Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview

  Although type 2 diabetes is widely diagnosed in adults, its frequency has markedly increased in the pediatric age group since the end of the 20th century. Most pediatric patients with type 2 diabetes belong to minority communities. […] Depending on the population studied, type 2 diabetes now represents 8-45% of all new cases of diabetes reported among children and adolescents. Most pediatric patients with type 2 diabetes belong to minority communities. […] The SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study found that the incidence of type 2 diabetes was highest among American Indians aged 15-19 years (49.4 cases per 100,000 person-years). Second and third highest incidence belonged to Asian Pacific Islanders and Blacks, aged 15-19 years, with 22.7 cases per 100,000 person-years and 19.4 cases per 100,000 person-years, respectively.

• #1 Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents- A Focus on Diagnosis and Treatment – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK597439/

  According to the most recent data from the SEARCH study published in 2023, the adjusted incidence of T2DM among children and adolescents nearly doubled, from 9.0 to 17.9 cases per 100,000 persons per year, from 2002-03 to 2017-18. […] The incidence of T2D varies largely based on ethnicity, the highest incidence of T2D, 50.1 per 100,000 children age 10-20 years, was recorded in non-Hispanic Blacks, followed by Pima Indians (46), Hispanics (25.8), and Asian/Pacific Islanders (16.6). Among non-Hispanic Whites, the incidence is only 5.5 per 100,000. An annual increase was observed in all groups, but the highest increase was observed in Asian/Pacific Islanders (8.92%), followed by 7.17% in Hispanics and 5.99% in non-Hispanic Blacks, compared to 1.83% in non-Hispanic Whites. […] The current incidence in females is 21.6 per 100,000 and in males 14.2; the temporal increase was similar in both genders. The incidence increases with age. One of the most remarkable findings in the SEARCH study is that among individuals 15-19 years of age, the incidence of T2D in 2017-2018 exceeded that of T1D (19.7 vs. 14.6 per 100,000). This is the first time the incidence of T2D surpassed that of T1D among youth, sounding alarming for other countries, which may have a lower incidence than the USA, but are showing steady increases.

• #1 National Diabetes Statistics Report | Diabetes | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/php/data-research/index.html

  352,000 children and adolescents younger than age 20 years or 35 per 10,000 U.S. youth had diagnosed diabetes. This includes 304,000 with type 1 diabetes. […] Data from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study indicated that, during 2017-2018, the estimated annual number of newly diagnosed cases in the United States included: 5,293 children and adolescents aged 10 to 19 years with type 2 diabetes. […] For the entire period 2002-2018, overall incidence of type 2 diabetes significantly increased. […] Incidence of type 2 diabetes significantly increased for all racial and ethnic groups, especially Asian or Pacific Islander, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic Black children and adolescents. […] Non-Hispanic Black children and adolescents had the highest incidence of type 2 diabetes across all years.

• #1 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Knowable Magazine

  https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/health-disease/2024/type-2-diabetes-children

  If those rising rates persist, the number of type 2 diabetes cases in young people is projected to skyrocket from 28,000 in 2017 to 220,000 by 2060. […] Various factors have been linked to insulin resistance in childhood or adolescence, including obesity, inactivity and genetics, according to a review of the causes of type 2 diabetes in youths published in the 2022 Annual Review of Medicine. […] Obesity is also a contributing factor: Slightly more than one-fourth of Hispanic youths are obese, a higher percentage than for any other major racial or ethnic group. […] Puberty is also highly influential most cases are diagnosed after its onset. […] American Diabetes Association guidelines recommend that clinicians screen overweight or obese youths for the disease starting at age 10 or once puberty starts, whichever is earlier, if they have one or more risk factors. […] The new NIDDK study wont assess medication treatments, as its an observational study. […] Approved medication options remain limited for children and teens.

• #1 Diabetes in America: Prevalence, Statistics, and Economic Impact

  https://diabetes.org/about-diabetes/statistics/about-diabetes

  About 352,000 Americans under age 20 are estimated to have diagnosed diabetes, approximately 0.35% of that population. […] In 20172018, the annual incidence of diagnosed diabetes in youth was estimated at 18,200 with type 1 diabetes, 5,300 with type 2 diabetes.

• #1

  https://canadiandiabetesandendocrinologytoday.com/article/view/1-2-basak

  Over the past twenty years, youth-onset diabetes has been rising. In the United States, according to the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study, there has been an annual increase of 7.1% observed across all age, sex, race and ethnic groups. The COVID-19 pandemic has added further escalation in the incidence of youth-onset worsening disease severity at presentation. New cases in the United States rose by 77.3% in the initial year following the COVID-19 pandemic, vs in the two years pre-pandemic. Furthermore, 21% of youth presented with diabetic ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome vs previous estimates of 9% pre-pandemic. The SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Group projects that the number of youths with T2DM will increase from 28,000 to 48,000 youth today, to 220,000 youth by 2060, with widening racial and ethnic disparities among youth with T2DM.

• #1 Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents- A Focus on Diagnosis and Treatment – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK597439/

  Although the overall incidence of T2D in Europe is much lower than in the US, a similar change over time has been reported. In Germany, a three-fold increase in the prevalence of T2D was reported for 10- to 19-year-olds between 2002 and 2020 (3.4 to 10.8 per 100,000). […] Data retrieved from the Hong Kong Childhood Diabetes Registry revealed a threefold increase in T2D in children, from 1.27 per 100,000 in 1997-2007 to 3.42 per 100,000 in 2008-2018. Data from China demonstrated an average annual increase of 26.6% in youth aged 10-19 years. There was no statistically significant difference in incidence between boys and girls. However, the risk of T2D was 1.49 times higher in urban areas than in rural areas.

• #1 Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – Diabetes Canada

  https://www.diabetes.ca/health-care-providers/clinical-practice-guidelines/chapter-35

  Anticipatory guidance regarding healthy eating, physical activity, limiting screen time and age-appropriate sleep duration/quality is recommended to prevent type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents. […] Regular targeted screening for type 2 diabetes is recommended in children at risk. […] A Canadian national surveillance study demonstrated a minimum incidence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents 18 years of age of 1.54 per 100,000 children per year. […] Significant regional variation was observed with the highest minimum incidence seen in Manitoba of 12.45 per 100,000 children per year. […] Recent data from the United States demonstrated an incidence of 8.1 per 100,000 person years in the 10- to 14-year age group and 11.8 per 100,000 person years in the 15- to 19-year age group.

• #1 Exploring the Surge in Paediatric Type 2 Diabetes in an Inner-City London Centre—A Decade-Long Analysis of Incidence, Outcomes, and Transition

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9067/11/2/173

  The rising prevalence of paediatric type 2 diabetes (T2D) is concerning, particularly with limited medical intervention despite evidence of accelerated disease progression. This study of a Barts Health NHS Trust cohort from 2008 to 2022 aims to elucidate the incidence, clinical outcomes, and complications associated with paediatric T2D. […] The incidence of paediatric T2D in our cohort doubled between 2008–2013 and 2014–2018. Incidence data in Europe are limited, but our findings mirror the rising youth T2D rates worldwide. […] The Royal College of Paediatrics Spotlight Audit for T2D in children in England also suggested that the incidence has increased from 0.7/100,000 in 2015 to 1.7/100,000 in 2019. […] Our study identifies a notable prevalence of learning disabilities, particularly among males, a previously unreported observation to our knowledge. […] Youth-onset T2D is associated with a high frequency of complications at diagnosis, evident in our cohort and consistent with studies highlighting an accelerated development of complications compared to adults with T2D or children with T1D.

• #1 National surveillance for type 1, type 2 diabetes and prediabetes among children and adolescents: a population-based study (SAUDI-DM) | Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health

  https://jech.bmj.com/content/69/11/1045

  There is a paucity of data on the national prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes among youth. The overall prevalence of diabetes was 10.84%, of which 0.45% were known type 1 and type 2 patients with diabetes and 10.39% were either newly identified cases of diabetes (4.27%) or IFG (6.12%) with more than 90% of the participants with diabetes being unaware of their disease. The prevalence of known type 1 and type 2 diabetes as well as the newly identified cases was higher than what has been reported internationally. Age, male gender, obesity, urban residency, high family income and presence of dyslipidaemia were found to be significant risk factors for diabetes and IFG. […] The emergence of diabetes mellitus as a global public health problem in children and adolescents is due to the widespread obesity and pronounced lifestyle changes. In the past, type 1 diabetes used to be the predominant type among children, but for the last 20 years, type 2 diabetes, which is known for its different aetiology, is taking the lead. Saudi Arabia, currently ranked seventh among the top 10 countries known for their high prevalence of diabetes globally, sets a good model to study the factors behind the increase in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes among children and adolescents.

• #1

  https://canadiandiabetesandendocrinologytoday.com/article/view/1-2-basak

  Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) can no longer be considered an adult chronic disease. The diagnosis of pediatric T2DM is based on the laboratory criteria of fasting plasma glucose 7.0 mmol/L; 2-hour plasma glucose on a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) 11.1 mmol/L; random plasma glucose 11.1 mmol/L; or A1c 6.5% per Diabetes Canada. […] A Canadian national surveillance study of pediatric T2DM completed in 2010, has demonstrated a minimum incidence of youth-onset T2DM of 1.54 per 100,000 children per year with significant regional variation; the highest incidence was 12.45 per 100,000 children per year in Manitoba. Youth-onset T2DM disproportionately affected Canadian children from high-risk ethnic groups, with 44% of new diagnoses occurring in the Indigenous, Asian, African and Caribbean populations.

• #1 Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – Diabetes Canada

  https://www.diabetes.ca/health-care-providers/clinical-practice-guidelines/chapter-35

  Type 2 diabetes is a highly heritable condition, with 90% of children and youth affected having a first- or second-degree relative who also has type 2 diabetes. […] A significant proportion of youth with type 2 diabetes live below the poverty line or come from low-resourced homes. […] The microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes have been identified at diagnosis, implying long-term, unrecognized hyperglycemia. […] This argues for a systematic screening program in children at high risk for type 2 diabetes in order to prevent an acute, life-threatening presentation and to decrease the development of chronic complications. […] In a recent national Canadian diabetes incidence study, the mean age of diagnosis of type 2 diabetes in youth was 13.7 years. […] However, 8% of all newly diagnosed children with type 2 diabetes were less than 10 years of age.

• #1 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview

  More recent data from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study show that between 2002 and 2018, the annual incidence of type 2 diabetes rose by about 5% per year in the United States. Annual rates of increase were highest for Asian Pacific Islanders (8.92%), followed by Hispanic (7.17%) and Black youth (5.99%). […] Type 2 diabetes primarily affects minority populations. From 1967-1976 to 1987-1996, the prevalence of type 2 diabetes increased 6-fold in Pima Indian adolescents and appeared for the first time in children and adolescents younger than age 15 years. […] The prevalence of type 2 diabetes in the pediatric population is higher among girls than boys, just as the prevalence is higher among adult females than it is in adult males. […] According to data from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study, the overall prevalence of type 2 diabetes among American youths aged 10-19 years rose by 35% between 2001 and 2009 (from 0.34 per 1000 to 0.46 per 1000).

• #1 Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in Children: Epidemiology and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4099943/

  The average age of onset of T2D in youth is 13 years of age. […] Before the mid-1990’s, very few children with diabetes (about 1-2%) were classified as having T2D. […] However, as obesity has increased in recent years, the incidence of T2D has increased to 25-45% of all youth diagnosed with diabetes. […] T2D disproportionately affects adults with lower SES so it is not surprising that youth with T2D are also more likely to be from lower SES backgrounds. […] In summary, research indicates that T2D is being increasingly diagnosed in older children and young adolescents throughout the world. […] There is a great range of prevalence and incidence, with consistently higher rates among youth from Native American Indian, Hispanic, black, and southern Asian ethnic backgrounds. […] The long-term prognosis of youth with T2D is not currently known, but it is estimated that these youth may have a loss of up to 15 years of life expectancy, and increased risk of serious health complications by the time they reach their 40’s, depending on their level of glycemic control.

• #1 Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in Children: Epidemiology and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4099943/

  The incidence of overweight and obesity among children has increased dramatically in recent decades, with about one-third of children in the U.S. currently being either overweight or obese. […] There is also increasing incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) among youth in recent years, with obesity and family history of T2D generally present. […] Most youth with T2D do not achieve optimal glycemic control, and are at high risk for later health complications. […] Research addressing the prevention of obesity and T2D among youth is urgently needed. […] In recent years, rates of pediatric obesity have increased dramatically, and T2D in youth has also been diagnosed more frequently and at younger ages than typically seen before historically. […] Both of these conditions represent significant public health issues.

• #1 Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in Children: Epidemiology and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4099943/

  Recent estimates from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey indicate that approximately one-third of children in the United States are overweight or obese, with approximately 17% meeting criteria for obesity. […] A recent national longitudinal study in the US indicated that 12.4% of children in kindergarten were obese and another 14.9% overweight; overweight 5-year-olds were four times more likely than normal weight children to become obese later in childhood at age 14. […] The most common medical co-morbidities associated with obesity include metabolic risk factors for T2D including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, impaired glucose tolerance, and metabolic syndrome. […] The most common comorbidity of T2D in youth is obesity. […] Studies indicate that over 85% of children with T2D are either overweight or obese at diagnosis.

• #1 Type 2 Diabetes in Children: Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/type-2-diabetes-children

  For decades, type 2 diabetes was considered an adults-only condition. […] But what was once a disease mainly faced by adults is becoming more common in children. […] Between 2014 and 2015, about 24 percent of new diabetes diagnoses in children were type 2 diabetes. […] Diabetes in children is most common in those aged 10 to 19 years. […] Kids with a body mass index (BMI) above the 85th percentile were around four times as likely to be diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, according to one 2017 study. […] Current guidelines recommend that testing for diabetes be considered for any child whos overweight or obese and has at least one additional risk factor as listed above. […] Children with type 2 diabetes are at a greater risk for serious health problems as they grow older. […] Other complications, such as eye problems and nerve damage, may occur and progress faster in children with type 2 diabetes than in those with type 1 diabetes. […] You can help children avoid diabetes by encouraging them to take the following steps: […] Its also important to set a good example for children. […] Type 2 diabetes in young people is a relatively new issue in medicine.

• #1 Sugary drinks, fruit juices linked to higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes among boys | American Heart Association

  https://newsroom.heart.org/news/sugary-drinks-fruit-juices-linked-to-higher-risk-of-developing-type-2-diabetes-among-boys

  The analysis found: Each daily serving of sugary drinks (approx. 8 ounces) during childhood and adolescence among boys was associated with a 34% increase in insulin resistance; a 5.6 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl) increase in fasting glucose levels; and a 0.12% increase in HbA1c levels in late adolescence. […] Drinking 100% fruit juice throughout childhood and adolescence was linked to a 0.07% increase in HbA1c levels in late adolescence per daily serving of 100% fruit juice among the boys in the study. […] The associations between regularly drinking sugar-sweetened beverage and insulin resistance, fasting blood glucose levels and elevated HbA1c levels among boys persisted when other health, family and social factors were considered. […] Although several aspects of biology and behaviors differ between boys and girls, I would have expected to also find an association between sugar-sweetened beverages and fruit juice intake and the increases in insulin resistance, glycemia and HbA1c levels in late-adolescent girls.

• #1 Diabetes Canada | Clinical Practice Guidelines

  https://guidelines.diabetes.ca/cpg/chapter35

  Risk factors for the development of type 2 diabetes in children include a history of type 2 diabetes in a first- or second-degree relative, being a member of a high-risk population, obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, polycystic ovary syndrome, exposure to diabetes in utero, acanthosis nigricans, hypertension and dyslipidemia, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. […] In children with obesity, family-based healthy behaviour interventions, which include physical activity, healthy nutrition and mental health supports have been shown to result in a modest decrease in body mass index (BMI) and improvements in metabolic health parameters. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should receive care in conjunction or consultation with an interprofessional pediatric diabetes health-care team that should include either a pediatric endocrinologist or pediatrician with diabetes expertise, dietitian, diabetes nurse educator and mental health professional.

• #1 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents

  Type 2 diabetes, once rare in children, has been increasing in frequency in parallel with the increase in childhood obesity (see obesity in children). […] Type 2 is typically diagnosed after puberty, with the highest rate between 15 years and 19 years of age (see obesity in adolescents). […] Approximately 80% of children with type 2 diabetes have obesity. […] However, there is considerable heterogeneity, and the relationship between obesity and age at onset of type 2 diabetes is less clear in some ethnicities (eg, South Asian children). […] Type 2 diabetes in children is different than type 2 diabetes in adults. In children, decline in beta-cell function and development of diabetes-related complications are accelerated. […] Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander heritage, family history (60 to 90% have a first- or second-degree relative with type 2 diabetes), maternal history of type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes during pregnancy, and current use of atypical antipsychotic medications.

• #1 International Textbook of Diabetes Mellitus, 4th Ed., Excerpt #15: Epidemiology and Geography of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Part 4 of 5

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/international-textbook-of-diabetes-mellitus-type-2-diabetes-in-children/

  The incidence of T2DM in African American adolescents in Cincinnati increased 10-fold from 0.7 to 7.2 per 100,000 over a 12-year period. […] The proportion of T2DM in children diagnosed with diabetes has increased from 24% in 1992 to 84.5% in the last decade. […] The majority of children with T2DM are non-Caucasian and in one review about 94% of cases were from minority groups. […] The majority of T2DM cases occur in overweight and obese children and they may have clinical signs of insulin resistance, such as acanthosis nigricans. […] The prevalence of T2DM in these children is higher in girls who may be two to six times more likely to have T2DM. […] Most cases of T2DM occur around puberty. […] The rising prevalence of overweight in children may thus play a role in the risk of T2DM in children.

• #1 Twenty years of pediatric diabetes surveillance: what do we know and why it matters. | Diabetes Research Centers

  https://www.diabetescenters.org/bibcite/reference/4482

  SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth (SEARCH) was initiated in 2000 as a multicenter study to address major gaps in the understanding of childhood diabetes in the United States. […] Continued surveillance of the burden and risk of type 1 and type 2 diabetes is important to track and monitor incidence and prevalence within the population. […] SEARCH reported evidence of early diabetes complications highlighting that continuing the long-term follow-up of youth with diabetes is necessary to further our understanding of its natural history and to develop the most appropriate approaches to primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention of diabetes and its complications.

• #1 Diabetes surveillance – Children and adolescents – Incidence of type 2 diabetes

  https://diabsurv.rki.de/Webs/Diabsurv/EN/diabetes-in-germany/child/1-01_Incidence_of_type_2_diabetes.html

  The rate of new cases (incidence) and the resulting absolute number of new cases are key indicators with which to assess the dynamics of type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, the incidence influences the development of the prevalence and the number of people who can be expected to need treatment (Tnnies et al. 2019). In turn, the incidence depends on developments in key diabetes risk factors over time (Paprott et al. 2016). […] About 230 children and adolescents between the ages of 11 and 17 were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes for the first time each year during the 2014 to 2022 observation period. […] During the observation period, the incidence of type 2 diabetes increased in boys. […] Between 2014 and 2022, the estimated incidence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents aged between 11 and 17 in Germany averaged 4.4 per 100,000 person-years (girls 5.0; boys 3.9). This corresponds to an absolute number of 2,102 new cases (an average of 234 cases per year). In relation to the observation period, the estimated incidence for boys is higher in 14- to 17-year-olds (5.2) than in 11- to 13-year-olds (2.1), while there are no differences between the age groups for girls. During the 2014-2022 observation period, the incidence of type 2 diabetes per 100,000 person-years increased by 6.7 % annually overall, with the increase being attributable to the development in boys (boys: 12.0%; girls: 2.3% – not significant). The incidence was particularly high in the COVID-19-pandemic year 2021.

• #1 Surveillance of Type 2 Diabetes in children – Health Research Authority

  https://www.hra.nhs.uk/planning-and-improving-research/application-summaries/research-summaries/surveillance-of-type-2-diabetes-in-children/

  Surveillance of Type 2 Diabetes in children under the age of 17 years in the UK and Ireland. This study will investigate the incidence and associations of Type 2 diabetes developing in children and young people under 17 years of age in the UK and Republic of Ireland. Until recently Type 2 diabetes was not a clinical problem in children or adolescents, being a condition seen almost exclusively in adults. However there is growing evidence that the increase in childhood obesity has resulted in cases of Type 2 diabetes being seen relatively frequently in childhood. This study will repeat a survey conducted in 2004/5 using the same methodology that identified 68 children and adolescents diagnosed over a 12 month period. We believe the numbers will have increased since then. Type 2 diabetes is linked with greatly increased ill health in adulthood and the outcome is worse in those developing the disease at an early age. So it is important to identify, treat and manage these children as soon as possible. Furthermore, there are some anecdotal reports from UK clinics and studies from the USA and Europe suggesting that some young people with Type 2 diabetes are poor attenders at clinic and have a tendency not to take their medication as prescribed. This BPSU approved study will also allow us to estimate the current incidence and whether it has increased since ten years ago. It will also allow us to examine current treatment modalities and whether there is truly a problem to delivering optimal care for this group of patients.

• #1 JMIR Public Health and Surveillance – A Comprehensive Youth Diabetes Epidemiological Data Set and Web Portal: Resource Development and Case Studies

  https://publichealth.jmir.org/2024/1/e53330

  This serious challenge calls for increased translational research into factors associated with pre-DM/DM among youth and how they can collectively affect disease risk and inform prevention strategies. […] One of the major challenges that has limited translational research into youth pre-DM/DM risk factors is that there are not publicly available, easily accessible data comprehensively profiling interrelated epidemiological factors for young individuals. […] To directly address this data gap, we turned to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), which offers a promising path for examining pre-DM/DM among the US youth population by providing a rich source of individual- and household-level epidemiological factors. […] We built the youth pre-DM/DM data set based on publicly available NHANES data spanning the years from 1999 to 2018.

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-013-2915-z

  In most studies, the ADA or WHO guidelines were used to identify cases. […] Data on incidence and prevalence from all studies are summarised in Figs 2 and 3. Incidence and prevalence rates were found to vary widely depending on age, sex and ethnicity of the study population and geographical region, resulting in a range of 0330 per 100,000 person-years for incidence and 05,300 per 100,000 children and adolescents for prevalence. […] According to the findings of this systematic review, the epidemiological studies of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents differed widely in population characteristics and study methods, which resulted in a substantial variation in incidence and prevalence estimates. […] In conclusion, the incidence and prevalence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents show important variations among countries and ethnic groups worldwide, caused by both population characteristics and methodological differences.

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-013-2915-z

  An overview of global trends in the incidence and prevalence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents is important, since type 2 diabetes has significant effects on health and quality of life, use of medical services and reduced employability resulting in a huge economic burden. […] The search of the five electronic databases yielded 5,920 articles, of which 145 were potentially relevant after screening title and abstract. Out of these papers, 37 articles met the inclusion criteria. […] The number of children in the populations in which type 2 diabetes was detected ranged from 1,647 to several millions and covered different age categories. […] Calendar time of the 37 studies varied widely. […] Different methods were used in the studies for investigating incidence and prevalence of type 2 diabetes.

• #1 Global trends and hotspots of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: A bibliometric study and visualization analysis

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1948-9358/full/v16/i1/96032.htm

  The recent clinical guidelines from the ADA state that tests for glycated hemoglobin, fasting plasma glucose, or a 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test can be used to detect prediabetes or T2DM in children and adolescents, similar to adults. […] The top three journals in terms of the number of published articles in this field were Diabetes Care, Pediatric Diabetes, and The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology Metabolism.

• #1 Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: Exploring the disease heterogeneity and research gaps to optimum management

  https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v13/i2/91587.htm

  The incidence and prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in children and adolescents have dramatically increased over the past 20 years. […] Accumulating evidence suggests that youth-onset T2DM presents unique characteristics, demographics, and disease progression compared to adult-onset T2DM. […] In addition, the available therapeutic options for children and adolescents with T2DM are inadequate. T2DM in children and adolescents is becoming a public health concern worldwide. […] Research programs should aim to overcome the challenges seen with clinical studies in this population to address the unmet need of optimal management of T2DM in children and adolescents. […] T2DM in children and adolescents is often underrecognized because of its prolonged subclinical course and lack of awareness regarding the increasing risk among patients and providers. […] Consequently, national population-based disease registry data might not adequately reflect the frequency and growing trends of T2DM in this population. Nevertheless, the prevalence of T2DM in the 10- to 19-year-old population has doubled over the past two decades in the United States. […] It is present in nearly 2 persons per 1000 among Black and American Indian youth. The prevalence of youth-onset T2DM will double to quadruple by 2050 as estimated by the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study. […] The incidence of T2D has similarly doubled among adolescents in the United States over this period, from 9 to 18 cases per 100000 per year, with an incidence that is particularly high in Black and American Indian youth. […] Similarly, T2DM in youth is increasing in incidence and prevalence worldwide. […] The escalating prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents has likely triggered an increased rate of T2DM. […] However, this alone does not seem to fully explain the increase in T2DM.

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11892-014-0508-y

  The incidence of overweight and obesity among children has increased dramatically in recent decades, with about one-third of children in the U.S. currently being either overweight or obese. […] There is also increasing incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) among youth in recent years, with obesity and family history of T2D generally present. […] Most youth with T2D do not achieve optimal glycemic control, and are at high risk for later health complications. […] Obesity and T2D represent significant public health issues with potentially great personal and societal cost. […] Research addressing the prevention of obesity and T2D among youth is urgently needed. […] The worldwide epidemiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus presents and future perspectives. […] Discussion of data on rising incidence of type 2 diabetes among youth throughout the world.

• #1 Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents

  https://www.racgp.org.au/afp/2016/june/type-2-diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescen

  The incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in children and adolescents is increasing, mirroring the epidemic of paediatric obesity. […] Early-onset T2DM is associated with poor long-term outcomes. […] T2DM in children and adolescents appears to be a more aggressive disease than late-onset T2DM. […] The prevalence of T2DM in children and adolescents has increased around the world, in parallel with the increase in the rate of obesity. […] In Australia, the incidence of T2DM in patients under the age of 17 years was approximately two per 100,000 person-years, with a 27% rise in average annual adjusted overall incidence between 1990 and 2002. […] Youth with newly diagnosed T2DM have a high prevalence of complications relating to diabetes and obesity at presentation. […] Reports suggest the presence of hypertension in 10-32% of patients, microalbuminuria in 14-22%, retinopathy in 9.3%, dyslipidaemia in up to 85% and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in 22% at diagnosis of T2DM in those aged younger than 30 years. […] T2DM in children and adolescents is a serious medical concern that is more aggressive than the adult-onset form, more challenging to diagnose, and has limited available treatment options. […] It is also associated with high rates of complications related to diabetes and obesity.

• #1 Children diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, increased risk of developing vision-threatening retinopathy – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/ophthalmology/news/children-diagnosed-with-type-2-diabetes-increased-risk-of-developing-vision-threatening-retinopathy/mac-20535310

  A retrospective study of a population-based cohort of children (younger than 22 years) diagnosed with diabetes during a 50-year period found that those with type 2 diabetes (T2D) developed vision-threatening retinopathy after a shorter diabetes duration and at a higher rate than did children with type 1 diabetes (T1D). […] „Despite the increasing prevalence of T2D diagnosed in childhood, little is known about the natural history of ocular sequelae in youth-onset T2D compared with T1D,” says Brian G. Mohney, M.D., an ophthalmologist, at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. […] The research team confirmed a diagnosis of T1D for inclusion if the medical record reported a diagnosis of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, or T1D, with subsequent treatment consistent with management of T1D. A diagnosis of T2D was confirmed as noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, or T2D.

• #1 Children diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, increased risk of developing vision-threatening retinopathy – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/ophthalmology/news/children-diagnosed-with-type-2-diabetes-increased-risk-of-developing-vision-threatening-retinopathy/mac-20535310

  Diabetes-associated ocular complications occurred in 147 of the 461 children with T1D and in 17 of the 64 children with T2D. […] „In this study, children diagnosed with T2D had a higher risk of developing diabetic retinopathy, developing proliferative diabetic retinopathy, and requiring pars plana vitrectomy compared with those diagnosed with T1D,” notes Dr. Mohney. […] „This data suggests that the natural history of retinopathy development among youth diagnosed with T2D may differ from that in youth diagnosed with T1D that patients with T2D may be more susceptible to developing retinopathy than those with T1D despite controlling for diabetes disease duration.”

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11892-014-0508-y

  Characteristics of adolescents and youth with recent-onset type 2 diabetes: the TODAY cohort at baseline. […] Glycemic control in youth with type 2 diabetes declines as early as two years after diagnosis. […] Estimated morbidity and mortality in adolescents and young adults diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus. […] The type 2 family: a setting for development and treatment of adolescent type 2 diabetes. […] Self-management behaviors, racial disparities, and glycemic control among adolescents with type 2 diabetes. […] The TODAY Study Group. A clinical trial to maintain glycemic control in youth with type 2 diabetes. […] Reports the results of a large national multi-site randomized controlled trial to improve glycemic control in youth with type 2 diabetes.

• #1 Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in Children: Epidemiology and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4099943/

  The major goal of treatment is to achieve normoglycemia. […] Metformin, an insulin sensitizer, was shown to significantly improve glycemic control in youth with T2D. […] The TODAY trial is the largest randomized controlled trial available to examine treatment of T2D in youth. […] Given the fact that youth with T2D are at high risk for development of diabetes-related health complications, identification of effective medical and behavioral treatment approaches remains a priority. […] Research focusing on the prevention of T2D in children and adolescents continues to be a high priority for public health.

• #1 A narrative review of type 2 diabetes mellitus and its management in children and adolescents – Vining Maravolo – Pediatric Medicine

  https://pm.amegroups.org/article/view/7213/html

  The recent approval of GLPs gives providers additional options in the treatment and management of T2DM in the pediatric population. However, it has been very difficult to prescribe these medications in our clinic due to lack of insurance coverage. […] Youth with T2DM are at a higher risk of early diabetes related complications, including hypertension, dyslipidemia, albuminuria, and eye and nerve disease. In a recent prospective, longitudinal follow up study of the TODAY study cohort, the data revealed that complications appear early and progress rapidly in youth onset T2DM.

• #1 Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: Exploring the disease heterogeneity and research gaps to optimum management

  https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v13/i2/91587.htm

  Over the past 20 years, the incidence and prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in children and adolescents have increased, particularly in racial and ethnic minorities. […] Despite the rise in T2DM in children and adolescents, the pathophysiology and progression of disease in this population are not clearly understood. Youth-onset T2DM has a more adverse clinical course than is seen in those who develop T2DM in adulthood or those with T1DM. […] Furthermore, the available therapeutic options are more limited for children and adolescents with T2DM compared to adult patients, mostly due to the challenges of implementing clinical trials. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the development and aggressive disease phenotype of T2DM in youth is important to finding effective prevention and management strategies. […] This review highlights the key evidence about T2DM in children and adolescents and its current burden and challenges both in clinical care and research activities.

• #1 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents

  Asymptomatic children 18 years of age who are at risk should be screened for type 2 diabetes or prediabetes by measuring HbA1C. This test should first be done at age 10 years or at onset of puberty, if puberty occurred at a younger age, and should be repeated at a minimum every 3 years. […] Children at risk include those with overweight (body mass index 85th percentile for age and sex, or weight for height 85th percentile) and who have any 2 of the following: family history of type 2 diabetes in a first- or second-degree relative, Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander heritage, signs of insulin resistance or conditions associated with insulin resistance (eg, acanthosis nigricans, hypertension, dyslipidemia, polycystic ovary syndrome, or small-for-gestational-age birth weight), maternal history of diabetes or gestational diabetes.

• #1 Epidemiological criteria and risk factors for type two diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in children and adolescents: Can we modify them?

  https://wjarr.com/content/epidemiological-criteria-and-risk-factors-type-two-diabetes-mellitus-t2dm-children-and

  Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) has become an increasingly important public health concern globally among children and adolescents. […] Important proven environmental risk factors for developing T2DM include, prediabetes (high blood glucose short of T2DM definition), obesity, inactivity, family history of T2DM, being a member of a high-risk ethnic group, and poverty. […] The estimated T2DM prevalence per 1000 youths aged 10 to 19 years increased significantly in many countries in the past 20 years. […] T2DM impacts more specific ethnic groups compared to children of other ethnicities. […] Epidemiological evidence indicates that T2DM in youth is different from type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) and T2DM in adults. […] Many research articles showed that screening for abnormal blood glucose (prediabetes and diabetes) in high-risk children and adolescents represents an effective population intervention method for the early diagnosis and management of prediabetes and T2DM. […] In conclusion, Proper screening, and the wide application of LSI programs in selected high-risk populations are expected to have good preventive outcomes reducing the incidence and complications of T2DM in children and adolescents.

• #1 Growing Pains: The Type 2 Diabetes Epidemic in Youth

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/growing-pains-the-type-2-diabetes-epidemic-in-youth

  The steady rise in youth-onset T2DM diagnoses will likely increase the healthcare burden and strain conventional care models. […] Projections from the SEARCH study estimate 84,000 youths aged 10 to 19 years will have T2DM by the year 2050, with a prevalence of 0.8 cases/1,000 youth. […] Pharmacists are ideally poised to identify risk factors, provide point-of-care testing, and counsel on the prevention and effective management (pharmacologic as well as nonpharmacologic) of pediatric T2DM.

• #1 Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – Diabetes Canada

  https://www.diabetes.ca/health-care-providers/clinical-practice-guidelines/chapter-35

  Thus, consideration should be given for screening at a younger age in those at high risk. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should receive care in conjunction or consultation with an interprofessional pediatric diabetes health-care team that should include either a pediatric endocrinologist or pediatrician with diabetes expertise, dietitian, diabetes nurse educator and mental health professional. […] The target A1C for most children with type 2 diabetes should be 7.0%. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should be screened for neuropathy at diagnosis and annually thereafter. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should be screened at diagnosis for retinopathy and yearly thereafter. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should be screened for chronic kidney disease at diagnosis and yearly thereafter. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should be screened at diagnosis for comorbid conditions associated with insulin resistance, including NAFLD, OSA, and PCOS in pubertal females, and yearly thereafter as clinically indicated.

• #2 Type 2 diabetes in children – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes-in-children/symptoms-causes/syc-20355318

  Type 2 diabetes in children is a chronic disease that affects the way your child’s body processes sugar (glucose) for fuel. Without treatment, the disorder causes sugar to build up in the bloodstream, which can lead to serious long-term consequences. […] Type 2 diabetes occurs more commonly in adults. In fact, it used to be called adult-onset diabetes. But the increasing number of children with obesity has led to more cases of type 2 diabetes in younger people. […] Diabetes screening is recommended for children who have started puberty or are at least 10 years old, who are overweight or obese, and who have at least one other risk factor for type 2 diabetes. […] Researchers don’t fully understand why some children develop type 2 diabetes and others don’t, even if they have similar risk factors. However, it’s clear that certain factors increase the risk, including:

• #2 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview

  More recent data from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study show that between 2002 and 2018, the annual incidence of type 2 diabetes rose by about 5% per year in the United States. Annual rates of increase were highest for Asian Pacific Islanders (8.92%), followed by Hispanic (7.17%) and Black youth (5.99%). […] Type 2 diabetes primarily affects minority populations. From 1967-1976 to 1987-1996, the prevalence of type 2 diabetes increased 6-fold in Pima Indian adolescents and appeared for the first time in children and adolescents younger than age 15 years. […] The prevalence of type 2 diabetes in the pediatric population is higher among girls than boys, just as the prevalence is higher among adult females than it is in adult males. […] According to data from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study, the overall prevalence of type 2 diabetes among American youths aged 10-19 years rose by 35% between 2001 and 2009 (from 0.34 per 1000 to 0.46 per 1000).

• #2

  https://canadiandiabetesandendocrinologytoday.com/article/view/1-2-basak

  Over the past twenty years, youth-onset diabetes has been rising. In the United States, according to the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study, there has been an annual increase of 7.1% observed across all age, sex, race and ethnic groups. The COVID-19 pandemic has added further escalation in the incidence of youth-onset worsening disease severity at presentation. New cases in the United States rose by 77.3% in the initial year following the COVID-19 pandemic, vs in the two years pre-pandemic. Furthermore, 21% of youth presented with diabetic ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome vs previous estimates of 9% pre-pandemic. The SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Group projects that the number of youths with T2DM will increase from 28,000 to 48,000 youth today, to 220,000 youth by 2060, with widening racial and ethnic disparities among youth with T2DM.

• #2 Diabetes surveillance – Children and adolescents – Incidence of type 2 diabetes

  https://diabsurv.rki.de/Webs/Diabsurv/EN/diabetes-in-germany/child/1-01_Incidence_of_type_2_diabetes.html

  The rate of new cases (incidence) and the resulting absolute number of new cases are key indicators with which to assess the dynamics of type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, the incidence influences the development of the prevalence and the number of people who can be expected to need treatment (Tnnies et al. 2019). In turn, the incidence depends on developments in key diabetes risk factors over time (Paprott et al. 2016). […] About 230 children and adolescents between the ages of 11 and 17 were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes for the first time each year during the 2014 to 2022 observation period. […] During the observation period, the incidence of type 2 diabetes increased in boys. […] Between 2014 and 2022, the estimated incidence of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents aged between 11 and 17 in Germany averaged 4.4 per 100,000 person-years (girls 5.0; boys 3.9). This corresponds to an absolute number of 2,102 new cases (an average of 234 cases per year). In relation to the observation period, the estimated incidence for boys is higher in 14- to 17-year-olds (5.2) than in 11- to 13-year-olds (2.1), while there are no differences between the age groups for girls. During the 2014-2022 observation period, the incidence of type 2 diabetes per 100,000 person-years increased by 6.7 % annually overall, with the increase being attributable to the development in boys (boys: 12.0%; girls: 2.3% – not significant). The incidence was particularly high in the COVID-19-pandemic year 2021.

• #2

  https://canadiandiabetesandendocrinologytoday.com/article/view/1-2-basak

  Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) can no longer be considered an adult chronic disease. The diagnosis of pediatric T2DM is based on the laboratory criteria of fasting plasma glucose 7.0 mmol/L; 2-hour plasma glucose on a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) 11.1 mmol/L; random plasma glucose 11.1 mmol/L; or A1c 6.5% per Diabetes Canada. […] A Canadian national surveillance study of pediatric T2DM completed in 2010, has demonstrated a minimum incidence of youth-onset T2DM of 1.54 per 100,000 children per year with significant regional variation; the highest incidence was 12.45 per 100,000 children per year in Manitoba. Youth-onset T2DM disproportionately affected Canadian children from high-risk ethnic groups, with 44% of new diagnoses occurring in the Indigenous, Asian, African and Caribbean populations.

• #2 National surveillance for type 1, type 2 diabetes and prediabetes among children and adolescents: a population-based study (SAUDI-DM) | Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health

  https://jech.bmj.com/content/69/11/1045.abstract

  There is a paucity of data on the national prevalence of diabetes and prediabetes among youth. The Saudi Abnormal Glucose Metabolism and Diabetes Impact Study (SAUDI-DM) was used to assess the prevalence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes as well as impaired fasting glucose (IFG) among children and adolescents. The overall prevalence of diabetes was 10.84%, of which 0.45% were known type 1 and type 2 patients with diabetes and 10.39% were either newly identified cases of diabetes (4.27%) or IFG (6.12%) with more than 90% of the participants with diabetes being unaware of their disease. The prevalence of known type 1 and type 2 diabetes as well as the newly identified cases was higher than what has been reported internationally. Age, male gender, obesity, urban residency, high family income and presence of dyslipidaemia were found to be significant risk factors for diabetes and IFG. Diabetes and IFG are highly prevalent in this society with the majority of the patients being unaware of their disease, which warrants urgent adoption of early detection, treatment and prevention programmes.

• #2 Diabetes Canada | Clinical Practice Guidelines

  https://guidelines.diabetes.ca/cpg/chapter35

  Type 2 diabetes is a highly heritable condition, with 90% of children and youth affected having a first- or second-degree relative who also has type 2 diabetes. […] A significant proportion of youth with type 2 diabetes live below the poverty line or come from low-resourced homes. […] In a recent national Canadian diabetes incidence study, the mean age of diagnosis of type 2 diabetes in youth was 13.7 years. […] However, 8% of all newly diagnosed children with type 2 diabetes were less than 10 years of age. […] Thus, consideration should be given for screening at a younger age in those at high risk. […] The microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes have been identified at diagnosis, implying long-term, unrecognized hyperglycemia. […] This argues for a systematic screening program in children at high risk for type 2 diabetes in order to prevent an acute, life-threatening presentation and to decrease the development of chronic complications.

• #2 Epidemiological criteria and risk factors for type two diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in children and adolescents: Can we modify them?

  https://wjarr.com/content/epidemiological-criteria-and-risk-factors-type-two-diabetes-mellitus-t2dm-children-and

  Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) has become an increasingly important public health concern globally among children and adolescents. […] Important proven environmental risk factors for developing T2DM include, prediabetes (high blood glucose short of T2DM definition), obesity, inactivity, family history of T2DM, being a member of a high-risk ethnic group, and poverty. […] The estimated T2DM prevalence per 1000 youths aged 10 to 19 years increased significantly in many countries in the past 20 years. […] T2DM impacts more specific ethnic groups compared to children of other ethnicities. […] Epidemiological evidence indicates that T2DM in youth is different from type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) and T2DM in adults. […] Many research articles showed that screening for abnormal blood glucose (prediabetes and diabetes) in high-risk children and adolescents represents an effective population intervention method for the early diagnosis and management of prediabetes and T2DM. […] In conclusion, Proper screening, and the wide application of LSI programs in selected high-risk populations are expected to have good preventive outcomes reducing the incidence and complications of T2DM in children and adolescents.

• #2 Sugary drinks, fruit juices linked to higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes among boys | American Heart Association

  https://newsroom.heart.org/news/sugary-drinks-fruit-juices-linked-to-higher-risk-of-developing-type-2-diabetes-among-boys

  Preliminary findings from a long-term study of children in Massachusetts have potentially linked regularly drinking sugary drinks and fruit juices (8 ounces or more daily) during childhood and adolescence to a higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes, based on glycemic markers, among boys but not girls. […] A small, long-term study of almost 500 children in Massachusetts has found that regularly drinking sugary drinks and 100% fruit juices during childhood and adolescence may be linked to a higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes among boys than girls. […] While these findings are preliminary, they support the existing evidence about the potential relationship between beverages with added sugar and long-term risk of Type 2 diabetes in children. […] According to a 2022 American Heart Association fact sheet about sugary drinks, nearly two-thirds of children and adolescents in the U.S. consume at least one sugary drink each day.

• #2 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents

  Type 2 diabetes, once rare in children, has been increasing in frequency in parallel with the increase in childhood obesity (see obesity in children). […] Type 2 is typically diagnosed after puberty, with the highest rate between 15 years and 19 years of age (see obesity in adolescents). […] Approximately 80% of children with type 2 diabetes have obesity. […] However, there is considerable heterogeneity, and the relationship between obesity and age at onset of type 2 diabetes is less clear in some ethnicities (eg, South Asian children). […] Type 2 diabetes in children is different than type 2 diabetes in adults. In children, decline in beta-cell function and development of diabetes-related complications are accelerated. […] Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander heritage, family history (60 to 90% have a first- or second-degree relative with type 2 diabetes), maternal history of type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes during pregnancy, and current use of atypical antipsychotic medications.

• #2 Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes in Children: Epidemiology and Treatment

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4099943/

  The average age of onset of T2D in youth is 13 years of age. […] Before the mid-1990’s, very few children with diabetes (about 1-2%) were classified as having T2D. […] However, as obesity has increased in recent years, the incidence of T2D has increased to 25-45% of all youth diagnosed with diabetes. […] T2D disproportionately affects adults with lower SES so it is not surprising that youth with T2D are also more likely to be from lower SES backgrounds. […] In summary, research indicates that T2D is being increasingly diagnosed in older children and young adolescents throughout the world. […] There is a great range of prevalence and incidence, with consistently higher rates among youth from Native American Indian, Hispanic, black, and southern Asian ethnic backgrounds. […] The long-term prognosis of youth with T2D is not currently known, but it is estimated that these youth may have a loss of up to 15 years of life expectancy, and increased risk of serious health complications by the time they reach their 40’s, depending on their level of glycemic control.

• #2 Prevalence of type 2 diabetes– Children and adolescents

  https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/12586

  Prevalence of type 2 diabetes Children and adolescents Results of the Diabetes Surveillance 2015 2024 Nationale Diabetes-Surveillance am Robert Koch-Institut The indicator (key figure) presented here is part of the Diabetes Surveillance indicator set (research project at the Robert Koch Institute 2015 2024) with a total of 40 defined indicators or indicator groups. […] There are indicators for children and adolescents as well as for adults. The results of the Diabetes Surveillance at the end of the project in 2024 are published on the publication server of the Robert Koch Institute (https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/12467).

• #2 Diabetes Canada | Clinical Practice Guidelines

  https://guidelines.diabetes.ca/cpg/chapter35

  Risk factors for the development of type 2 diabetes in children include a history of type 2 diabetes in a first- or second-degree relative, being a member of a high-risk population, obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, polycystic ovary syndrome, exposure to diabetes in utero, acanthosis nigricans, hypertension and dyslipidemia, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. […] In children with obesity, family-based healthy behaviour interventions, which include physical activity, healthy nutrition and mental health supports have been shown to result in a modest decrease in body mass index (BMI) and improvements in metabolic health parameters. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should receive care in conjunction or consultation with an interprofessional pediatric diabetes health-care team that should include either a pediatric endocrinologist or pediatrician with diabetes expertise, dietitian, diabetes nurse educator and mental health professional.

• #2 Diabetes Canada | Clinical Practice Guidelines

  https://guidelines.diabetes.ca/cpg/chapter35

  The target A1C for most children with type 2 diabetes should be 7.0%. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should be screened for neuropathy at diagnosis and annually thereafter. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should be screened at diagnosis for retinopathy and yearly thereafter. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should be screened for chronic kidney disease at diagnosis and yearly thereafter with a first morning urine ACR or a random ACR. […] Children with type 2 diabetes should be screened at diagnosis for comorbid conditions associated with insulin resistance, including NAFLD, OSA, and PCOS in pubertal females, and yearly thereafter as clinically indicated.

• #3 National Diabetes Statistics Report | Diabetes | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/php/data-research/index.html

  352,000 children and adolescents younger than age 20 years or 35 per 10,000 U.S. youth had diagnosed diabetes. This includes 304,000 with type 1 diabetes. […] Data from the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study indicated that, during 2017-2018, the estimated annual number of newly diagnosed cases in the United States included: 5,293 children and adolescents aged 10 to 19 years with type 2 diabetes. […] For the entire period 2002-2018, overall incidence of type 2 diabetes significantly increased. […] Incidence of type 2 diabetes significantly increased for all racial and ethnic groups, especially Asian or Pacific Islander, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic Black children and adolescents. […] Non-Hispanic Black children and adolescents had the highest incidence of type 2 diabetes across all years.

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