Cukrzyca typu 2 u dzieci
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Cukrzyca typu 2 u dzieci jest zaburzeniem metabolicznym charakteryzującym się insulinoopornością oraz względnym niedoborem insuliny, wynikającym z dysfunkcji komórek β trzustki. Insulinooporność dotyczy głównie mięśni, tkanki tłuszczowej i wątroby, prowadząc do zmniejszonego wychwytu glukozy i zwiększonej produkcji glukozy w wątrobie. U dzieci z otyłością obserwuje się nadmierne gromadzenie tłuszczu w narządach, co potęguje insulinooporność. W okresie dojrzewania fizjologiczny wzrost insulinooporności jest kompensowany przez zwiększone wydzielanie insuliny, jednak u części młodzieży dochodzi do szybkiego pogorszenia funkcji komórek β, które spadają nawet o 15% rocznie, co przyspiesza progresję choroby. Patogeneza obejmuje także hiperglukagonemię, zaburzenia działania hormonów inkretynowych, stan zapalny, lipotoksyczność oraz zwiększoną reabsorpcję glukozy w nerkach. Czynniki ryzyka to przede wszystkim otyłość (obecna u około 80% chorych), predyspozycje genetyczne (dziedziczność 30-70%), ekspozycja wewnątrzmaciczna na otyłość i hiperglikemię matki, a także czynniki środowiskowe i etniczne.

U dzieci cukrzyca typu 2 charakteryzuje się szybszym spadkiem funkcji komórek β i wcześniejszym występowaniem powikłań w porównaniu z dorosłymi. Badanie TODAY wykazało, że utrata kontroli glikemicznej u młodzieży jest 3-4-krotnie wyższa niż u dorosłych, a powikłania cukrzycowe występują częściej i wcześniej. Na poziomie molekularnym insulinooporność u nastolatków z otyłością wiąże się z zaburzeniem hamowania lipolizy przez insulinę, co prowadzi do nadmiaru wolnych kwasów tłuszczowych i dalszego pogłębiania insulinooporności. Zrozumienie złożonej patofizjologii cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci, obejmującej interakcje między insulinoopornością, dysfunkcją komórek β, hiperglukagonemią, stanem zapalnym i zaburzeniami hormonalnymi, jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii profilaktycznych i terapeutycznych, które mogą ograniczyć rosnące obciążenie chorobą w populacji pediatrycznej.

Patogeneza cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci – podstawowe mechanizmy

Cukrzyca typu 2 u dzieci to zaburzenie metaboliczne, którego częstość występowania niepokojąco rośnie równolegle ze zwiększającą się otyłością dziecięcą. Choroba ta jest postrzegana jako kontinuum insulinooporności, które jest determinowane przez predyspozycje genetyczne, środowisko wewnątrzmaciczne, nadmierną konsumpcję pokarmów, ciągły szybki przyrost masy ciała i niewłaściwy styl życia.12 Tradycyjnie cukrzyca typu 2 była uważana za rzadkość w populacji pediatrycznej, jednak w ostatniej dekadzie nastąpił niepokojący wzrost częstości występowania tej choroby w wieku dziecięcym, odzwierciedlający rosnący odsetek otyłości u dzieci.3

W przeciwieństwie do cukrzycy typu 1, w cukrzycy typu 2 trzustka produkuje insulinę, ale występują różne stopnie insulinooporności, a wydzielanie insuliny jest niewystarczające, aby zaspokoić zwiększone zapotrzebowanie spowodowane insulinoopornością (względny niedobór insuliny).4 Patofizjologia cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci koncentruje się na delikatnej równowadze między wrażliwością na insulinę a jej wydzielaniem.5

Insulinooporność jako kluczowy element patogenezy

Insulinooporność stanowi podstawowy element patogenezy cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci. Komórki tkanki mięśniowej, tłuszczowej i wątroby nie reagują prawidłowo na insulinę, co prowadzi do zmniejszonego transportu glukozy do komórek, zwiększonej produkcji glukozy w wątrobie i zwiększonego rozkładu tłuszczów.6 Insulinooporność mięśniowa odpowiada za 85-90% zmniejszonego całkowitego wychwytu glukozy w organizmie u osób z cukrzycą typu 2.7

U dzieci z otyłością dochodzi do nadmiernego gromadzenia się tłuszczu w wątrobie, mięśniach i komórkach β trzustki, co zwiększa insulinooporność w tych narządach.8 Dodatkowo, gromadzenie się tłuszczu ektopowego (w tkankach niebędących tkanką tłuszczową), takich jak tłuszcz nasierdziowy i mięśnia sercowego, tłuszcz wewnątrz- i pozaotrzewnowy, tłuszcz krezkowy, przyczynia się do pogłębienia insulinooporności.9

W rozwoju insulinooporności u dzieci i młodzieży istotną rolę odgrywa okres dojrzewania. Podczas pubertacji dochodzi do fizjologicznego zwiększenia insulinooporności, spowodowanego wzrostem stężenia hormonu wzrostu, insulinopodobnego czynnika wzrostu (IGF-1) oraz innych hormonów płciowych.1011 Większość młodzieży równoważy tę przejściową oporność poprzez zwiększenie wydzielania insuliny, ale z przyczyn, które nadal nie są w pełni wyjaśnione, część młodzieży nie jest w stanie tego zrobić.1213

Dysfunkcja komórek β trzustki

Chociaż insulinooporność jest istotnym czynnikiem w rozwoju cukrzycy typu 2, do powstania klinicznej cukrzycy niezbędna jest również dysfunkcja komórek β trzustki i niewystarczające wydzielanie insuliny.1415 W badaniach wykazano, że czynność komórek β trzustki jest zmniejszona o 50% w momencie rozpoznania cukrzycy typu 2 u dorosłych.16

Co istotne, dysfunkcja komórek β u dzieci i młodzieży postępuje znacznie szybciej niż u dorosłych. Badania prospektywne u młodych osób z cukrzycą typu 2 wykazały niemal 15% spadek funkcji komórek β rocznie przez 6 lat trwania cukrzycy, bez istotnych zmian w insulinowrażliwości.17 Młodzież z cukrzycą typu 2 ma szybszą progresję do niewydolności glikemicznej w porównaniu z dorosłymi, co wiąże się z przyspieszoną utratą funkcji komórek β i niższą wrażliwością na insulinę.1819

Mechanizmy prowadzące do dysfunkcji komórek β są złożone i obejmują:

  • Dedyferencjację komórek β – proces definiowany jako utrata czynników transkrypcyjnych charakterystycznych dla komórek β, który może wystąpić w wyniku glukotoksyczności20
  • Transdyferencjację komórek β – proces przekształcania jednego terminalnie zróżnicowanego typu komórek w inny21
  • Glukotoksyczność – przewlekła hiperglikemia prowadząca do podwyższonych poziomów NADH i reaktywnych form tlenu (ROS)22
  • Lipotoksyczność – wpływ podwyższonych poziomów wolnych kwasów tłuszczowych23
  • Dysfunkcję mitochondriów – wykazano, że mitochondria u osób z cukrzycą typu 2 są mniejsze, pofragmentowane i obrzęknięte24
  • Stres retikulum endoplazmatycznego – hiperglikemia i zwiększona produkcja insuliny mogą prowadzić do stresu retikulum endoplazmatycznego, co może skutkować odpowiedzią na nieprawidłowo złożone białka (UPR) w komórkach β25

Szybkość spadku funkcji komórek β jest przyspieszona u dzieci w porównaniu z dorosłymi, prawdopodobnie z powodu podatności komórek β w okresie dynamicznego wzrostu i dojrzewania, synergii między insulinoopornością związaną z dojrzewaniem a insulinoopornością związaną z otyłością, nasileniem i szybkością przyrostu masy ciała oraz współdziałania hormonu wzrostu, insuliny, estrogenów i innych steroidów płciowych.26

Dodatkowe mechanizmy patogenetyczne

Oprócz insulinooporności i dysfunkcji komórek β, w patogenezie cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci uczestniczy wiele dodatkowych mechanizmów:

Hiperglukagonemia i zwiększona produkcja glukozy w wątrobie

W cukrzycy typu 2 dochodzi do zaburzenia prawidłowej relacji parakrynnej między komórkami α wydzielającymi glukagon a komórkami β wydzielającymi insulinę, co prowadzi do hiperglukagonemii, a w konsekwencji hiperglikemii.27 Hiperglukagonemia odgrywa kluczową rolę w progresji od normoglikemii do upośledzonej tolerancji glukozy i może prognozować rozwój IGT.28

W warunkach fizjologicznych, po posiłku, wydzielanie insuliny stymuluje wychwyt glukozy przez wątrobę i magazynowanie glikogenu, co hamuje produkcję glukozy w wątrobie (HGP). Z powodu insulinooporności wątrobowej dochodzi do braku zahamowania glikogenolizy i niezdolności do stłumienia glukoneogenezy.29 Zwiększona insulinooporność w mózgu może również nasilać produkcję glukozy w wątrobie poprzez sygnalizację nerwową, niezależnie od insulinooporności wątrobowej.30

Zapalenie i zmiany w cytokinach

Insulinooporność jest związana z podwyższonymi poziomami wolnych kwasów tłuszczowych i prozapalnych cytokin w osoczu.31 Stan zapalny i hiperglikemia obecne w cukrzycy typu 2 mogą prowadzić do zmian w sygnalizacji prostaglandynowej. Jedną z regulowanych w górę cząsteczek sygnałowych w cukrzycy typu 2 jest prostaglandyna E2 (PGE2), która wiąże się z różnymi receptorami, w tym EP2. Ekspresja EP2 jest podwyższona w cukrzycy typu 2, co sugeruje, że jego aktywność przyczynia się do defektów w mechanizmie kompensacyjnym komórek β.32

Stres indukuje również określone hormony, które antagonizują działanie insuliny, tworząc większą insulinooporność. Stres jest również związany z przewlekłym stanem zapalnym w organizmie, który wpływa na zdolność organizmu do prawidłowej odpowiedzi.3334

Deficyty w produkcji i działaniu inkretyn

U osób z cukrzycą typu 2 występują zaburzenia w produkcji i działaniu hormonów inkretynowych, takich jak glukagonopodobny peptyd-1 (GLP-1). Hormony te są wydzielane przez komórki jelita w odpowiedzi na posiłek i stymulują wydzielanie insuliny zależne od glukozy, hamują wydzielanie glukagonu oraz spowalniają opróżnianie żołądka.3536

Zwiększona reabsorpcja glukozy w nerkach

W patogenezie cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci uczestniczy również zwiększona reabsorpcja glukozy w nerkach, co przyczynia się do utrzymywania hiperglikemii.3738

Czynniki ryzyka i wpływ środowiska

Otyłość i nadwaga

Konsekwentnym pojedynczym czynnikiem ryzyka rozwoju cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci jest otyłość i związana z nią insulinooporność.3940 Około 80% dzieci z cukrzycą typu 2 ma otyłość.41 Jednak istnieje znaczna heterogenność, a związek między otyłością a wiekiem wystąpienia cukrzycy typu 2 jest mniej oczywisty w niektórych grupach etnicznych (np. dzieci z Azji Południowej).42

W przypadku otyłości dochodzi do nieodpowiedniego magazynowania nadmiaru kalorii w podskórnej tkance tłuszczowej, co prowadzi do odkładania się tłuszczu w narządach takich jak wątroba, serce, mięśnie szkieletowe i trzustka, powodując rozległe uszkodzenia tkanek.43

Wpływ środowiska wewnątrzmacicznego

Środowisko wewnątrzmaciczne, szczególnie ekspozycja na otyłość matki, zaburzenia równowagi składników odżywczych i hiperglikemię, ma istotne znaczenie dla ryzyka rozwoju cukrzycy i otyłości u potomstwa, prowadząc do międzypokoleniowej transmisji w populacjach wysokiego ryzyka.44

Badanie SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth w USA sugerowało, że aż 47% przypadków cukrzycy typu 2 u młodzieży można przypisać ekspozycji wewnątrzmacicznej na cukrzycę i otyłość matki. Jednak było tylko 4,7% ryzyka przypisywalnego u młodzieży narażonej wyłącznie na hiperglikemię wewnątrzmaciczną bez otyłości i 19,7% ryzyka przypisywalnego u młodzieży narażonej na otyłość matki wewnątrzmacicznie bez hiperglikemii.45

Fenotyp „chudy-tłusty” opisany w niektórych populacjach, obejmujący preferencyjny wzrost tkanki tłuszczowej w porównaniu z masą beztłuszczową u dzieci narażonych na hiperglikemię w macicy, dodatkowo potęgowany przez niedożywienie matki i zaburzenia równowagi składników odżywczych, ma również prawdopodobnie duże znaczenie.46

Czynniki genetyczne i epigenetyczne

Dziedziczność cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci wynosi od 30% do 70%.47 Silna predyspozycja genetyczna jest kluczowym czynnikiem determinującym rozwój cukrzycy typu 2.48 Pierwsze badanie asocjacji genomowej dla cukrzycy typu 2 u młodych osób opublikowano w 2021 roku, obejmujące 9067 uczestników o wieloetnicznym pochodzeniu, składające się z 3006 młodych osób i 6061 dorosłych z grupy kontrolnej. Wyniki sugerują, że dorośli i młode osoby z cukrzycą typu 2 mają nakładającą się architekturę genetyczną, ale rola genetyki jest prawdopodobnie większa dla ryzyka choroby u nastolatków niż u dorosłych.49

Zmiany epigenetyczne są również prawdopodobnie ważne dla zrozumienia rosnących wskaźników cukrzycy w populacjach wysokiego ryzyka.50

Inne czynniki ryzyka

Do innych czynników ryzyka rozwoju cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci należą:5152

  • Pochodzenie etniczne – pochodzenie rdzennych Amerykanów, Afroamerykanów, Latynosów, Azjatów Amerykańskich i mieszkańców wysp Pacyfiku
  • Wywiad rodzinny – krewni pierwszego lub drugiego stopnia z cukrzycą typu 2
  • Wywiad matczyny – cukrzyca typu 2 lub cukrzyca ciążowa podczas ciąży
  • Stosowanie atypowych leków przeciwpsychotycznych
  • Nadciśnienie tętnicze
  • Dyslipidemia
  • Zespół policystycznych jajników (PCOS)
  • Obturacyjny bezdech senny
  • Niealkoholowe stłuszczeniowe zapalenie wątroby
  • Ciemne i pogrubione fałdy skóry na karku (rogowacenie ciemne, acanthosis nigricans)
  • Urodzeniowa masa ciała mała w stosunku do wieku ciążowego

Agresywny przebieg cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci

Cukrzyca typu 2 o wczesnym początku u dzieci różni się od cukrzycy typu 2 u dorosłych. U dzieci spadek funkcji komórek β i rozwój powikłań związanych z cukrzycą następuje szybciej.53 Badanie TODAY (Treatment Options for type 2 Diabetes in Adolescents and Youth) wykazało, że utrata kontroli glikemicznej była trzy do czterech razy wyższa u młodzieży i młodych osób niż wskaźniki obserwowane u dorosłych.54

Młodzież z cukrzycą typu 2 doświadcza powikłań cukrzycowych z większą częstotliwością niż dzieci z cukrzycą typu 1. Im wcześniejszy początek, tym wcześniejsze powikłania.55 Proponowane hipotezy wyjaśniające zwiększone ryzyko powikłań to bardziej agresywna patofizjologia, źle kontrolowana hiperglikemia, dłuższa ekspozycja na obciążenie glikemiczne, jednoczesna obecność innych czynników ryzyka metabolicznego, nierozpoznany okres nieleczonej lub niedostatecznie leczonej hiperglikemii przed rozpoznaniem oraz wpływ otyłości i stanu zapalnego.56

Implikacje tych powikłań są szczególnie ważne w tej grupie wiekowej ze względu na ich wpływ na edukację i pracę, konsekwencje psychologiczne i zwiększone wydatki na opiekę zdrowotną.57

Mechanizmy molekularne

Na poziomie molekularnym, niedawne badania wykazały specyficzny mechanizm leżący u podstaw insulinooporności u nastolatków z otyłością. W badaniu przeprowadzonym przez naukowców z Yale zaobserwowano, jak nastolatkowie z otyłością reagują na insulinę. Zazwyczaj insulina zatrzymuje rozkład tłuszczu w tkance tłuszczowej. Jednak badacze odkryli, że u nastolatków z insulinoopornością zdolność insuliny do blokowania rozkładu tłuszczu była zaburzona w porównaniu z osobami bez insulinooporności.5859

U nastolatków z insulinoopornością insulina nie była w stanie zahamować rozkładu tłuszczu, głównie dlatego, że insulina nie aktywowała głównego enzymu regulującego rozkład tłuszczu w tkance tłuszczowej. W rezultacie nadmiar kwasów tłuszczowych nadal przepływał do innych tkanek, co może wyjaśniać, dlaczego niektórzy nastolatkowie z otyłością rozwijają cukrzycę typu 2.6061

Przyszłe leki, które mogłyby celować w tę ścieżkę i blokować wydzielanie tłuszczu z wątroby, mogłyby potencjalnie zapobiegać rozwojowi cukrzycy typu 2 u nastolatków z insulinoopornością.6263

Podsumowanie patogenezy

Patogeneza cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci jest złożona i obejmuje wzajemne oddziaływanie między wrażliwością na insulinę a jej wydzielaniem, co determinuje homeostazę glukozy i progresję od prawidłowej tolerancji glukozy do IGT i cukrzycy typu 2 u młodzieży. Defekty zarówno w działaniu insuliny, jak i odpowiedzi na nią, są obecne we wczesnych stadiach rozwoju cukrzycy typu 2 i są wyzwalane przez modulatory środowiskowe na tle podatności genetycznej.64

Cukrzyca typu 2 u dzieci i młodzieży stanowi kontinuum od insulinooporności, przez upośledzenie funkcji komórek β trzustki, prowadząc do hiperglikemii. W patogenezie uczestniczą liczne defekty metaboliczne, w tym dysfunkcja komórek β i nieadekwatne wydzielanie insuliny, dysfunkcja komórek α, hiperglukagonemia i zwiększona produkcja glukozy w wątrobie, lipotoksyczność, stan zapalny, deficyty w produkcji i działaniu inkretyn oraz zwiększona reabsorpcja glukozy w nerkach.656667

Zrozumienie złożonej patofizjologii cukrzycy typu 2 u dzieci ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych strategii zapobiegawczych i terapeutycznych, które mogłyby złagodzić rosnący wpływ tej choroby na młode osoby.

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  1. 10.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. […] Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity.
  • #2 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879890/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. Better knowledge regarding the pathophysiology of type 2 DM in children is paramount to devise an effective management plan. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. The confluence of genetic and environmental factors underscores the complexity in disease progression. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity. It is important to investigate the role of stringent dietary and nutritional approaches, medications that enhance -cell function and insulin sensitivity.
  • #3 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Children: Pathophysiology and Risk Factors
    https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/jpem-2000-s612/html?srsltid=AfmBOorfPP7z_ny6L8qYsOaNBVYEUcEVIfKPZZ7ILJWxU32AUDGI0Dv6
    Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) has been considered rare in the pediatric population. However, over the last decade, there has been a disturbing upswing in the rate of diagnosis of type 2 DM in the pediatric age group, mirroring the increasing rates of obesity in childhood. The pathophysiology of type 2 DM discussed in this article focuses on the delicate balance between insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion. The risk factors for youth-onset type 2 DM are presented, with careful evaluation of their impact on insulin sensitivity versus insulin secretion. […] The pathophysiology of type 2 DM discussed in this article focuses on the delicate balance between insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion. […] The risk factors for youth-onset type 2 DM are presented, with careful evaluation of their impact on insulin sensitivity versus insulin secretion.
  • #4 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents
    Type 2 diabetes, once rare in children, has been increasing in frequency in parallel with the increase in childhood obesity. […] Type 2 is typically diagnosed after puberty, with the highest rate between 15 years and 19 years of age. […] Approximately 80% of children with type 2 diabetes have obesity. […] However, there is considerable heterogeneity, and the relationship between obesity and age at onset of type 2 diabetes is less clear in some ethnicities (eg, South Asian children). […] In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas produces insulin, but there are varying degrees of insulin resistance, and insulin secretion is inadequate to meet the increased demand caused by insulin resistance (ie, there is relative insulin deficiency). […] Onset of type 2 diabetes often coincides with the peak of physiologic pubertal insulin resistance, which may lead to symptoms of hyperglycemia in previously compensated adolescents.
  • #5 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Children: Pathophysiology and Risk Factors
    https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/jpem-2000-s612/html?srsltid=AfmBOorfPP7z_ny6L8qYsOaNBVYEUcEVIfKPZZ7ILJWxU32AUDGI0Dv6
    Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) has been considered rare in the pediatric population. However, over the last decade, there has been a disturbing upswing in the rate of diagnosis of type 2 DM in the pediatric age group, mirroring the increasing rates of obesity in childhood. The pathophysiology of type 2 DM discussed in this article focuses on the delicate balance between insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion. The risk factors for youth-onset type 2 DM are presented, with careful evaluation of their impact on insulin sensitivity versus insulin secretion. […] The pathophysiology of type 2 DM discussed in this article focuses on the delicate balance between insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion. […] The risk factors for youth-onset type 2 DM are presented, with careful evaluation of their impact on insulin sensitivity versus insulin secretion.
  • #6 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117853-overview
    Type 2 diabetes is characterized by a combination of peripheral insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells. Insulin resistance, which has been attributed to elevated levels of free fatty acids and proinflammatory cytokines in plasma, leads to decreased glucose transport into muscle cells, elevated hepatic glucose production, and increased breakdown of fat. […] A role for excess glucagon cannot be underestimated; indeed, type 2 diabetes is an islet paracrinopathy in which the reciprocal relationship between the glucagon-secreting alpha cell and the insulin-secreting beta cell is lost, leading to hyperglucagonemia and hence the consequent hyperglycemia. […] For type 2 diabetes mellitus to occur, both insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion must exist. For example, all overweight individuals have insulin resistance, but diabetes develops only in those who cannot increase insulin secretion sufficiently to compensate for their insulin resistance. Their insulin concentrations may be high, yet inappropriately low for the level of glycemia.
  • #7 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    Type 2 DM is a continuum of IR. […] Muscle IR contributes to 85-90% of reduced total body glucose disposal in individuals with type 2 DM. […] The excess accumulation of fat in the liver, muscle and -cells increase IR in these organs. […] Defects in insulin secretion along with IR beget IGT and type 2 DM given the inability of the -cell to respond to incremental changes in glucose. […] Insulin secretory defects contribute to the development of elevated fasting glucose and IGT. […] Hepatic IR: Following a meal, the secretion of insulin stimulates liver glucose uptake and glycogen storage which then suppress HGP. […] Due to hepatic IR, there is a failure to inhibit glycogenolysis and inability to suppress gluconeogenesis. […] The increased IR in the brain can augment HGP via neural signaling, independent of hepatic IR.
  • #8 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    Type 2 DM is a continuum of IR. […] Muscle IR contributes to 85-90% of reduced total body glucose disposal in individuals with type 2 DM. […] The excess accumulation of fat in the liver, muscle and -cells increase IR in these organs. […] Defects in insulin secretion along with IR beget IGT and type 2 DM given the inability of the -cell to respond to incremental changes in glucose. […] Insulin secretory defects contribute to the development of elevated fasting glucose and IGT. […] Hepatic IR: Following a meal, the secretion of insulin stimulates liver glucose uptake and glycogen storage which then suppress HGP. […] Due to hepatic IR, there is a failure to inhibit glycogenolysis and inability to suppress gluconeogenesis. […] The increased IR in the brain can augment HGP via neural signaling, independent of hepatic IR.
  • #9 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The core pathophysiologic defects include IR in the liver, muscle, adipose tissue, and eventual -cell failure. […] Overweight/obesity, continued weight gain, degree of weight gain, increasing Body Mass Index (BMI) percentiles, and consequent IR are the critical factors associated with the development of type 2 DM in children and adolescents. […] Ectopic fat accumulation includes storage of fat in non-adipose tissue such as myocardial and epicardial fat, intra and retroperitoneal fat, mesenteric fat, etc. […] During puberty, there is a surge in growth hormone and Insulin-like Growth Factor-I (IGF-1), which increases IR. […] Insulin receptors on -cells get overstimulated by pubertal estrogen, or environmental/exogenous estrogens, rendering -cells more vulnerable at the time of higher -cell turnover.
  • #10 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The core pathophysiologic defects include IR in the liver, muscle, adipose tissue, and eventual -cell failure. […] Overweight/obesity, continued weight gain, degree of weight gain, increasing Body Mass Index (BMI) percentiles, and consequent IR are the critical factors associated with the development of type 2 DM in children and adolescents. […] Ectopic fat accumulation includes storage of fat in non-adipose tissue such as myocardial and epicardial fat, intra and retroperitoneal fat, mesenteric fat, etc. […] During puberty, there is a surge in growth hormone and Insulin-like Growth Factor-I (IGF-1), which increases IR. […] Insulin receptors on -cells get overstimulated by pubertal estrogen, or environmental/exogenous estrogens, rendering -cells more vulnerable at the time of higher -cell turnover.
  • #11 What Is Type 2 Diabetes? (for Parents) | Nemours KidsHealth
    https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/type2.html
    People who have type 2 diabetes have a hard time using glucose (sugar) from food for energy. […] In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas makes insulin, but the cells dont respond to it as they should. This is called insulin resistance. […] When glucose cant get into cells, the blood sugar level rises. Then the pancreas works harder to make even more insulin. […] Type 2 diabetes happens more often in children who are overweight. […] Many kids and teens are diagnosed with type 2 diabetes around puberty. […] Girls and women with PCOS have insulin resistance and are more likely to get type 2 diabetes. […] Babies are exposed to more sugar in the womb when their mother has diabetes. This along with genetic factors increase the chance of getting type 2 diabetes later in life. […] Many people with insulin resistance have dark patches on their skin, especially in skin folds like those around the neck or in the armpits.
  • #12 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Health | EL PAÍS English
    https://english.elpais.com/health/2024-08-04/understanding-the-sudden-rise-of-type-2-diabetes-in-children.html
    In type 2 diabetes, the body struggles to use insulin effectively. […] But sometimes those cells gradually lose their ability to respond to insulin, forcing the beta cells to pump out more and more of it. […] If the beta cells cant keep up, blood glucose levels will begin to rise, leading to a diagnosis of prediabetes and, eventually, diabetes. […] Various factors have been linked to insulin resistance in childhood or adolescence, including obesity, inactivity and genetics, according to a review of the causes of type 2 diabetes in youths published in the 2022 Annual Review of Medicine. […] One theory is that fetal exposure to maternal diabetes while in the womb can spur metabolic changes following birth. […] During puberty, youths temporarily experience insulin resistance, due in large part to an increase in hormones, Linder says.
  • #13 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Health | EL PAÍS English
    https://english.elpais.com/health/2024-08-04/understanding-the-sudden-rise-of-type-2-diabetes-in-children.html
    Most youths offset that transient resistance by secreting more insulin, she says. […] But for reasons that are still unclear, a subpopulation of adolescents does not. […] When theyre faced with this stress test of puberty, they cant increase their insulin secretion enough to compensate, Linder says. […] And thats probably why they develop type 2 diabetes. […] Moreover, while obesity and insulin resistance boost the risk of developing diabetes, those factors alone dont predict whether an adolescent is eventually diagnosed with the disease, according to the authors of the Annual Review of Medicine overview. […] Instead, they point to the role of impaired beta cell function. […] What we see in the youth is that beta cell function fails very rapidly, Linder says, adding that the beta cell decline tends to correlate with the lack of response to metformin.
  • #14 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117853-overview
    Type 2 diabetes is characterized by a combination of peripheral insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells. Insulin resistance, which has been attributed to elevated levels of free fatty acids and proinflammatory cytokines in plasma, leads to decreased glucose transport into muscle cells, elevated hepatic glucose production, and increased breakdown of fat. […] A role for excess glucagon cannot be underestimated; indeed, type 2 diabetes is an islet paracrinopathy in which the reciprocal relationship between the glucagon-secreting alpha cell and the insulin-secreting beta cell is lost, leading to hyperglucagonemia and hence the consequent hyperglycemia. […] For type 2 diabetes mellitus to occur, both insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion must exist. For example, all overweight individuals have insulin resistance, but diabetes develops only in those who cannot increase insulin secretion sufficiently to compensate for their insulin resistance. Their insulin concentrations may be high, yet inappropriately low for the level of glycemia.
  • #15 Mechanism linking diabetes mellitus and obesity | DMSO
    https://www.dovepress.com/mechanism-linking-diabetes-mellitus-and-obesity-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-DMSO
    Body mass index has a strong relationship to diabetes and insulin resistance. […] The pathogenesis in the development of diabetes is based on the fact that the -islet cells of the pancreas are impaired, causing a lack of control of blood glucose. […] The development of diabetes becomes more inevitable if the failure of -islet cells of the pancreas is accompanied by insulin resistance. […] Type 2 diabetes has a different pathophysiology and etiology as compared to type 1 diabetes. […] Type 2 diabetes is described as a combination of low amounts of insulin production from pancreatic -cells and peripheral insulin resistance. […] Insulin resistance and pancreatic -cell dysfunction must occur simultaneously for type 2 diabetes to develop. […] A continued decline in -cell function is one of the main causes leading to type 2 diabetes.
  • #16 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview
    Failure of the beta cell to keep up with the peripheral insulin resistance is the basis for the progression from impaired glucose tolerance to overt clinical type 2 diabetes. […] Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that during the transition between normal glucose tolerance to diabetes, 31% of a person’s insulin-mediated glucose disposal capacity, as well as 78% of his or her acute insulin response, is lost. […] The UK Prospective Diabetes Study found that beta cell function was 50% of normal at the time of diagnosis of type 2 diabetes in adults. […] A case study of the progression of diabetes in an adolescent female found an almost 15% decline in beta cell function per year over the 6-year duration of diabetes, with no substantial changes in insulin sensitivity. […] Further prospective studies in young persons with type 2 diabetes are needed in order to clarify the mechanism of disease in this population.
  • #17 Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/925700-overview
    Failure of the beta cell to keep up with the peripheral insulin resistance is the basis for the progression from impaired glucose tolerance to overt clinical type 2 diabetes. […] Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that during the transition between normal glucose tolerance to diabetes, 31% of a person’s insulin-mediated glucose disposal capacity, as well as 78% of his or her acute insulin response, is lost. […] The UK Prospective Diabetes Study found that beta cell function was 50% of normal at the time of diagnosis of type 2 diabetes in adults. […] A case study of the progression of diabetes in an adolescent female found an almost 15% decline in beta cell function per year over the 6-year duration of diabetes, with no substantial changes in insulin sensitivity. […] Further prospective studies in young persons with type 2 diabetes are needed in order to clarify the mechanism of disease in this population.
  • #18 Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: Exploring the disease heterogeneity and research gaps to optimum management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v13/i2/91587.htm
    In people who develop T2DM during childhood or adolescence, a more aggressive course is frequently noted than those who develop T2DM in adulthood with a faster decline in -cell function, high incidence of treatment failure, and accelerated development of complications. […] Moreover, the available therapeutic options for children and adolescents with T2DM are inadequate. […] Taking together, young-onset T2DM is an emerging disorder with unique challenges in clinical care as well as research programs, leaving huge knowledge gaps in pathophysiology, clinical course, and optimization of treatment. […] Although obesity and insulin resistance are critical initial factors, progression to glycemic failure is heralded by evidence of impaired -cell function. […] Adolescents with T2DM have rapid progression to glycemic failure compared with adults.
  • #19 Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: Exploring the disease heterogeneity and research gaps to optimum management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v13/i2/91587.htm
    Their pathogenesis involves an accelerated rate of -cell function loss and lower insulin sensitivity than adults. […] The exact etiology for this accelerated -cell function loss is not known, but excess growth hormone during puberty and obesity-induced insulin resistance and glucolipotoxicity are postulated to have a role. […] The heritability of T2DM in children ranges between 30% and 70%. […] The first genome-wide association study for T2DM in young people was published in 2021, which included 9067 participants from multiethnic backgrounds and consisted of 3006 young people and 6061 adult controls. […] These findings suggest that adults and young-onset T2DM persons have overlapping genetic architecture, but the role of genetics is probably higher for disease risk in adolescents than in adults.
  • #20 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: New Pathogenetic Mechanisms, Treatment and the Most Important Complications
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/3/1094
    Traditionally, the dysfunction of β-cells has been attributed to the loss of β-cell mass due to β-cell exhaustion in a state of prolonged elevations in glucose metabolism and insulin secretion, as well as β-cells apoptosis caused by glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity. However, it is suggested that the impaired function of β-cells may be a result of more complex mechanisms and interactions. […] One of the proposed mechanisms is the dedifferentiation of β-cells, a process defined as the loss of β-cell-defining transcription factors. Such loss of identity of a β-cell can occur as a result of glucotoxicity. […] Another mechanism is the transdifferentiation of β-cells, which is a process of converting one terminally differentiated cell type into another. […] Chronic hyperglycemia can result in glucotoxicity which promotes the development and progression of T2DM. Elevated levels of NADH and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are present in chronic hyperglycemia, have been associated with the dysfunction of β-cell.
  • #21 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: New Pathogenetic Mechanisms, Treatment and the Most Important Complications
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/3/1094
    Traditionally, the dysfunction of β-cells has been attributed to the loss of β-cell mass due to β-cell exhaustion in a state of prolonged elevations in glucose metabolism and insulin secretion, as well as β-cells apoptosis caused by glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity. However, it is suggested that the impaired function of β-cells may be a result of more complex mechanisms and interactions. […] One of the proposed mechanisms is the dedifferentiation of β-cells, a process defined as the loss of β-cell-defining transcription factors. Such loss of identity of a β-cell can occur as a result of glucotoxicity. […] Another mechanism is the transdifferentiation of β-cells, which is a process of converting one terminally differentiated cell type into another. […] Chronic hyperglycemia can result in glucotoxicity which promotes the development and progression of T2DM. Elevated levels of NADH and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are present in chronic hyperglycemia, have been associated with the dysfunction of β-cell.
  • #22 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: New Pathogenetic Mechanisms, Treatment and the Most Important Complications
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/3/1094
    Traditionally, the dysfunction of β-cells has been attributed to the loss of β-cell mass due to β-cell exhaustion in a state of prolonged elevations in glucose metabolism and insulin secretion, as well as β-cells apoptosis caused by glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity. However, it is suggested that the impaired function of β-cells may be a result of more complex mechanisms and interactions. […] One of the proposed mechanisms is the dedifferentiation of β-cells, a process defined as the loss of β-cell-defining transcription factors. Such loss of identity of a β-cell can occur as a result of glucotoxicity. […] Another mechanism is the transdifferentiation of β-cells, which is a process of converting one terminally differentiated cell type into another. […] Chronic hyperglycemia can result in glucotoxicity which promotes the development and progression of T2DM. Elevated levels of NADH and reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are present in chronic hyperglycemia, have been associated with the dysfunction of β-cell.
  • #23 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. […] Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity.
  • #24 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: New Pathogenetic Mechanisms, Treatment and the Most Important Complications
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/3/1094
    Mitochondrial dysfunction is another factor that can lead to β-cell dysfunction, as seen in T2DM, and it has been observed that mitochondria in humans with T2DM are smaller, fragmented, and swollen. […] The state of hyperglycemia and increased insulin production can lead to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, which can result in unfolded protein response (UPR) in β-cells. […] Systemic inflammation and hyperglycemia, which are present in T2DM, can lead to alterations in prostaglandin signaling. One of the upregulated signaling molecules in T2DM is prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), which binds to a few different receptors, including EP2. EP2 expression is elevated in T2DM, which suggests that its activity contributes to defects in the compensatory mechanism of β-cells.
  • #25 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: New Pathogenetic Mechanisms, Treatment and the Most Important Complications
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/3/1094
    Mitochondrial dysfunction is another factor that can lead to β-cell dysfunction, as seen in T2DM, and it has been observed that mitochondria in humans with T2DM are smaller, fragmented, and swollen. […] The state of hyperglycemia and increased insulin production can lead to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, which can result in unfolded protein response (UPR) in β-cells. […] Systemic inflammation and hyperglycemia, which are present in T2DM, can lead to alterations in prostaglandin signaling. One of the upregulated signaling molecules in T2DM is prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), which binds to a few different receptors, including EP2. EP2 expression is elevated in T2DM, which suggests that its activity contributes to defects in the compensatory mechanism of β-cells.
  • #26 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The decline in insulin sensitivity heralds the progression from Normal Glucose Tolerance (NGT) to Impaired Fasting Glucose (IFG), Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT) to type 2 DM. […] A strong genetic predisposition is a crucial determinant for developing T2DM. […] Factors that trigger the phenotypic expression of the T2DM are the rapidity and degree of weight gain, consumption of high calorie- high fat- high carbohydrate-high protein food, physical inactivity, and certain diabetes-inducing medications which are additive to the genetic susceptibility. […] Even though traditionally type 2 DM is characterized by the lack of -cell autoantibodies, antibody positivity is observed in some cases. […] The rapidity of -cell decline is accelerated in children compared to adults likely due to the vulnerability of the -cell during a period of dynamic growth and maturation, the synergy between pubertal IR with IR of obesity, severity, and rapidity of weight gain, and the interplay of growth hormone, insulin, estrogen and other sex steroids.
  • #27 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117853-overview
    Type 2 diabetes is characterized by a combination of peripheral insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells. Insulin resistance, which has been attributed to elevated levels of free fatty acids and proinflammatory cytokines in plasma, leads to decreased glucose transport into muscle cells, elevated hepatic glucose production, and increased breakdown of fat. […] A role for excess glucagon cannot be underestimated; indeed, type 2 diabetes is an islet paracrinopathy in which the reciprocal relationship between the glucagon-secreting alpha cell and the insulin-secreting beta cell is lost, leading to hyperglucagonemia and hence the consequent hyperglycemia. […] For type 2 diabetes mellitus to occur, both insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion must exist. For example, all overweight individuals have insulin resistance, but diabetes develops only in those who cannot increase insulin secretion sufficiently to compensate for their insulin resistance. Their insulin concentrations may be high, yet inappropriately low for the level of glycemia.
  • #28 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    In children with type 2 DM, hyperglucagonemia is determined by the duration of diabetes. […] Hyperglucagonemia plays a vital role in the progression from normoglycemia to IGT and may foretell IGT. […] Dietary management is an integral part of diabetes management. […] The standard American Diet, characterized by a high proportion of processed starches, high glycemic load, and added sugars, exacerbate these stresses on the physiological processes that regulate glucose metabolism. […] The pathophysiology of type 2 DM in children and adolescents has some unique components. […] The progression of the disease occurs at a more rapid pace leading to the development of comorbidities at an early age which reinforces the need for early detection at the pre-diabetes stage.
  • #29 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    Type 2 DM is a continuum of IR. […] Muscle IR contributes to 85-90% of reduced total body glucose disposal in individuals with type 2 DM. […] The excess accumulation of fat in the liver, muscle and -cells increase IR in these organs. […] Defects in insulin secretion along with IR beget IGT and type 2 DM given the inability of the -cell to respond to incremental changes in glucose. […] Insulin secretory defects contribute to the development of elevated fasting glucose and IGT. […] Hepatic IR: Following a meal, the secretion of insulin stimulates liver glucose uptake and glycogen storage which then suppress HGP. […] Due to hepatic IR, there is a failure to inhibit glycogenolysis and inability to suppress gluconeogenesis. […] The increased IR in the brain can augment HGP via neural signaling, independent of hepatic IR.
  • #30 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    Type 2 DM is a continuum of IR. […] Muscle IR contributes to 85-90% of reduced total body glucose disposal in individuals with type 2 DM. […] The excess accumulation of fat in the liver, muscle and -cells increase IR in these organs. […] Defects in insulin secretion along with IR beget IGT and type 2 DM given the inability of the -cell to respond to incremental changes in glucose. […] Insulin secretory defects contribute to the development of elevated fasting glucose and IGT. […] Hepatic IR: Following a meal, the secretion of insulin stimulates liver glucose uptake and glycogen storage which then suppress HGP. […] Due to hepatic IR, there is a failure to inhibit glycogenolysis and inability to suppress gluconeogenesis. […] The increased IR in the brain can augment HGP via neural signaling, independent of hepatic IR.
  • #31 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/117853-overview
    Type 2 diabetes is characterized by a combination of peripheral insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells. Insulin resistance, which has been attributed to elevated levels of free fatty acids and proinflammatory cytokines in plasma, leads to decreased glucose transport into muscle cells, elevated hepatic glucose production, and increased breakdown of fat. […] A role for excess glucagon cannot be underestimated; indeed, type 2 diabetes is an islet paracrinopathy in which the reciprocal relationship between the glucagon-secreting alpha cell and the insulin-secreting beta cell is lost, leading to hyperglucagonemia and hence the consequent hyperglycemia. […] For type 2 diabetes mellitus to occur, both insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion must exist. For example, all overweight individuals have insulin resistance, but diabetes develops only in those who cannot increase insulin secretion sufficiently to compensate for their insulin resistance. Their insulin concentrations may be high, yet inappropriately low for the level of glycemia.
  • #32 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: New Pathogenetic Mechanisms, Treatment and the Most Important Complications
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/3/1094
    Mitochondrial dysfunction is another factor that can lead to β-cell dysfunction, as seen in T2DM, and it has been observed that mitochondria in humans with T2DM are smaller, fragmented, and swollen. […] The state of hyperglycemia and increased insulin production can lead to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, which can result in unfolded protein response (UPR) in β-cells. […] Systemic inflammation and hyperglycemia, which are present in T2DM, can lead to alterations in prostaglandin signaling. One of the upregulated signaling molecules in T2DM is prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), which binds to a few different receptors, including EP2. EP2 expression is elevated in T2DM, which suggests that its activity contributes to defects in the compensatory mechanism of β-cells.
  • #33 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Knowable Magazine
    https://knowablemagazine.org/content/article/health-disease/2024/type-2-diabetes-children
    Moreover, while obesity and insulin resistance boost the risk of developing diabetes, those factors alone dont predict whether an adolescent is eventually diagnosed with the disease, according to the authors of the Annual Review of Medicine overview. Instead, they point to the role of impaired beta cell function. […] What we see in the youth is that beta cell function fails very rapidly, Linder says, adding that the beta cell decline tends to correlate with the lack of response to metformin. […] Stress induces certain hormones that antagonize insulin, so they create more insulin resistance, Linder says. Stress also is associated with chronic inflammation in the body, which affects the ability of the body to respond normally.
  • #34 Understanding the sudden rise of type 2 diabetes in children | Health | EL PAÍS English
    https://english.elpais.com/health/2024-08-04/understanding-the-sudden-rise-of-type-2-diabetes-in-children.html
    Stress induces certain hormones that antagonize insulin, so they create more insulin resistance, Linder says. […] Stress also is associated with chronic inflammation in the body, which affects the ability of the body to respond normally. […] One analysis found that Hispanic youths who lived in neighborhoods with higher levels of air pollution were more likely to experience a breakdown in beta cell function. […] If youre spiking blood glucose with corn syrup in babies, he says, you can see how that would be problematic for long-term control of blood sugars. […] Hispanic youths raised in households with the highest levels of food insecurity had significantly worse metabolic results, including elevated blood glucose and triglycerides, a type of cholesterol.
  • #35 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. […] Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity.
  • #36 Diabetes: Mechanism, Pathophysiology and Management-A Review
    https://www.itmedicalteam.pl/articles/diabetes-mechanism-pathophysiology-and-managementa-review-101424.html
    Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a complex endocrine and metabolic disorder. The interaction between several genetic and environmental factors results in a heterogeneous and progressive disorder with variable degrees of insulin resistance and pancreatic -cell dysfunction. Overweight and obesity are major contributors to the development of insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance. When cells have not longer able to secrete sufficient insulin to overcome insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance progresses to type-2 diabetes. Abnormalities in other hormones such as reduced secretion of the incretin glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), hyperglucagonaemia, and raised concentrations of other counter-regulatory hormones also contribute to insulin resistance, reduced insulin secretion, and hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetes
  • #37 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. […] Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity.
  • #38 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879890/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. Better knowledge regarding the pathophysiology of type 2 DM in children is paramount to devise an effective management plan. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. The confluence of genetic and environmental factors underscores the complexity in disease progression. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity. It is important to investigate the role of stringent dietary and nutritional approaches, medications that enhance -cell function and insulin sensitivity.
  • #39 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. […] Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity.
  • #40 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879890/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. Better knowledge regarding the pathophysiology of type 2 DM in children is paramount to devise an effective management plan. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. The confluence of genetic and environmental factors underscores the complexity in disease progression. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity. It is important to investigate the role of stringent dietary and nutritional approaches, medications that enhance -cell function and insulin sensitivity.
  • #41 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents
    Type 2 diabetes, once rare in children, has been increasing in frequency in parallel with the increase in childhood obesity. […] Type 2 is typically diagnosed after puberty, with the highest rate between 15 years and 19 years of age. […] Approximately 80% of children with type 2 diabetes have obesity. […] However, there is considerable heterogeneity, and the relationship between obesity and age at onset of type 2 diabetes is less clear in some ethnicities (eg, South Asian children). […] In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas produces insulin, but there are varying degrees of insulin resistance, and insulin secretion is inadequate to meet the increased demand caused by insulin resistance (ie, there is relative insulin deficiency). […] Onset of type 2 diabetes often coincides with the peak of physiologic pubertal insulin resistance, which may lead to symptoms of hyperglycemia in previously compensated adolescents.
  • #42 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents
    Type 2 diabetes, once rare in children, has been increasing in frequency in parallel with the increase in childhood obesity. […] Type 2 is typically diagnosed after puberty, with the highest rate between 15 years and 19 years of age. […] Approximately 80% of children with type 2 diabetes have obesity. […] However, there is considerable heterogeneity, and the relationship between obesity and age at onset of type 2 diabetes is less clear in some ethnicities (eg, South Asian children). […] In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas produces insulin, but there are varying degrees of insulin resistance, and insulin secretion is inadequate to meet the increased demand caused by insulin resistance (ie, there is relative insulin deficiency). […] Onset of type 2 diabetes often coincides with the peak of physiologic pubertal insulin resistance, which may lead to symptoms of hyperglycemia in previously compensated adolescents.
  • #43 Diabetes: Mechanism, Pathophysiology and Management-A Review
    https://www.itmedicalteam.pl/articles/diabetes-mechanism-pathophysiology-and-managementa-review-101424.html
    Chronic fuel surfeit is the primary pathogenic event that drives the development of type 2 diabetes in genetically and epigenetically susceptible people. Many chronically overnourished and overweight or obese individuals, however, do not develop diabetes at all or develop it very late in life. They remain resistant to type 2 diabetes and safely partition excess calories to subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) rather than to the heart, skeletal muscle, liver, and islet cells, owing to the following mechanisms: successful islet -cell compensation; maintenance of near-normal blood nutrient concentrations; development of minimal insulin resistance; increased expansion of SAT relative to visceral adipose tissue (VAT); and limited increase in liver fat. In this way, key organs of the body avoid nutrient-induced damage. Susceptible overnourished individuals develop type 2 diabetes owing to the failure of these adaptive responses to safely dispose of the fuel surfeit. The following metabolic defects are crucial to the development of type 2 diabetes: inability of islet -cells to compensate for the fuel surfeit; increased glucagon secretion and reduced incretin response; impaired expansion of SAT, hypoadiponectinaemia, and inflammation of adipose tissue; increased endogenous glucose production; and development of peripheral insulin resistance. Importantly, the fuel surfeit is not safely deposited into SAT, such that it has to be disposed of elsewhere. The elsewhere is less healthy VAT and ectopic storage in organs, such as the liver, heart, skeletal muscle, and pancreas, which causes widespread tissue damage. Worsening islet -cell function can lead to the need for insulin therapy.
  • #44
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11892-024-01546-2
    This review explores the emerging evidence regarding pathogenesis, future trajectories, treatment options, and phenotypes of youth-onset type 2 diabetes (T2D). […] Youth-onset T2D differs in pathogenesis to later-onset T2D and progresses more rapidly. […] Youth with T2D also have more rapid deterioration of -cell function post-diagnosis than those with later-onset T2D. […] More severely deteriorating -cell function may underly the rapid loss of glycemic control, higher HbA1c and more severe aggressive phenotype of YO-T2D. […] The in-utero environment, particularly exposure to maternal obesity, nutrient imbalance, and hyperglycemia, is important in risk of diabetes and obesity among offspring, leading to intergenerational transmission in high-risk populations. […] There is evolving evidence regarding the role of micronutrients in YO-T2D pathogenesis.
  • #45
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11892-024-01546-2
    The US Search for Diabetes in Youth (SEARCH) study suggested a striking 47% of T2D in youth could be attributed to intrauterine exposure to maternal diabetes and obesity. […] However, there was only 4.7% attributable risk in youth exposed only to hyperglycemia in-utero without obesity, and 19.7% attributable risk in youth exposed to maternal obesity in-utero without hyperglycemia. […] The thin-fat phenotype described in some populations, involving preferential growth of adipose tissue compared to lean mass in children exposed to hyperglycemia in-utero, compounded by maternal malnutrition and nutrient imbalance, is also likely influential. […] Epigenetic changes are also likely important in understanding increasing diabetes rates in high-risk populations. […] The higher risk of DKD in YO-T2D than later-onset T2D is also likely a consequence of the more severe dysglycemia and -cell loss in YO-T2D, leading to further glomerular hyperfiltration, dysregulated energy pathways within the kidney, and oxidative stress.
  • #46
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11892-024-01546-2
    The US Search for Diabetes in Youth (SEARCH) study suggested a striking 47% of T2D in youth could be attributed to intrauterine exposure to maternal diabetes and obesity. […] However, there was only 4.7% attributable risk in youth exposed only to hyperglycemia in-utero without obesity, and 19.7% attributable risk in youth exposed to maternal obesity in-utero without hyperglycemia. […] The thin-fat phenotype described in some populations, involving preferential growth of adipose tissue compared to lean mass in children exposed to hyperglycemia in-utero, compounded by maternal malnutrition and nutrient imbalance, is also likely influential. […] Epigenetic changes are also likely important in understanding increasing diabetes rates in high-risk populations. […] The higher risk of DKD in YO-T2D than later-onset T2D is also likely a consequence of the more severe dysglycemia and -cell loss in YO-T2D, leading to further glomerular hyperfiltration, dysregulated energy pathways within the kidney, and oxidative stress.
  • #47 Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: Exploring the disease heterogeneity and research gaps to optimum management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v13/i2/91587.htm
    Their pathogenesis involves an accelerated rate of -cell function loss and lower insulin sensitivity than adults. […] The exact etiology for this accelerated -cell function loss is not known, but excess growth hormone during puberty and obesity-induced insulin resistance and glucolipotoxicity are postulated to have a role. […] The heritability of T2DM in children ranges between 30% and 70%. […] The first genome-wide association study for T2DM in young people was published in 2021, which included 9067 participants from multiethnic backgrounds and consisted of 3006 young people and 6061 adult controls. […] These findings suggest that adults and young-onset T2DM persons have overlapping genetic architecture, but the role of genetics is probably higher for disease risk in adolescents than in adults.
  • #48 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The decline in insulin sensitivity heralds the progression from Normal Glucose Tolerance (NGT) to Impaired Fasting Glucose (IFG), Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT) to type 2 DM. […] A strong genetic predisposition is a crucial determinant for developing T2DM. […] Factors that trigger the phenotypic expression of the T2DM are the rapidity and degree of weight gain, consumption of high calorie- high fat- high carbohydrate-high protein food, physical inactivity, and certain diabetes-inducing medications which are additive to the genetic susceptibility. […] Even though traditionally type 2 DM is characterized by the lack of -cell autoantibodies, antibody positivity is observed in some cases. […] The rapidity of -cell decline is accelerated in children compared to adults likely due to the vulnerability of the -cell during a period of dynamic growth and maturation, the synergy between pubertal IR with IR of obesity, severity, and rapidity of weight gain, and the interplay of growth hormone, insulin, estrogen and other sex steroids.
  • #49 Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: Exploring the disease heterogeneity and research gaps to optimum management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v13/i2/91587.htm
    Their pathogenesis involves an accelerated rate of -cell function loss and lower insulin sensitivity than adults. […] The exact etiology for this accelerated -cell function loss is not known, but excess growth hormone during puberty and obesity-induced insulin resistance and glucolipotoxicity are postulated to have a role. […] The heritability of T2DM in children ranges between 30% and 70%. […] The first genome-wide association study for T2DM in young people was published in 2021, which included 9067 participants from multiethnic backgrounds and consisted of 3006 young people and 6061 adult controls. […] These findings suggest that adults and young-onset T2DM persons have overlapping genetic architecture, but the role of genetics is probably higher for disease risk in adolescents than in adults.
  • #50
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11892-024-01546-2
    The US Search for Diabetes in Youth (SEARCH) study suggested a striking 47% of T2D in youth could be attributed to intrauterine exposure to maternal diabetes and obesity. […] However, there was only 4.7% attributable risk in youth exposed only to hyperglycemia in-utero without obesity, and 19.7% attributable risk in youth exposed to maternal obesity in-utero without hyperglycemia. […] The thin-fat phenotype described in some populations, involving preferential growth of adipose tissue compared to lean mass in children exposed to hyperglycemia in-utero, compounded by maternal malnutrition and nutrient imbalance, is also likely influential. […] Epigenetic changes are also likely important in understanding increasing diabetes rates in high-risk populations. […] The higher risk of DKD in YO-T2D than later-onset T2D is also likely a consequence of the more severe dysglycemia and -cell loss in YO-T2D, leading to further glomerular hyperfiltration, dysregulated energy pathways within the kidney, and oxidative stress.
  • #51 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents
    The cause of type 2 diabetes is not autoimmune destruction of beta-cells but rather a complex interaction between many genes and environmental factors, which differ among different populations and patients. […] Type 2 diabetes in children is different than type 2 diabetes in adults. […] In children, decline in beta-cell function and development of diabetes-related complications are accelerated. […] Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander heritage, family history, maternal history of type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes during pregnancy, and current use of atypical antipsychotic medications. […] In type 2 diabetes, there is usually enough insulin function to prevent DKA at diagnosis, but children can sometimes present with DKA (up to 25%) or, less commonly, hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS).
  • #52 Diabetes Mellitus (DM) in Children and Adolescents – Children’s Health Issues – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/children-s-health-issues/hormonal-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-dm-in-children-and-adolescents
    Type 2 diabetes typically develops after puberty has begun. […] Compared to children with type 1 diabetes, children with type 2 diabetes are much more likely to have a first-degree relative (parent, sibling) or a second-degree relative (half-sibling, aunt, uncle, or grandparent) with type 2 diabetes. […] The increase in childhood type 2 diabetes has been particularly prominent among people who are Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander. […] Other children at higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes include those who have high blood pressure, high blood levels of lipids (fats), obstructive sleep apnea, dark and thick skinfolds on the nape of the neck (acanthosis nigricans), fatty liver, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), or a small-for-gestational-age birth weight.
  • #53 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/endocrine-disorders-in-children/diabetes-mellitus-in-children-and-adolescents
    The cause of type 2 diabetes is not autoimmune destruction of beta-cells but rather a complex interaction between many genes and environmental factors, which differ among different populations and patients. […] Type 2 diabetes in children is different than type 2 diabetes in adults. […] In children, decline in beta-cell function and development of diabetes-related complications are accelerated. […] Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, Native American, Black, Hispanic, Asian American, and Pacific Islander heritage, family history, maternal history of type 2 diabetes or gestational diabetes during pregnancy, and current use of atypical antipsychotic medications. […] In type 2 diabetes, there is usually enough insulin function to prevent DKA at diagnosis, but children can sometimes present with DKA (up to 25%) or, less commonly, hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS).
  • #54 Children Changing the Face of Type 2 Diabetes – Today’s Dietitian Magazine
    https://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/1117p32.shtml
    As more children are diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, RDs and diabetes educators need to know how to effectively counsel them. […] Type 2 diabetes once thought of as an obese adult disease, is emerging rapidly in children and adolescents. […] This article will describe the pathophysiology, risk factors, signs and symptoms, complications, and management of type 2 diabetes in youth and will provide strategies for diabetes educators counseling children with type 2 diabetes and their parents. […] Insulin resistance and nonautoimmune beta-cell failure are the hallmarks of type 2 diabetes in children and adults. However, children exhibit a rapidly progressive beta-cell decline and accelerated development of diabetes complications. […] The TODAY (Treatment Options for type 2 Diabetes in Adolescents and Youth) study showed the loss of glycemic control was three- to four-fold higher in adolescents and youth than rates observed in adults.
  • #55 Children Changing the Face of Type 2 Diabetes – Today’s Dietitian Magazine
    https://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/1117p32.shtml
    Moreover, youth with type 2 diabetes experience diabetes complications at a greater rate than children with type 1 diabetes. […] The earlier the onset, the earlier the complications. […] In a study published in the February 2017 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers examined how quickly and often youth developed signs of kidney, nerve, and eye diseases, which are among the most common diabetes complications. […] It should be noted, most of the patients with type 2 diabetes in the study were African American (43%), followed by white (26%), Latino (21%), Native American (7%), or other (3%), and most were obese (72%) or overweight (18%).
  • #56 Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: Exploring the disease heterogeneity and research gaps to optimum management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v13/i2/91587.htm
    The proposed hypotheses behind the increased risk of complications could be a more aggressive pathophysiology, poorly controlled hyperglycemia, more prolonged exposure to glycemic burden, the concurrent presence of other metabolic risk factors, an unrecognized period of untreated or inadequately treated hyperglycemia before the diagnosis and the effects of obesity and inflammation since a large proportion of those with young-onset TDM are overweight or obese. […] There is a high prevalence of diabetes-associated complications and comorbidities in those with young-onset T2DM – both at the time of diagnosis and beyond. […] The implications of these complications are of particular importance in this age group because of their effects on education and jobs, psychological consequences, and increased health-care expenditure. […] Overall, T2DM in children and adolescents is becoming a public health concern worldwide.
  • #57 Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents: Exploring the disease heterogeneity and research gaps to optimum management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/2219-2808/full/v13/i2/91587.htm
    The proposed hypotheses behind the increased risk of complications could be a more aggressive pathophysiology, poorly controlled hyperglycemia, more prolonged exposure to glycemic burden, the concurrent presence of other metabolic risk factors, an unrecognized period of untreated or inadequately treated hyperglycemia before the diagnosis and the effects of obesity and inflammation since a large proportion of those with young-onset TDM are overweight or obese. […] There is a high prevalence of diabetes-associated complications and comorbidities in those with young-onset T2DM – both at the time of diagnosis and beyond. […] The implications of these complications are of particular importance in this age group because of their effects on education and jobs, psychological consequences, and increased health-care expenditure. […] Overall, T2DM in children and adolescents is becoming a public health concern worldwide.
  • #58 Insulin resistance in youth may inform type 2 diabetes prevention
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-insulin-resistance-youth-diabetes.html
    Researchers have identified a mechanism underlying insulin resistance in adolescents with obesity. The findings, published in Journal of Clinical Investigation, present a targetable pathway that could one day allow clinicians to intervene and prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes. […] In a new study, Yale researchers observed how adolescents with obesity responded to insulin. Typically, insulin halts fat breakdown in adipose tissue—the connective tissue commonly known as „body fat.” But the researchers found that in adolescents who were insulin-resistant, insulin’s ability to block fat breakdown was impaired compared with those without insulin resistance. […] Future medications that target this pathway and block the fat secretion from the liver could potentially prevent insulin-resistant adolescents from developing type 2 diabetes, the authors say.
  • #59 Insulin Resistance in Youth May Inform Type 2 Diabetes Prevention < Yale School of Medicine
    https://medicine.yale.edu/ysm/news-article/insulin-resistance-pathway-in-youth-may-inform-type-2-diabetes-prevention/
    The abdominal fat tissue of adolescents with insulin resistance does not appropriately respond to insulin. […] Researchers have identified a mechanism underlying insulin resistance in adolescents with obesity. […] In a new study, Yale researchers observed how adolescents with obesity responded to insulin. […] But the researchers found that in adolescents who were insulin-resistant, insulin’s ability to block fat breakdown was impaired compared with those without insulin resistance. […] If fat cells don’t respond to insulin by stopping this breakdown process, the fat gets secreted into other tissues and causes a whole host of diseases. […] Future medications that target this pathway and block the fat secretion from the liver could potentially prevent insulin-resistant adolescents from developing type 2 diabetes.
  • #60 Insulin resistance in youth may inform type 2 diabetes prevention
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-insulin-resistance-youth-diabetes.html
    „Our study is a big step forward in understanding how insulin works—and how, when it is not working correctly in fat tissue, it can lead eventually to type 2 diabetes.” […] In adolescents who were insulin-resistant, insulin was unable to inhibit the breakdown of fat, largely because insulin failed to activate the main enzyme regulating fat breakdown in adipose tissue. As a result, excess fatty acids continued to flow into other tissues, which may help explain why some adolescents with obesity develop type 2 diabetes. […] The team hopes their identification of this altered mechanism can help researchers better understand how to therapeutically intervene. […] „Then, we can hopefully design a strategy to make these youth more sensitive to insulin signaling and mitigate negative downstream consequences.”
  • #61 Insulin Resistance in Youth May Inform Type 2 Diabetes Prevention < Yale School of Medicine
    https://medicine.yale.edu/ysm/news-article/insulin-resistance-pathway-in-youth-may-inform-type-2-diabetes-prevention/
    Our study is a big step forward in understanding how insulin works—and how when it is not working correctly in fat tissue, it can lead eventually to type 2 diabetes. […] In adolescents who were insulin-resistant, insulin was unable to inhibit the breakdown of fat, largely because insulin failed to activate the main enzyme regulating fat breakdown in adipose tissue. […] As a result, excess fatty acids continued to flow into other tissues, which may help explain why some adolescents with obesity develop type 2 diabetes. […] The team hopes their identification of this altered mechanism can help researchers better understand how to therapeutically intervene. […] I want to stop the onset of type 2 diabetes—that’s our goal. […] Caprio’s laboratory is currently studying how drugs such as semaglutide—currently used for weight loss and treating type 2 diabetes—improve insulin sensitivity and prevent type 2 diabetes in youth.
  • #62 Insulin resistance in youth may inform type 2 diabetes prevention
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2025-05-insulin-resistance-youth-diabetes.html
    Researchers have identified a mechanism underlying insulin resistance in adolescents with obesity. The findings, published in Journal of Clinical Investigation, present a targetable pathway that could one day allow clinicians to intervene and prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes. […] In a new study, Yale researchers observed how adolescents with obesity responded to insulin. Typically, insulin halts fat breakdown in adipose tissue—the connective tissue commonly known as „body fat.” But the researchers found that in adolescents who were insulin-resistant, insulin’s ability to block fat breakdown was impaired compared with those without insulin resistance. […] Future medications that target this pathway and block the fat secretion from the liver could potentially prevent insulin-resistant adolescents from developing type 2 diabetes, the authors say.
  • #63 Insulin Resistance in Youth May Inform Type 2 Diabetes Prevention | Newswise
    https://www.newswise.com/articles/insulin-resistance-in-youth-may-inform-type-2-diabetes-prevention
    Researchers have identified a mechanism underlying insulin resistance in adolescents with obesity. […] The findings present a targetable pathway that could one day allow clinicians to intervene and prevent the onset of type 2 diabetes. […] Adolescence is an especially vulnerable time in life to develop type 2 diabetes. […] In adolescents who were insulin-resistant, insulin was unable to inhibit the breakdown of fat, largely because insulin failed to activate the main enzyme regulating fat breakdown in adipose tissue. […] As a result, excess fatty acids continued to flow into other tissues, which may help explain why some adolescents with obesity develop type 2 diabetes. […] The team hopes their identification of this altered mechanism can help researchers better understand how to therapeutically intervene. […] I want to stop the onset of type 2 diabetes—that’s our goal. […] Caprio’s laboratory is currently studying how drugs such as semaglutide—currently used for weight loss and treating type 2 diabetes—improve insulin sensitivity and prevent type 2 diabetes in youth.
  • #64 SciELO Brazil – Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus in youth: the evolving chameleon Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus in youth: the evolving chameleon
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abem/a/RgvGCkffqR4qQwXPt4VwyYf/?lang=en
    The interplay between insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion determines glucose homeostasis and the progression from normal glucose tolerance to IGT to T2DM in youth. Defects in both insulin action and responses are present in the early stages of T2DM development, and are triggered by environmental modulators against the backdrop of genetic susceptibility.
  • #65 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7516333/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. […] Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity.
  • #66 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29879890/
    The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. Better knowledge regarding the pathophysiology of type 2 DM in children is paramount to devise an effective management plan. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. The confluence of genetic and environmental factors underscores the complexity in disease progression. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity. It is important to investigate the role of stringent dietary and nutritional approaches, medications that enhance -cell function and insulin sensitivity.
  • #67 Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents
    https://eurekaselect.com/public/article/90985
    Background: The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (DM) in children is disturbingly increasing in parallel with the increasing childhood obesity. Better knowledge regarding the pathophysiology of type 2 DM in children is paramount to devise an effective management plan. […] Type 2 DM in childhood is viewed as a continuum of insulin resistance (IR) which is determined by an underlying genetic predisposition, intrauterine environment, excessive food consumption, continued rapid weight gain, and poor lifestyle. Besides IR, this is compounded by multiple metabolic defects including -cell dysfunction and inadequate insulin secretion, -cell dysfunction, hyperglucagonemia and increased hepatic glucose production, lipotoxicity, inflammation, deficiencies in incretin production and action, and increased renal glucose reabsorption. The confluence of genetic and environmental factors underscores the complexity in disease progression. […] A consistent single risk factor for type 2 DM is obesity and related IR and therefore it is essential to curtail the progression of obesity. It is important to investigate the role of stringent dietary and nutritional approaches, medications that enhance -cell function and insulin sensitivity.