Pneumonic plague and the other plague syndromes, such as septicemic plague, are rare but usually fatal.

• #100

  https://www.amerikanhastanesi.org/mayo-clinic-care-network/mayo-clinic-health-information-library/diseases-conditions/plague

  Plague is a serious illness caused by a germ called Yersinia pestis. The germs mostly live in small rodents and their fleas. The most common way for humans to get plague is a flea bite. […] Plague is caused by a bacteria called Yersinia pestis. The bacteria circulate in populations of small animals and their fleas. […] People are most likely to get plague from a flea bite. The fleas are likely to come from small wild animals or from pets. […] People also can get plague from direct contact with tissues of a sick animal. For example, a hunter can pick up the disease while skinning or handling an animal with the illness. […] Pneumonic plague can be passed from animals to humans, or from humans to humans. Tiny droplets in the air can carry the bacteria when a person or animal coughs or sneezes. People can become infected when they inhale the droplets or touch coughed-up mucus. […] The U.S. government considers plague a possible biological weapon. Evidence exists of it being used or developed as a weapon in the past. The U.S. government has guidelines for treatment and prevention of plague used as a weapon.

• #101 Plague | 5-Minute Clinical Consult

  https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/816402/all/Plague

  Plague is rare in most developed countries. […] Except for pockets in the Southwest United States, endemic plague and transmission to humans is rare. […] Plague outbreaks still occur in some less developed regions of the world. […] The risk of imported cases and the concern for bioterrorism (pneumonic plague) remain public health and security concerns. […] The pathophysiology of plague infection (e.g., bubonic, pneumonic, pharyngeal, meningeal, or septicemic) is determined by complex host-agent interactions. The clinical outcome depends on early diagnosis and specific therapy, to include supportive care and public health measures. […] Y. pestis is transmitted after the bite from a flea previously infected through a rodent host. It is also transmitted secondarily through contact with infected tissue (e.g., ingestion of contaminated meat or handling infected tissue) or by aerosol (pneumonic). […] Untreated bubonic plague may progress to secondary pneumonic plague, which can be spread by respiratory droplets. […] Pneumonic plague and the other plague syndromes, such as septicemic plague, are rare but usually fatal.

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