Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Type 2 diabetes in children – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes-in-children/symptoms-causes/syc-20355318

  Type 2 diabetes in children is a chronic disease that affects the way your child’s body processes sugar (glucose) for fuel. Without treatment, the disorder causes sugar to build up in the bloodstream, which can lead to serious long-term consequences. […] The exact cause of type 2 diabetes is unknown. But family history and genetics appear to play an important role. What is clear is that children with type 2 diabetes can’t process sugar (glucose) properly. […] When your child has type 2 diabetes, this process doesn’t work as well. As a result, instead of fueling cells, sugar builds up in your child’s bloodstream. This can happen because: […] The pancreas may not make enough insulin […] The cells become resistant to insulin and don’t allow as much sugar in.

• #2 Type 2 Diabetes in Children – Stanford Medicine Children’s Health

  https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=type-2-diabetes-in-children-90-P01978

  Diabetes is a condition in which the body can’t make enough insulin, or can’t use insulin normally. Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder. […] The cause of type 2 diabetes is unknown. But it can run in families. It usually takes another factor, such as obesity, to bring on the condition. […] Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include family history, excess weight, and not enough exercise. […] Children at higher risk of type 2 diabetes should be screened. Screening is done with blood tests. […] Treatment includes a healthy diet, regular exercise, and weight loss. Medicines and insulin may be needed in some cases.

• #3 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431046/

  Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by peripheral insulin resistance, leading to hyperglycemia. Once considered a predominantly adult disease, it has become a pressing concern in the field of pediatrics due to its rising incidence, mainly attributable to lifestyle factors and childhood obesity. […] Hyperglycemia results when there is a relative lack of insulin compared to glucose in the blood. In T2DM, insulin resistance first leads to increased insulin production by the beta cells of the pancreas. Hyperglycemia damages multiple organs, including kidneys, eyes, heart, and nerves. Further, hyperglycemia puts children at risk for other electrolyte disturbances. […] There has been an increase in the diagnosis of T2DM secondary to the ever-increasing rates of obesity. The general cause of adult and T2DM is similar, with some pathophysiological differences as mentioned below.

• #4 Type 2 diabetes – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes/symptoms-causes/syc-20351193

  Type 2 diabetes is mainly the result of two issues: […] Cells in muscle, fat and the liver don’t respond to insulin as they should. As a result, the cells don’t take in enough sugar. […] The gland that makes insulin, called the pancreas, can’t make enough to keep blood sugar levels within a healthy range. […] Being overweight and not moving enough are key factors.

• #5 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview

  In individuals without diabetes, approximately 50% of their total daily insulin is secreted during basal periods to suppress lipolysis, proteolysis, and glycogenolysis. In response to a meal, rapid insulin secretion (also called first-phase insulin secretion) ensues. This secretion facilitates the peripheral use of the prandial nutrient load, suppresses hepatic glucose production, and limits postprandial elevations in glucose levels. The second phase of insulin secretion follows and is sustained until normoglycemia is restored. A simplified scheme for the etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus is shown in the image below. […] Type 2 diabetes spans a continuum from impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose to frank diabetes that results from progressive deterioration of insulin secretion and action. Although the first phase of insulin response is markedly reduced early in the course of the disease, ongoing disorganized basal insulin secretion associated with deterioration of peripheral insulin action occurs during the progression from normal to impaired glucose tolerance to frank diabetes.

• #6 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview

  In parallel, as a result of decreased insulin sensitivity in the liver, endogenous glucose output increase adds to the already hyperglycemic milieu, worsening peripheral insulin resistance and beta cell function. Failure of the beta cell to keep up with the peripheral insulin resistance is the basis for the progression from impaired glucose tolerance to overt clinical type 2 diabetes. Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that during the transition between normal glucose tolerance to diabetes, 31% of a person’s insulin-mediated glucose disposal capacity, as well as 78% of his or her acute insulin response, is lost. […] The major risk factors for type 2 diabetes in young persons are as follows: Obesity and inactivity, which are important contributors to insulin resistance; Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian, or Pacific Islander descent; Family history of type 2 diabetes in first- and second-degree relatives; Age of 12-16 years, the mean age range of onset of type 2 diabetes in youths – These ages coincide with the relative insulin resistance that occurs during pubertal development; Low birth weight and high birth weight; Maternal gestational diabetes or type 2 diabetes; Not breastfed during infancy.

• #7 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview

  In parallel, as a result of decreased insulin sensitivity in the liver, endogenous glucose output increase adds to the already hyperglycemic milieu, worsening peripheral insulin resistance and beta cell function. Failure of the beta cell to keep up with the peripheral insulin resistance is the basis for the progression from impaired glucose tolerance to overt clinical type 2 diabetes. Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that during the transition between normal glucose tolerance to diabetes, 31% of a person’s insulin-mediated glucose disposal capacity, as well as 78% of his or her acute insulin response, is lost. […] The major risk factors for type 2 diabetes in young persons are as follows: Obesity and inactivity, which are important contributors to insulin resistance; Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian, or Pacific Islander descent; Family history of type 2 diabetes in first- and second-degree relatives; Age of 12-16 years, the mean age range of onset of type 2 diabetes in youths – These ages coincide with the relative insulin resistance that occurs during pubertal development; Low birth weight and high birth weight; Maternal gestational diabetes or type 2 diabetes; Not breastfed during infancy.

• #8 Genetics of Diabetes | American Diabetes Association

  https://diabetes.org/about-diabetes/genetics-diabetes

  Type 2 diabetes has a stronger link to family history and lineage than type 1, and studies of twins have shown that genetics play a very strong role in the development of type 2 diabetes. […] Yet it also depends on environmental factors. Lifestyle also influences the development of type 2 diabetes. Obesity tends to run in families, and families often have similar eating and exercise habits. […] If you have a family history of type 2 diabetes, it may be difficult to figure out whether your diabetes is due to lifestyle factors or genetics. Most likely it is due to both. […] Type 2 diabetes runs in families. In part, this is due to children learning bad habits—eating a poor diet, not exercising—from their parents. But there is also a genetic basis.

• #9 What causes type 2 diabetes? | Diabetes UK

  https://www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/type-2-diabetes/causes

  Type 2 diabetes in children is less common than it is in adults but the causes are the same. Living with obesity or overweight is the main factor along with ethnicity and family history. […] Having obesity is the biggest risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes as this can cause insulin resistance. But not everyone who is living with obesity or overweight develops type 2 diabetes as it is also linked to family history (genetics). […] If your family has a history of diabetes, it increases your risk of type 2 diabetes. If you have a close blood relative with diabetes, youre two to six times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes.

• #10 Type 2 Diabetes: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21501-type-2-diabetes

  Researchers have identified at least 150 DNA variations linked to the risk of developing T2D some increase your risk and others decrease it. […] You’re more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes if you have a family history of Type 2 diabetes (biological parent or sibling), Are older than 45, Have overweight or obesity (a BMI greater than 25), Are physically active less than three times a week, Are Black, Hispanic, Native American, Asian American or Pacific Islander, Had gestational diabetes while pregnant, Have high blood pressure and/or high cholesterol, Have prediabetes, Have polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS).

• #11 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  Type 2 diabetes is disproportionately prevalent among certain racial/ethnic groups, such as Native American, Hispanic, and African American populations. […] Low birth weight and being born to a mother who had gestational diabetes increase the risk of developing obesity, IGT, and type 2 diabetes later in life. […] In observational studies, breastfeeding appears protective against later development of obesity and type 2 diabetes. […] There is a high concordance rate of type 2 diabetes in identical twins. […] Type 2 diabetes is typically considered in pubertal youth with obesity, a family history of type 2 diabetes, features of the metabolic syndrome, and/or absent islet autoantibodies. […] Insulin resistance is thought to be the primary cause of type 2 diabetes development. […] Age at diagnosis varies among patients within pediatric type 2 diabetes.

• #12 Type 2 Diabetes: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21501-type-2-diabetes

  Type 2 diabetes happens when your body cant use insulin properly. […] T2D happens because your pancreas doesnt make enough insulin (a hormone), your body doesnt use insulin properly, or both. […] The main cause of Type 2 diabetes is insulin resistance. […] Insulin resistance happens when cells in your muscles, fat and liver dont respond as they should to insulin. […] Several factors can contribute to insulin resistance, including: Genetics, Excess body fat, especially in your belly and around your organs (visceral fat), Physical inactivity, Eating highly processed, high-carbohydrate foods and saturated fats frequently, Certain medications, like long-term corticosteroid use, Hormonal disorders, like hypothyroidism and Cushing syndrome, Chronic stress and a lack of quality sleep. […] The cause of T2D is complex, but researchers know that genetics play a strong role.

• #13 Type 2 Diabetes: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21501-type-2-diabetes

  Researchers have identified at least 150 DNA variations linked to the risk of developing T2D some increase your risk and others decrease it. […] You’re more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes if you have a family history of Type 2 diabetes (biological parent or sibling), Are older than 45, Have overweight or obesity (a BMI greater than 25), Are physically active less than three times a week, Are Black, Hispanic, Native American, Asian American or Pacific Islander, Had gestational diabetes while pregnant, Have high blood pressure and/or high cholesterol, Have prediabetes, Have polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS).

• #14 Child Type 2 Diabetes: Symptoms, Causes & Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/diabetes/type-2-diabetes-in-children

  Years ago, it was rare to hear about a child with type 2 diabetes. […] The single biggest cause of type 2 diabetes in children is extra weight. In the U.S., nearly 1 out of every 3 children are overweight. Once a child gets too heavy, they’re twice as likely to get diabetes. […] One or more of these things may contribute to extra weight or obesity: Unhealthy eating, Lack of physical activity, Family members (alive or dead) who’ve been overweight, Rarely, a hormone problem or other medical condition. […] As with adults, type 2 diabetes is more likely to affect children who carry extra weight around the middle. […] The same steps used to treat type 2 diabetes in children can also prevent it. Reduce calories, processed starchy foods, unhealthy fats, and sweets in your child’s diet. Make sure they get physical activity each day. Studies show that exercise has a dramatic effect on reducing insulin resistance. These are two important ways to help your child get down to and stay at a healthy weight and normal blood sugar levels.

• #15 Diabetes in children and teenagers: Symptoms and diagnosis

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/284974

  Type 2 diabetes is less common in young children, but it can occur when insulin is not working correctly. Without enough insulin, glucose can accumulate in the bloodstream. […] The rates of type 2 diabetes are increasing along with increases in childhood obesity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report that obesity affected around 18.5% of children and adolescents aged 2-19 years in the U.S. in 2015-2016. […] Over 75% of children with type 2 diabetes have a close relative who has it, either due to genetics or shared lifestyle habits. Having a parent or sibling with type 2 diabetes is linked with an increased risk. […] Without treatment, type 2 diabetes appears to progress faster in young people than in adults. […] Type 2 diabetes in children often occurs with obesity, which may contribute to these higher risks. Obesity affects the body’s ability to use insulin, leading to abnormal blood sugar levels.

• #16 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents

  Type 2 diabetes, once rare in children, has been increasing in frequency in parallel with the increase in childhood obesity. […] Approximately 80% of children with type 2 diabetes have obesity. […] However, there is considerable heterogeneity, and the relationship between obesity and age at onset of type 2 diabetes is less clear in some ethnicities (eg, South Asian children). […] In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas produces insulin, but there are varying degrees of insulin resistance, and insulin secretion is inadequate to meet the increased demand caused by insulin resistance (ie, there is relative insulin deficiency). […] The cause of type 2 diabetes is not autoimmune destruction of beta-cells but rather a complex interaction between many genes and environmental factors, which differ among different populations and patients.

• #17 Type 2 diabetes is becoming more common in children

  https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/type-2-diabetes-is-becoming-more-common-in-children/

  The number of children being diagnosed with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes is rising, but new cases of type 2 diabetes, the form associated with being overweight, has risen five-fold in about five years. […] Type 2 diabetes now accounts for up to a third of diabetes diagnoses in children. […] Children who are obese have about a four times greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes compared with those of a normal weight. […] The study also confirms the strong link between obesity and type 2 diabetes in children. […] This highlights the need to find ways of promoting healthy lifestyles and habits in childhood alongside education initiatives for families, to minimise the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. […] Obesity may drive diabetes by increasing peripheral tissue insulin resistance (type 2 diabetes). […] This study shows that while there is no clear relationship between the rise in obesity and the rise in type 1 diabetes, there is a relationship between obesity and type 2 diabetes.

• #18 What causes type 2 diabetes? | Diabetes UK

  https://www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/type-2-diabetes/causes

  Type 2 diabetes is high blood sugar levels caused by a lack of a hormone called insulin. Either your body isnt making enough or the insulin it makes doesnt work properly. This is sometimes called insulin resistance. […] The main causes of type 2 diabetes are: Living with obesity or overweight. Your waist measurement is unhealthy for your gender or ethnicity. Too much fat stored in or around your liver and pancreas which can affect people of a healthy weight as well as people living with obesity or overweight. Other factors that put you at greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes include high blood pressure, age, ethnicity and family history. We call them the risk factors of type 2 diabetes. […] If you live with obesity or overweight, its harder for your body to manage the levels of sugar in your blood, and having a high waist measurement means youre more at risk of insulin resistance. Our research has linked type 2 diabetes with fat surrounding the liver and pancreas.

• #19 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Knowable Magazine

  https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/health-disease/2024/type-2-diabetes-children

  Even with treatment, young people develop other medical problems related to diabetes faster than adults, according to a study that followed 500 youths, more than one-third of them Hispanic. […] In type 2 diabetes, the body struggles to use insulin effectively. […] Various factors have been linked to insulin resistance in childhood or adolescence, including obesity, inactivity and genetics, according to a review of the causes of type 2 diabetes in youths published in the 2022 Annual Review of Medicine. […] Obesity is also a contributing factor: Slightly more than one-fourth of Hispanic youths are obese, a higher percentage than for any other major racial or ethnic group. […] Children also are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes if their mother has the disease or developed gestational diabetes during pregnancy.

• #20 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Knowable Magazine

  https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/health-disease/2024/type-2-diabetes-children

  Puberty is also highly influential most cases are diagnosed after its onset. […] American Diabetes Association guidelines recommend that clinicians screen overweight or obese youths for the disease starting at age 10 or once puberty starts, whichever is earlier, if they have one or more risk factors. […] Where an adolescent carries any excess pounds also matters, as insulin resistance has been associated with a type of fat called visceral fat. […] Roughly one-fourth of youths with type 2 diabetes are not obese, according to a meta-analysis published in 2022 in JAMA Network Open. […] Moreover, while obesity and insulin resistance boost the risk of developing diabetes, those factors alone dont predict whether an adolescent is eventually diagnosed with the disease, according to the authors of the Annual Review of Medicine overview.

• #21 Type 2 diabetes in children: Symptoms, causes, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322919

  According to the CDC, type 2 diabetes is more common among people who are African American, Hispanic or Latino American, American Indian, or Alaska Native. Some Pacific Islanders and Asian Americans are also at higher risk. […] Type 2 diabetes is becoming more common in children as rates of childhood obesity continue to increase.

• #22 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents

  Type 2 diabetes in children is different than type 2 diabetes in adults. […] In children, decline in beta-cell function and development of diabetes-related complications are accelerated. […] Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander heritage, family history (60 to 90% have a first- or second-degree relative with type 2 diabetes), maternal history of type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes during pregnancy, and current use of atypical antipsychotic medications.

• #23 Pediatric Diabetes, Type 1 and Type 2 – Conditions and Treatments | Children’s National Hospital

  https://www.childrensnational.org/get-care/health-library/diabetes-type-1-and-type-2

  Type 2 diabetes happens when the body can’t make enough insulin. Or the body can’t use it normally. Your child may be able to control type 2 with diet, exercise, and weight loss. Your child can control it by taking medicine by mouth. Or your child may need insulin injections or other medicine. Most people with diabetes have type 2 diabetes. […] Things that put your child at risk for type 2 diabetes include: prediabetes, excess weight, family history of type 2 diabetes, being age 35 or older, history of gestational diabetes, and not being physically active. […] Your child may be at higher risk if they are: African American, Hispanic American, American Indian, Alaska Native, Pacific Islander, or Asian American. […] Your child can delay or prevent type 2 diabetes with: physical activity, weight loss, and healthy eating.

• #24 Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – Diabetes Canada

  https://www.diabetes.ca/health-care-providers/clinical-practice-guidelines/chapter-35

  Anticipatory guidance regarding healthy eating, physical activity, limiting screen time and age-appropriate sleep duration/quality is recommended to prevent type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents. […] Type 2 diabetes in children has increased in frequency around the world over the past 2 decades. […] Children from ethnic groups at high risk for type 2 diabetes in their adult populations, namely those of African, Arab, Asian, Hispanic, Indigenous or South Asian descent, are disproportionately affected. […] Type 2 diabetes is a highly heritable condition, with 90% of children and youth affected having a first- or second-degree relative who also has type 2 diabetes. […] Obesity is a major risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes. […] Risk factors for the development of type 2 diabetes in children include a history of type 2 diabetes in a first- or second-degree relative, being a member of a high-risk population, obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, polycystic ovary syndrome, exposure to diabetes in utero, acanthosis nigricans, hypertension and dyslipidemia, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

• #25 Type 1 vs. Type 2 Diabetes: Difference, Symptoms, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/difference-between-type-1-and-type-2-diabetes

  Risk factors for type 2 diabetes may include: prediabetes, or slightly elevated blood sugar levels; excess weight or obesity; excess of belly fat; physical inactivity (sedentary life); age (over 45); history of gestational diabetes (diabetes during pregnancy); birthing a baby weighing more than 9 pounds; family history of type 2 diabetes; polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). […] Because of many structural and systemic inequities that contribute to healthcare disparities, diabetes type 2 may be more common among Black, Hispanic or Latino, American Indian, or Alaska Native communities. […] Type 2 diabetes can be managed and even prevented with diet and exercise, but some people may need extra support. If lifestyle changes arent enough, a doctor may prescribe medications that help your body use insulin more effectively. […] Type 1 diabetes cant be prevented. It may be possible to lower your risk of developing type 2 diabetes through lifestyle changes.

• #26 Preventing Type 2 Diabetes in Kids | Diabetes | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/prevention-type-2/type-2-diabetes-in-kids.html

  Many people think that only older adults can develop type 2 diabetes, but kids and teens can get it too. […] Type 2 diabetes is increasing in kids and teens in the United States. […] Insulin resistance (when you can’t use insulin properly) is a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes for kids and adults. […] Being physically inactive increases the risk for type 2 diabetes. […] Kids who develop type 2 diabetes are usually diagnosed in their early teens. […] This is especially true for girls, who are more likely than boys to develop type 2 diabetes. […] Having a family member with type 2 diabetes. […] Being born to someone with gestational diabetes (diabetes while pregnant). […] Having overweight, obesity, high blood pressure, or high cholesterol. […] If your child has any two risk factors listed above, talk to your doctor about getting their blood sugar tested.

• #27 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Knowable Magazine

  https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/health-disease/2024/type-2-diabetes-children

  Puberty is also highly influential most cases are diagnosed after its onset. […] American Diabetes Association guidelines recommend that clinicians screen overweight or obese youths for the disease starting at age 10 or once puberty starts, whichever is earlier, if they have one or more risk factors. […] Where an adolescent carries any excess pounds also matters, as insulin resistance has been associated with a type of fat called visceral fat. […] Roughly one-fourth of youths with type 2 diabetes are not obese, according to a meta-analysis published in 2022 in JAMA Network Open. […] Moreover, while obesity and insulin resistance boost the risk of developing diabetes, those factors alone dont predict whether an adolescent is eventually diagnosed with the disease, according to the authors of the Annual Review of Medicine overview.

• #28 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431046/

  Risk factors for children are similar to those in adults: ethnicity, family history, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle. However, presentation and management differ from adults with the disorder. […] It is important to note that visceral obesity, rather than BMI, may be a better predictor for the complications of insulin resistance, including T2DM and hypertension. […] Independent of obesity, certain ethnicities have higher risks of insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction. In addition, hormonal changes at puberty result in temporary insulin resistance, leading to hyperglycemia and the risk of developing T2DM. […] There are significant long-term complications for children with T2DM, and they often occur earlier in the disease course than their adult counterparts. Evidence shows that these patients begin to experience renal and neurological complications within 10 years of the disease, including the need for dialysis, amputation, and blindness.

• #29 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  Several factors, including genetics, family history, diet, physical activity, obesity, and insulin resistance in puberty, appear to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in youth. […] The rise in type 2 diabetes largely parallels the rise in childhood obesity. […] Understanding the spectrum of phenotypes and causes of type 2 diabetes in children will bring us closer to that goal. […] Obesity predisposes to type 2 diabetes by decreasing insulin sensitivity in multiple tissues. […] A diet high in calories, saturated or trans fat, and carbohydrates has been implicated in the development of type 2 diabetes. […] Physical activity promotes glucose use for energy and improves insulin sensitivity. […] Puberty is associated with a transient physiological decrease in insulin sensitivity. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified more than 65 genetic variants that increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

• #30 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  As opposed to type 1 diabetes, which is slightly more common in males, type 2 diabetes is more prevalent in females, especially at younger ages. […] Although islet autoantibody positivity supports a diagnosis of type 1 diabetes, it is found in only a small percentage of children with a clinical diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. […] The classical features of type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes, and maturity-onset diabetes in the young (MODY) overlap considerably. […] Youth with type 2 diabetes typically are more obese than older adults with type 2 diabetes. […] More rapid progression of complications also appear to be prominent in youth-onset type 2 diabetes. […] Type 2 diabetes in youth is influenced by a combination of risk factors, resulting in heterogeneity in the presentation and progression of disease.

• #31 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  Several factors, including genetics, family history, diet, physical activity, obesity, and insulin resistance in puberty, appear to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in youth. […] The rise in type 2 diabetes largely parallels the rise in childhood obesity. […] Understanding the spectrum of phenotypes and causes of type 2 diabetes in children will bring us closer to that goal. […] Obesity predisposes to type 2 diabetes by decreasing insulin sensitivity in multiple tissues. […] A diet high in calories, saturated or trans fat, and carbohydrates has been implicated in the development of type 2 diabetes. […] Physical activity promotes glucose use for energy and improves insulin sensitivity. […] Puberty is associated with a transient physiological decrease in insulin sensitivity. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified more than 65 genetic variants that increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

• #32 Child Type 2 Diabetes: Symptoms, Causes & Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/diabetes/type-2-diabetes-in-children

  Years ago, it was rare to hear about a child with type 2 diabetes. […] The single biggest cause of type 2 diabetes in children is extra weight. In the U.S., nearly 1 out of every 3 children are overweight. Once a child gets too heavy, they’re twice as likely to get diabetes. […] One or more of these things may contribute to extra weight or obesity: Unhealthy eating, Lack of physical activity, Family members (alive or dead) who’ve been overweight, Rarely, a hormone problem or other medical condition. […] As with adults, type 2 diabetes is more likely to affect children who carry extra weight around the middle. […] The same steps used to treat type 2 diabetes in children can also prevent it. Reduce calories, processed starchy foods, unhealthy fats, and sweets in your child’s diet. Make sure they get physical activity each day. Studies show that exercise has a dramatic effect on reducing insulin resistance. These are two important ways to help your child get down to and stay at a healthy weight and normal blood sugar levels.

• #33 Preventing Type 2 Diabetes in Kids | Diabetes | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/prevention-type-2/type-2-diabetes-in-kids.html

  Many people think that only older adults can develop type 2 diabetes, but kids and teens can get it too. […] Type 2 diabetes is increasing in kids and teens in the United States. […] Insulin resistance (when you can’t use insulin properly) is a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes for kids and adults. […] Being physically inactive increases the risk for type 2 diabetes. […] Kids who develop type 2 diabetes are usually diagnosed in their early teens. […] This is especially true for girls, who are more likely than boys to develop type 2 diabetes. […] Having a family member with type 2 diabetes. […] Being born to someone with gestational diabetes (diabetes while pregnant). […] Having overweight, obesity, high blood pressure, or high cholesterol. […] If your child has any two risk factors listed above, talk to your doctor about getting their blood sugar tested.

• #34 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  Several factors, including genetics, family history, diet, physical activity, obesity, and insulin resistance in puberty, appear to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in youth. […] The rise in type 2 diabetes largely parallels the rise in childhood obesity. […] Understanding the spectrum of phenotypes and causes of type 2 diabetes in children will bring us closer to that goal. […] Obesity predisposes to type 2 diabetes by decreasing insulin sensitivity in multiple tissues. […] A diet high in calories, saturated or trans fat, and carbohydrates has been implicated in the development of type 2 diabetes. […] Physical activity promotes glucose use for energy and improves insulin sensitivity. […] Puberty is associated with a transient physiological decrease in insulin sensitivity. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified more than 65 genetic variants that increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

• #35 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  Several factors, including genetics, family history, diet, physical activity, obesity, and insulin resistance in puberty, appear to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in youth. […] The rise in type 2 diabetes largely parallels the rise in childhood obesity. […] Understanding the spectrum of phenotypes and causes of type 2 diabetes in children will bring us closer to that goal. […] Obesity predisposes to type 2 diabetes by decreasing insulin sensitivity in multiple tissues. […] A diet high in calories, saturated or trans fat, and carbohydrates has been implicated in the development of type 2 diabetes. […] Physical activity promotes glucose use for energy and improves insulin sensitivity. […] Puberty is associated with a transient physiological decrease in insulin sensitivity. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified more than 65 genetic variants that increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

• #36 Diabetes, Type 2 in Children: Causes, Symptoms, and Management • Yesil Health

  https://yesilhealth.com/your-health/diabetes-type-2-in-children-causes-symptoms-and-management-2/

  In addition to insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion, other factors can contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes in children. […] Consuming a diet high in sugar, salt, and unhealthy fats can increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. […] Chronic sleep deprivation can disrupt insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism. […] Taking certain medications, such as steroids and certain psychiatric medications, can increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. […] Exposure to environmental toxins, such as pesticides and heavy metals, has been linked to an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. […] By understanding the causes and risk factors of type 2 diabetes in children, parents and caregivers can take proactive steps to reduce the risk of developing this condition.

• #37 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Knowable Magazine

  https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/health-disease/2024/type-2-diabetes-children

  What we see in the youth is that beta cell function fails very rapidly. […] Its unknown whether specific racial or ethnic groups are more vulnerable to loss of beta cell function. […] Stress induces certain hormones that antagonize insulin, so they create more insulin resistance. […] Young people experience many of the risk factors that predispose people to type 2 diabetes, such as prenatal exposures, junk food, sedentary lifestyles and high levels of stress. […] One analysis found that Hispanic youths who lived in neighborhoods with higher levels of air pollution were more likely to experience a breakdown in beta cell function. […] Families dealing with food insecurity, Isasi says, probably have a lower-quality diet and skimp on costlier protein and fresh produce. […] Preventing diabetes has proved challenging. […] Approved medication options remain limited for children and teens. […] If someone is predisposed to beta cell dysfunction, should we be much more aggressive in treating their overweight/obesity, Bacha says, so that this beta cell function is preserved for a longer period of time?

• #38 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117853-overview

  Some studies suggest that environmental pollutants may play a role in the development and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus. […] The etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus appears to involve complex interactions between environmental and genetic factors. […] The body mass index (BMI) at which excess weight increases risk for diabetes varies with different racial groups. […] In addition, an in utero environment resulting in low birth weight may predispose some individuals to develop type 2 diabetes mellitus. […] A meta-analysis of two studies indicated that a genetically associated low birth weight increases an individual’s risk for developing type 2 diabetes.

• #39 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  Type 2 diabetes is disproportionately prevalent among certain racial/ethnic groups, such as Native American, Hispanic, and African American populations. […] Low birth weight and being born to a mother who had gestational diabetes increase the risk of developing obesity, IGT, and type 2 diabetes later in life. […] In observational studies, breastfeeding appears protective against later development of obesity and type 2 diabetes. […] There is a high concordance rate of type 2 diabetes in identical twins. […] Type 2 diabetes is typically considered in pubertal youth with obesity, a family history of type 2 diabetes, features of the metabolic syndrome, and/or absent islet autoantibodies. […] Insulin resistance is thought to be the primary cause of type 2 diabetes development. […] Age at diagnosis varies among patients within pediatric type 2 diabetes.

• #40 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117853-overview

  Some studies suggest that environmental pollutants may play a role in the development and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus. […] The etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus appears to involve complex interactions between environmental and genetic factors. […] The body mass index (BMI) at which excess weight increases risk for diabetes varies with different racial groups. […] In addition, an in utero environment resulting in low birth weight may predispose some individuals to develop type 2 diabetes mellitus. […] A meta-analysis of two studies indicated that a genetically associated low birth weight increases an individual’s risk for developing type 2 diabetes.

• #41 Causes of childhood diabetes: How disease passes from mothers to children

  https://today.usc.edu/how-diabetes-passes-from-mothers-to-children/

  Type 2 diabetes, once known as adult onset diabetes because it was virtually unknown in children, has bloomed with malice in kids as young as 10 years old. […] Children who are born to mothers who are obese or diabetic face up to tenfold higher risk, she said. […] It turns out that embryos in the womb of a diabetic or obese mother develop in an altered nutritional environment. […] It contributes to changes in the areas in the brain that control appetite, she said. That has a lot to do with obesity risk, and the risk of Type 2 diabetes. […] Page said diabetes is hard enough on middle-agers who develop the disease, but a lot of these risks are now starting at 10 to 12 years old. […] The next step, Page said, would be to study possible intervention strategies, such as exercise programs, which have been shown to mitigate risk for diabetes in animals born to mothers with obesity or diabetes. […] But one known brain connection is another cause for urgency in the search. There are links between diabetes and Alzheimers, Page said. If children have diabetes at age 10, whats going to happen to them down the road?

• #42 Diabetes in young children | Pregnancy Birth and Baby

  https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/diabetes-in-young-children

  Type 2 diabetes develops when the body stops using insulin properly. Type 2 diabetes is becoming more common in younger adults, but it is very rare in young children. […] The causes of type 1 diabetes are not known, although it can run in families. There is nothing you can do to prevent your child from developing type 1 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes also runs in families, but there are other risk factors, including: being overweight or living with obesity, having an unhealthy diet, not getting enough physical activity. […] If you had diabetes when you were pregnant (gestational diabetes), you and your baby are at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.

• #43 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview

  In a retrospective cohort study of more than 43,000 individuals, study participants who were prescribed antipsychotics were significantly more likely to develop type 2 diabetes within the first year of use compared with matched controls who were not prescribed these medications. The risk increased with higher medication doses and remained elevated for up to 1 year after the medications were discontinued. The association between antipsychotic use and type 2 diabetes remained highly significant when only participants younger than 18 years were assessed.

• #44 Diabetes: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/7104-diabetes

  Type 2 diabetes: With this type, your body doesnt make enough insulin and/or your bodys cells dont respond normally to the insulin (insulin resistance). This is the most common type of diabetes. It mainly affects adults, but children can have it as well. […] Causes of diabetes include: Insulin resistance: Type 2 diabetes mainly results from insulin resistance. Insulin resistance happens when cells in your muscles, fat and liver dont respond as they should to insulin. Several factors and conditions contribute to varying degrees of insulin resistance, including obesity, lack of physical activity, diet, hormonal imbalances, genetics and certain medications. […] Long-term use of certain medications can also lead to Type 2 diabetes, including HIV/AIDS medications and corticosteroids.

• #45 Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents

  https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/june/type-2-diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescen

  Other comorbidities associated with obesity and insulin resistance, such as polycystic ovarian syndrome in females, obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA), psychiatric illness and orthopaedic problems, are common. […] T2DM in children and adolescents is a serious medical concern that is more aggressive than the adult-onset form, more challenging to diagnose, and has limited available treatment options.

• #46 Diabetes Mellitus (DM) in Children and Adolescents – Children’s Health Issues – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/children-s-health-issues/hormonal-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-dm-in-children-and-adolescents

  Other children at higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes include those who have high blood pressure, high blood levels of lipids (fats), obstructive sleep apnea, dark and thick skinfolds on the nape of the neck (acanthosis nigricans), fatty liver, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), or a small-for-gestational-age birth weight. […] Have a mother who had diabetes while pregnant (gestational diabetes) or who has a history of type 2 diabetes. […] Are not physically active.

• #47 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  As opposed to type 1 diabetes, which is slightly more common in males, type 2 diabetes is more prevalent in females, especially at younger ages. […] Although islet autoantibody positivity supports a diagnosis of type 1 diabetes, it is found in only a small percentage of children with a clinical diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. […] The classical features of type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes, and maturity-onset diabetes in the young (MODY) overlap considerably. […] Youth with type 2 diabetes typically are more obese than older adults with type 2 diabetes. […] More rapid progression of complications also appear to be prominent in youth-onset type 2 diabetes. […] Type 2 diabetes in youth is influenced by a combination of risk factors, resulting in heterogeneity in the presentation and progression of disease.

• #48 Type 2 diabetes – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_2_diabetes

  Type 2 diabetes primarily occurs as a result of obesity and lack of exercise. Some people are genetically more at risk than others. […] The development of type 2 diabetes is caused by a combination of lifestyle and genetic factors. While some of these factors are under personal control, such as diet and obesity, other factors are not, such as increasing age, female sex, and genetics. […] Lifestyle factors are important to the development of type 2 diabetes, including obesity and being overweight (defined by a body mass index of greater than 25), lack of physical activity, poor diet, psychological stress, and urbanization. […] Most cases of diabetes involve many genes, with each being a small contributor to an increased probability of becoming a type 2 diabetic. The proportion of diabetes that is inherited is estimated at 72%. […] There are a number of medications and other health problems that can predispose to diabetes. Some of the medications include: glucocorticoids, thiazides, beta blockers, atypical antipsychotics, and statins.

• #49 Diabetes and Children: Symptoms and Causes

  https://patient.info/childrens-health/diabetes-in-children

  Type 2 diabetes more often starts in later life but is becoming more common in children due to increasing numbers of children being overweight, with poor diet and less physical activity. […] There are several risk factors for developing type 2 diabetes. These include ethnic group, genetics, and lifestyle. In some cases, unlike type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes can be prevented by changing some lifestyle issues, such as improving diet, avoiding being overweight and having regular physical exercise. […] Therefore, the risk factors for type 2 diabetes in children include: Being overweight or having inactive lifestyles. Family history of diabetes (2-6 times more likely to have diabetes than people without a family history). The risk of developing type 2 diabetes is about 15 in 100 if one parent has type 2 diabetes, and 75 in 100 if both parents have type 2 diabetes. Asian, African, and Afro-Caribbean ethnic groups are 2-4 times more likely than white people to develop type 2 diabetes. […] Type 2 diabetes can be preventable through lifestyle changes. The risk of type 2 diabetes can be reduced through healthy eating, regular exercise and achieving or maintaining a healthy body weight.

• #50 Pediatric pre-diabetes – Children’s Health Endocrinology

  https://www.childrens.com/specialties-services/conditions/pre-diabetes

  Pediatric pre-diabetes happens when blood glucose levels become high enough to put your child at risk for developing type 2 diabetes. […] Most people think of children having type 1 diabetes (sometimes called juvenile diabetes). However, children can also get type 2 diabetes. Having pre-diabetes puts your child at risk for developing type 2 diabetes. […] If your child has pre-diabetes, it means their pancreas is not making enough insulin (hormone that regulates the amount of glucose in the blood) or their body is becoming insulin resistant. This means the insulin isn’t breaking down glucose properly, so glucose builds up in the bloodstream. […] Risk factors that may increase your child’s risk for developing pre-diabetes include: Birth weight over nine pounds, Eating high fat, processed foods, Having a parent/sibling with pre-diabetes or type 2 diabetes, Lack of physical activity, Larger than average waist circumference, Mother with gestational diabetes during pregnancy, Obesity. […] Pre-diabetes may be caused by: Genetics, Having excess abdominal fat, Not getting enough physical activity.

• #51 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents

  Type 2 diabetes in children is different than type 2 diabetes in adults. […] In children, decline in beta-cell function and development of diabetes-related complications are accelerated. […] Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander heritage, family history (60 to 90% have a first- or second-degree relative with type 2 diabetes), maternal history of type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes during pregnancy, and current use of atypical antipsychotic medications.

• #52 Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents

  https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/june/type-2-diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescen

  The incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in children and adolescents is increasing, mirroring the epidemic of paediatric obesity. […] Risk factors for T2DM include obesity, ethnicity and family history, and adolescence is a predisposing time for the development of T2DM due to physiological insulin resistance. Early-onset T2DM is more associated with shorter duration to insulin requirement, development of diabetic complications and cardiovascular disease than adult-onset T2DM and T1DM. […] T2DM in children and adolescents appears to be a more aggressive disease than late-onset T2DM. […] T2DM and pre-diabetes with dysregulated glucose or insulin metabolism is integrally related to obesity, and is increasingly being seen in youth attending specialist obesity services. […] Early-onset T2DM is associated with significant long-term morbidity and mortality.

• #53 Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents

  https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/june/type-2-diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescen

  Complications of diabetes are also common and present even earlier than in adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). […] Acquiring T2DM and its comorbidities at a younger age not only affects an individuals ability to fully participate in study and work, but also increases morbidity and mortality during the years of peak earning and working capacity. […] The prevalence of T2DM in children and adolescents has increased around the world, in parallel with the increase in the rate of obesity. […] Early-onset T2DM most commonly occurs during adolescence and rarely beforehand. […] The presentation of T2DM varies from asymptomatic hyperglycaemia in a well child, perhaps detected through incidental testing, to ketoacidosis in up to 25% of patients. […] Youth with newly diagnosed T2DM have a high prevalence of complications relating to diabetes and obesity at presentation.

• #54 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Knowable Magazine

  https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/health-disease/2024/type-2-diabetes-children

  Even with treatment, young people develop other medical problems related to diabetes faster than adults, according to a study that followed 500 youths, more than one-third of them Hispanic. […] In type 2 diabetes, the body struggles to use insulin effectively. […] Various factors have been linked to insulin resistance in childhood or adolescence, including obesity, inactivity and genetics, according to a review of the causes of type 2 diabetes in youths published in the 2022 Annual Review of Medicine. […] Obesity is also a contributing factor: Slightly more than one-fourth of Hispanic youths are obese, a higher percentage than for any other major racial or ethnic group. […] Children also are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes if their mother has the disease or developed gestational diabetes during pregnancy.

• #55 Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – Diabetes Canada

  https://www.diabetes.ca/health-care-providers/clinical-practice-guidelines/chapter-35

  In children with obesity, family-based healthy behaviour interventions, which include physical activity, healthy nutrition and mental health supports have been shown to result in a modest decrease in body mass index (BMI) and improvements in metabolic health parameters. […] Bariatric surgery may be considered in adolescents with severe obesity who have reached their final adult height and have undergone a comprehensive assessment by an expert interprofessional team. […] Youth with type 2 diabetes appear to be at significantly higher risk of developing earlier and severe microvascular and cardiovascular disease compared to youth with type 1 diabetes. […] Short-term complications of type 2 diabetes in children include DKA and HHS; 10% of Canadian youth present with DKA at the time of diagnosis.

• #56 Spectrum of Phenotypes and Causes of Type 2 Diabetes in Children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9022328/

  As opposed to type 1 diabetes, which is slightly more common in males, type 2 diabetes is more prevalent in females, especially at younger ages. […] Although islet autoantibody positivity supports a diagnosis of type 1 diabetes, it is found in only a small percentage of children with a clinical diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. […] The classical features of type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes, and maturity-onset diabetes in the young (MODY) overlap considerably. […] Youth with type 2 diabetes typically are more obese than older adults with type 2 diabetes. […] More rapid progression of complications also appear to be prominent in youth-onset type 2 diabetes. […] Type 2 diabetes in youth is influenced by a combination of risk factors, resulting in heterogeneity in the presentation and progression of disease.

• #57 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431046/

  Preventing T2DM in children primarily involves addressing modifiable risk factors, such as obesity and a sedentary lifestyle. Encouraging healthy eating habits, regular physical activity, and weight management can significantly reduce the risk of developing the condition. […] The prognosis is of great concern in the medical community, primarily due to its potential for long-term complications. Many children and adolescents can achieve good glycemic control and lead healthy lives with proper treatment, lifestyle modifications, and regular monitoring.

• #58 Does sugar cause diabetes? – Children’s Health

  https://www.childrens.com/health-wellness/does-sugar-cause-diabetes

  One of the most common misconceptions about diabetes is that it is caused by sugar. […] While type 2 diabetes can be related to gaining too much weight, it’s not eating sugar alone that causes the condition. Any child who doesn’t get enough activity and eats too many unhealthy foods, sugary or not, may be at a higher risk for type 2 diabetes, especially if they gain weight. However, some children who have a healthy weight may also be at risk for type 2 diabetes due to their genetics. […] However, nutrition and weight play a much larger role in determining if a child develops type 2 diabetes. […] If kids with type 2 diabetes eat healthy foods and lose weight, we can stop using insulin to treat them. […] Type 2 diabetes can be reversed if the family is on board with healthy eating and exercise changes. […] The best home remedies for type 2 diabetes are diet and exercise. Ensuring your whole family eats better and moves more often can help your child improve his or her blood sugar and even reverse diabetes.

• #59 Type 2 Diabetes in Children | Children’s Hospital Colorado

  https://www.childrenscolorado.org/conditions-and-advice/conditions-and-symptoms/conditions/type-2-diabetes/

  In children, the most significant cause of type 2 diabetes is a family history of the disease and being at an unhealthy weight. […] There are also specific risk factors that put a child at a higher risk for developing type 2 diabetes, including: A poor diet with high fat and carbohydrate intake, High levels of fat in the blood, Low physical activity levels, Puberty (children almost never get type 2 diabetes before puberty starts). […] Type 2 diabetes generally occurs during adolescence due to the increased insulin resistance associated with puberty. Children who are obese and have a strong family history of type 2 diabetes or whose mothers had diabetes during their pregnancy are at a higher risk for developing type 2 diabetes. […] Type 2 diabetes treatment in children always involves a combination of medicines and healthy lifestyle choices. When used with medicines that help the body’s insulin work better, lifestyle changes can help manage type 2 diabetes and prevent its complications. […] Even with healthy lifestyle choices, most children diagnosed with type 2 diabetes will also need to take a medicine called metformin.

• #60 Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents

  https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/june/type-2-diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescen

  Other comorbidities associated with obesity and insulin resistance, such as polycystic ovarian syndrome in females, obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA), psychiatric illness and orthopaedic problems, are common. […] T2DM in children and adolescents is a serious medical concern that is more aggressive than the adult-onset form, more challenging to diagnose, and has limited available treatment options.

• #61 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Knowable Magazine

  https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/health-disease/2024/type-2-diabetes-children

  What we see in the youth is that beta cell function fails very rapidly. […] Its unknown whether specific racial or ethnic groups are more vulnerable to loss of beta cell function. […] Stress induces certain hormones that antagonize insulin, so they create more insulin resistance. […] Young people experience many of the risk factors that predispose people to type 2 diabetes, such as prenatal exposures, junk food, sedentary lifestyles and high levels of stress. […] One analysis found that Hispanic youths who lived in neighborhoods with higher levels of air pollution were more likely to experience a breakdown in beta cell function. […] Families dealing with food insecurity, Isasi says, probably have a lower-quality diet and skimp on costlier protein and fresh produce. […] Preventing diabetes has proved challenging. […] Approved medication options remain limited for children and teens. […] If someone is predisposed to beta cell dysfunction, should we be much more aggressive in treating their overweight/obesity, Bacha says, so that this beta cell function is preserved for a longer period of time?

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