Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  ADHD arises from maldevelopment in brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia and anterior cingulate cortex, which regulate the executive functions necessary for human self-regulation. […] The precise causes of ADHD are unknown in most individual cases. […] Meta-analyses have shown that the disorder is primarily genetic with a heritability rate of 70-80%, where risk factors are highly accumulative. […] The environmental risks are not related to social or familial factors; they exert their effects very early in life, in the prenatal or early postnatal period. […] However, in rare cases, ADHD can be caused by a single event including traumatic brain injury, exposure to biohazards during pregnancy, or a major genetic mutation. […] As it is a neurodevelopmental disorder, there is no biologically distinct adult-onset ADHD except for when ADHD occurs after traumatic brain injury.

• #1 ADHD in Adults: Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/5197-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-in-adults

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a brain development condition that starts in childhood and continues after you become an adult. […] Experts dont fully understand why or how ADHD happens. Theres evidence that it may involve differences in your brain structure, brain chemistry or both. But experts do know it can be genetic. That means you can inherit ADHD from one or both parents. However, some people also develop it spontaneously without a family history. […] Having ADHD means youre likely to have subtle but important differences in your brain structure. A key part of how your brain works is how it forms connections between its different areas. People with ADHD seem to have fewer connections in certain areas, or those areas may be slightly smaller or less dense than they are in people without ADHD. The affected areas are key in managing executive functions. […] Research indicates ADHD might cause an imbalance or shortage of certain neurotransmitters, especially dopamine and norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline in certain parts of the world). Without the right amount or mix of neurotransmitters, your brain cant function as it should.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441838/

  The etiology of ADHD is related to a variety of factors that include both a genetic and an environmental component. It is one of the most heritable conditions in terms of psychiatric disorders. There is a much greater concordance in monozygotic twins than dizygotic. Siblings have twice the risk of having ADHD than the general population. Similarly, viral infections, smoking during pregnancy, nutritional deficiency, and alcohol exposure in the fetus have also been explored as possible causes of the disorder. […] The number of dopaminergic receptors has also been implicated in the development of the disorder, whereby research has shown that the receptors are decreased in the frontal lobes in individuals with ADHD. There is also evidence for the role of noradrenergic receptor involvement in ADHD.

• #1 What Causes ADHD? Genes, Culture, Environment, BiologyFooterLogo

  https://www.additudemag.com/what-causes-adhd-symptoms/?srsltid=AfmBOopBTgzoG20lkOCfRxuko_OTulRDyLGO08hfe906KAIGZ228ptp3

  Most researchers point to genetics and heredity as causes of ADD or ADHD. Some scientists are investigating whether certain genes, especially ones linked to the neurotransmitter dopamine, may play a role in developing attention deficit disorder. […] Most researchers point to genetics and heredity as deciding factors for who gets attention deficit disorder (ADHD or ADD) and who doesn’t. Scientists are investigating whether certain genes, especially ones linked to the neurotransmitter dopamine, may play a role in developing ADHD. […] There’s evidence that ADHD has a biological basis. Doesn’t that mean it’s hereditary? […] ADDitude editors: Available evidence suggests that ADHD is genetic — passed down from parent to child. It seems to “run in families,” at least in some families. […] A number of studies are now taking place to try to pinpoint the genes that lead to susceptibility for ADHD.

• #1 The Root Causes of ADHD | Genetics, Environment & Brain Function

  https://www.adhdcentre.co.uk/the-root-cause-of-adhd-understanding-the-role-of-genetics-environment-and-brain-function/

  However, it is important to note that ADHD is a complex condition and there is no single gene that can be identified as the sole cause of the disorder. Rather, it is likely that multiple genes, each with a small effect, interact with each other and with environmental factors to increase the risk of developing ADHD. […] In addition to genetics, there are a number of different environmental and psychosocial factors that may contribute to ADHD. […] One of the primary environmental factors that contribute to ADHD is prenatal development. Studies have shown that exposure to certain environmental toxins, such as lead and mercury, during pregnancy can increase the risk of ADHD in children. […] Additionally, maternal smoking and alcohol consumption during pregnancy have also been linked to ADHD.

• #1 Psychiatry.org – What is ADHD?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

  There is evidence of anatomical differences in the brains of children with ADHD in comparison to other children without the condition. For instance, children with ADHD have reduced grey and white brain matter volume and demonstrate different brain region activation during certain tasks (Pliszka, 2007). […] Further studies have indicated that the frontal lobes, caudate nucleus, and cerebellar vermis of the brain are affected in ADHD (Tripp Wickens, 2009). […] Several non-genetic factors have also been linked to the disorder such as low birth weight, premature birth, exposure to toxins (alcohol, smoking, lead, etc.) during pregnancy, and extreme stress during pregnancy.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Causes and Diagnosis in Adults: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10733572/

  ADHD is commonly identified in children and teenagers, often leading to academic difficulties. […] The causes of ADHD involve abnormalities in brain structure and function, as well as genetic factors. […] Scientists have identified particular brain activity and structural abnormalities in individuals diagnosed with ADHD. […] Compared to those without ADHD, people with the disorder tend to display slower brain growth, which affects their ability to delay automatic attention. […] Recent evidence suggests that genetics may play a crucial role, as ADHD often runs in families. […] Other potential causes and risk factors for ADHD include lead poisoning, brain anatomy, substance abuse during pregnancy, premature delivery, and low birth weight. […] The co-diagnosis of depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, substance use disorders (SUDs), and personality disorders is a prevalent problem for adults with ADHD.

• #1 What are the causes of ADHD? Biology vs. environment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-adhd

  Researchers do not know the exact cause of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, they believe it may develop from a combination of genetic and environmental factors. […] Many studies suggest a strong link between genetic factors and ADHD, but this is not the only thing that appears to contribute to it. […] ADHD tends to run in families. Identical twins are more likely to develop ADHD than nonidentical twins. This suggests a genetic component to the condition, as identical twins have the same genes while nonidentical twins do not. […] Genes may account for 74% of the cause of ADHD. […] ADHD also appears to cause or originate from changes in the brain. […] According to a 2018 review, functional MRI (fMRI) studies indicate that people with ADHD may have impairments in several brain networks that manage attention, cognitive control, timing, and working memory.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental condition of inattention and distractibility, with or without accompanying hyperactivity. […] The pathology of ADHD is not clear. Psychostimulants (which facilitate dopamine release) and noradrenergic tricyclics used to treat this condition have led to speculation that certain brain areas related to attention are deficient in neural transmission. […] The neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine have been associated with ADHD. […] The underlying brain regions predominantly thought to be involved are frontal and prefrontal; the parietal lobe and cerebellum may also be involved. […] A 2010 study again indicated the presence of frontostriatal malfunctioning in the etiology of ADHD. […] A PET scan study by Volkow et al revealed that in adults with ADHD, depressed dopamine activity in caudate and preliminary evidence in limbic regions was associated with inattention and enhanced reinforcing responses to intravenous methylphenidate. This concludes that dopamine dysfunction may be involved with symptoms of inattention but may also contribute to substance abuse comorbidity.

• #1 ADHD: Reviewing the Causes and Evaluating Solutions

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4426/11/3/166

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which patients present inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The etiology of this condition is diverse, including environmental factors and the presence of variants of some genes. […] The etiology of ADHD is diverse—gestational, perinatal, and genetic factors have been associated with ADHD incidence. However, each patient presents only a few of them. […] The incidence of ADHD is associated with a number of environmental factors during different stages of central nervous system (CNS) development, such as gestational and perinatal periods. […] Premature birth is an important risk factor for ADHD, since it has been reported that it occurs 2.6 to 4 times more frequently in babies born with low weight or very low weight.

• #1 About Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/about/index.html

  ADHD can last into adulthood. Some adults have ADHD but have never been diagnosed. The symptoms can cause difficulty at work, at home, or with relationships. Symptoms may look different at older ages, for example, hyperactivity may appear as extreme restlessness. Symptoms can become more severe when the demands of adulthood increase. […] The causes of ADHD are unknown, but scientists have identified some possible risk factors. […] Genetics. […] Exposure to environmental risks (for example, lead) during pregnancy or at a young age. […] Alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy and other pregnancy-related factors. […] Child health conditions, including head injuries. […] Parental mental health and family environment.

• #1 ADHD in adults

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/adhd-adults/

  The cause of ADHD is not always known. ADHD may be caused by genetic differences and often runs in families. […] There are several other things linked to ADHD, including being born premature (before 37 weeks of pregnancy), having epilepsy, a brain injury and being autistic.

• #1 ADHD: Why Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is Rising  | Brown University Health

  https://www.brownhealth.org/be-well/adhd-why-diagnosis-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-rising

  ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a common condition that has steadily been on the increase in both children and adults. […] While the causes of ADHD remain unknown, researchers believe genetics plays a key role. In addition, other potential causes and risk factors may include brain injury, environmental risks such as lead exposure, alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy, premature birth, and low birth weight.

• #1 ADHD: Reviewing the Causes and Evaluating Solutions

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4426/11/3/166

  Perinatal hypoxia is an environmental factor that increases the risk of developing ADHD, probably due to its effects on dopaminergic transmission and neurotropic signaling. […] The intake of nutrients during gestation is very important for proper brain development. An important element during neural development is the polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), promoting proliferation and neural differentiation of neural progenitor cells. […] Interestingly, there is evidence in a rat model of the influence of preconceptional conditions on ADHD incidence. […] Another environmental factor associated with ADHD is pesticide exposure during development. […] One of the most reported environmental factors associated with ADHD is exposure to neurotoxic heavy metals. […] The presence of lead in children’s deciduous teeth is positively associated with hyperactivity or impulsivity, as well as inattention and oppositional or defiant disorder.

• #1 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-a-to-z

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), usually first diagnosed in childhood, can appear in a variety of forms and has many possible causes. People with ADHD probably have an underlying genetic vulnerability to developing it, but the severity of the problem is also influenced by the environment. […] The causes of ADHD are not fully understood. There are numerous factors that are associated with the development of ADHD. It may be difficult to avoid these factors, but addressing them may reduce the risk of developing the disorder. […] Common risk factors include temperament, psychosocial adversity, complications during pregnancy or delivery, premature birth, mother’s use of tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs during pregnancy, exposure to neurotoxins, and a history of ADHD in close relatives.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  According to a study of young children, there is evidence of early brain structural changes in pre-schoolers with ADHD. […] Researchers in Denmark conducted a population-based cohort study to determine the association of prenatal exposure to antiepileptic drugs and risk of ADHD in offspring. […] This suggests that maternal use of valproate, but not other AEDs, during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of ADHD in the offspring. […] There has been concern about the association of maternal smoking during pregnancy and the development of ADHD in offspring. […] Results showed a dose-dependent relationship between nicotine exposure during pregnancy and offspring ADHD. […] Evidence of a neurobiologic contribution to the cause of ADHD continues to grow.

• #1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – ADHD symptoms, causes and diagnosis | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/attention-deficit-disorder-add-or-adhd

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder that begins in early childhood. […] The exact causes of ADHD aren’t known. Genetic studies show that ADHD is an inherited disorder. […] Research has shown that ADHD symptoms are related to the biology of your brain. […] The following environmental factors may contribute towards the development of ADHD: maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal drinking during pregnancy, premature birth, low birth weight. […] Other environmental factors that can cause changes in your brain’s development and function include toxins, home environment, and early childhood trauma.

• #1 Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adult-adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-20350878

  While the exact cause of ADHD is not clear, research efforts continue. Factors that may be involved in the development of ADHD include: […] Genetics. ADHD can run in families, and studies indicate that genes may play a role. […] Environment. Certain environmental factors also may increase risk, such as lead exposure as a child. […] Problems during development. Problems with the central nervous system at key moments in development may play a role.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Causes & Effects | Lakeview Behavioral Health Hospital

  https://www.lakeviewbehavioralhealth.com/disorders/adhd/effects-signs-symptoms/

  Its been theorized that problems affecting the central nervous system may lead to the development of ADHD. If you were born prematurely before 37 weeks gestation, you may develop ADHD. […] There is a potential for increase in the risk for developing ADHD if you’ve been exposed prenatally to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) during your gestation. If your mother smoked, drank, or abused substances during her pregnancy you may have a higher chance for developing ADHD. Lead paint, commonly found in older buildings, exposure as a child may increase the risks for developing ADHD. […] Its very common for people who have ADHD to have mental health disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders, substance addiction, personality disorders, tic disorders, or intermittent explosive disorder.

• #1 What Is ADHD? Symptoms, Treatment, and More

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/adhd/guide/

  Experts arent sure what causes ADHD. As with most mental health conditions, it is thought to be an interplay of biological, social, and psychological factors, according to CHADD. […] Current evidence suggests ADHD has a genetic component meaning it seems to run in some families, according to the aforementioned research published in the Lancet Psychiatry. […] The specific genes associated with ADHD have not yet been identified. Scientists believe multiple genes may be involved because of the complexity of the condition, say experts at the National Human Genome Research Institute. […] Exposure to substances, especially lead, may be a contributing factor. Studies have indicated a relationship between ADHD and levels of lead in the bloodstream. […] Although research has consistently shown a connection between lead exposure and ADHD, its important to note that its not the only cause of ADHD, nor does lead exposure guarantee that a child will develop ADHD.

• #1

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/adhd/Pages/Causes-of-ADHD.aspx

  ADHD may be caused by a number of things: […] A lower level of activity in the parts of the brain that control attention and activity level may be associated with ADHD. […] ADHD frequently runs in families. A child with ADHD has a 1 in 4 chance of having a parent with ADHD. […] Significant head injuries may cause ADHD in some cases. […] Prematurity increases the risk of developing ADHD. […] Prenatal exposures, such as alcohol or nicotine from smoking, increase the risk of developing ADHD. […] In very rare cases, toxins in the environment may lead to ADHD. For instance, lead in the body can affect child development and behavior.

• #1 What Is ADHD? Symptoms, Treatment, and More

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/adhd/guide/

  Using tobacco during pregnancy has been associated with ADHD symptoms in children in a number of studies. […] A study published in the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry found no evidence that smoking during pregnancy directly causes ADHD. […] TBI in early childhood has been linked to the development of psychiatric disorders. Among those disorders, ADHD is the most common, with a prevalence of about 20 percent, notes a study published in the May 2018 issue of JAMA Pediatrics. […] Some research has suggested that the lower a babys birth weight or the earlier their birth is, the greater the risk they have of developing ADHD. […] While these factors may affect or exacerbate symptoms, research doesnt support claims that they cause ADHD.

• #1 Understanding ADHD: Types, Symptoms, Causes, and Cures  – Tennessee Neurofeedback

  https://tnnfb.com/understanding-adhd-types-symptoms-causes-and-cures/

  Scientists are also investigating environmental causes that can lead to the development of ADHD. […] Studies show that approximately 5% of ADHD cases are caused by brain damage and that 30% of children with traumatic brain injuries go on to develop ADHD. […] Drinking during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, including ADHD. Smoking and exposure to nicotine smoke can also increase the chances of ADHD. […] Extremely low birth weight has been associated with an increased risk of developing ADHD. […] Some studies suggest that exposure to toxins, such as lead or PCBs, either in pregnancy or early childhood can lead to the onset of ADHD. […] Scientists have begun to investigate the link between neurodevelopmental disorders and gut health. While more studies are needed to draw proper conclusions, for the moment it has been shown that people with ADHD have a different composition of gut bacteria than healthy controls.

• #1 Causes of an ADHD Diagnosis in Adulthood | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/adhd/causes-of-adult-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Was an ADHD diagnosis missed as a child or can it develop as your hormones change in adulthood? […] The jury is still out on whether adults with new attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) had it undiagnosed in childhood or if symptoms of ADHD can show up when youre an adult. Most researchers believe that this developmental disorder begins in childhood. […] But researchers acknowledge that you can have ADHD symptoms when youre well into adulthood even if you did not have obvious signs and symptoms as a child. […] Adult ADHD may also have different risk factors, diagnostic criteria, and causes. […] Doctors are not sure exactly what causes ADHD. Like many mental health and developmental conditions, there is probably more than one cause for childhood ADHD and adult ADHD. […] Some causes of adult ADHD may happen later in life when youre a teenager or adult, like: brain injury, environmental exposure to toxins, heavy alcohol use.

• #1 Developing ADHD as an adult: Is it possible?

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/can-you-develop-adhd-as-an-adult

  While doctors generally consider attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) a childhood neurodevelopmental disorder, they may diagnose late onset ADHD in adults. […] More recently, researchers have looked into the idea that adults may develop a form of ADHD independent of the childhood version. […] A 2016 study found enough evidence to conclude that ADHD in adulthood is not necessarily a continuation of childhood ADHD. Instead, adult ADHD and childhood ADHD may be two distinct syndromes. […] Another 2016 study noted that childhood ADHD and late onset adult ADHD may have different causes. The authors suggest that future research should look into possible genetic differences to further understand the condition. […] Evidence suggests that adult ADHD may affect 2.55% of the population.

• #1 Adult-Onset ADHD Raises Questions

  https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/adult-onset-adhd-raises-questions

  Four recent studies may have turned what we know about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on its head. […] In 3 of the 4 papers, the adult-onset ADHD actually began in the teenage years. […] Furthermore, many of these teenaged-onset cases (29% to 75%) had symptoms of ADHD in their childhood that were either below the threshold for the full diagnosis or were classified as part of a related disorder (eg, conduct disorder or oppositional-defiant disorder). […] The fourth paper claimed to identify new-onset ADHD in middle-aged adults, and it made the biggest headlines. […] Most of the children with ADHD no longer had the full disorder as adults, and most of the adults who met criteria for ADHD in middle age did not have the full disorder in childhood. […] The New Zealand study counted 27 adults with ADHD who did not have the full disorder in their childhood.

• #1 Causes of an ADHD Diagnosis in Adulthood | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/adhd/causes-of-adult-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  According to mental health guidelines, adults ages 18 years and over need to have a range of symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity that meet certain conditions to be diagnosed with ADHD. […] According to the National Institutes of Health, some doctors require that you must have several symptoms of ADHD that started before age 12 years to be diagnosed with ADHD as an adult. […] While a diagnosis of childhood ADHD is more common in boys than girls, adult ADHD has a more even 1-to-1 ratio for men and women. […] If you had milder ADHD symptoms during childhood and were not diagnosed, the demands and responsibilities of adult life may intensify your symptoms. […] Some symptoms from childhood ADHD can also change in adults. […] If you are diagnosed with ADHD as an adult, your doctor may recommend prescription medication as part of your treatment plan. […] Common ADHD medications include stimulants called methylphenidate (Ritalin), stimulants called amphetamine (Adderall), antidepressants. […] In addition to medication, psychotherapy and coaching can help you learn life skills to manage your ADHD symptoms.

• #1 Untreated ADHD in Adults: Signs, Causes, Impact, and Treatment

  https://www.verywellmind.com/untreated-adhd-in-adults-signs-causes-impact-and-treatment-5222929

  Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurobehavioral condition that usually starts during childhood. ADHD can affect adults as well, whether they were diagnosed in childhood or not. […] Estimates suggest that around 2.5% to 5% of the adult population has ADHD. Some research also suggests that these rates appear to be increasing. While fairly common, it is frequently undiagnosed and untreated, with less than 20% of adults with ADHD receiving an appropriate diagnosis and treatment. […] Studies also indicate that adult ADHD frequently co-occurs alongside other mental health conditions, including anxiety disorders and substance use disorders. […] Some studies have suggested that as many as 90% of adults with ADHD have another psychiatric condition. […] Potential complications associated with a 'missed’ ADHD diagnosis include increased criminal involvement, car accidents, unemployment, relationship problems, and substance misuse.

• #1 What Can Trigger ADHD in Adults? 6 Factors to Look Out For

  https://www.psy-ed.com/wpblog/what-can-trigger-adhd-in-adults/

  Stress is thought to be one of the leading triggers of ADHD episodes in adults, and it can also cause ADHD-like symptoms in those who don’t have the condition. […] Many different medical conditions, such as thyroid disease, hypoglycemia, sleep apnea (and other sleep disorders), seizure disorders, and untreated diabetes can cause symptoms that mimic or worsen ADHD. […] Along with their desired effects, many medications produce unwanted side effects, which may include changes in mood, memory, and cognition. […] Iron-deficiency and vitamin-deficiency anemia can both cause confusion, forgetfulness, and personality changes. […] Excessive screen time isn’t just bad for children; there’s mounting evidence that it disrupts learning and attention in adults, too.

• #1 Adult-Onset ADHD Raises Questions

  https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/adult-onset-adhd-raises-questions

  Specifically, 10 patients had conduct disorder in childhood; 15 had substance use disorders as adults; and 15 sought treatment for major psychiatric disorders as adults. […] Two other studies that looked at purported cases of adult-onset ADHD concluded that the majority (93% to 95%) of the cases were better explained by sleep disorders, substance use disorders, or another psychiatric disorder. […] If adult-onset ADHD does exist, it may not be the same disorder as childhood-onset ADHD. […] Indeed, most cases of adult-onset ADHD can be better explained as true ADHD that was partially expressed in childhood; false positives in patients whose symptoms are due to another disorder; or false positives in healthy people who overendorsed their symptoms during the diagnostic interview. […] These studies point to that possibility, but they do not tell us whether these cases share common biological markers, familial patterns, and treatment response with childhood-onset ADHD. […] Medical and environmental factors, including age-related cognitive decline, sleep deprivation, sleep apnea, inflammation, obesity, air pollution, chemical exposure, and excessive use of digital media, can also cause ADHD-like symptoms.

• #1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Adult | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adult

  Some evolutionary psychologists contend that ADHD-like traits may have even been useful to our hunter-gatherer ancestors, though they’re seen as problematic today. […] Per the DSM-5 definition of ADHD, no symptoms must be present from age 12 or earlier in order for someone to qualify for a diagnosis. In recent years, however, some longitudinal studies that followed participants from childhood to adulthood reported that some individuals appeared to meet the threshold for an ADHD diagnosis in their teen or adult years, despite not qualifying for one during childhood. […] Further research is needed to definitively answer the question of adult-onset ADHD.

• #1 ADHD/ADD in Adults: Symptoms & Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/ss/slideshow-adhd-in-adults

  In people with ADHD, brain chemicals called neurotransmitters are less active in areas of the brain that control attention. Researchers don’t know exactly what causes this chemical imbalance, but they think genes may play a role in ADHD, because it often runs in families. Studies have also linked ADHD to prenatal exposure to cigarettes and alcohol. […] One genetic variation that causes ADHD-like traits is more common in the world’s nomadic peoples. Researchers think that traits such as impulsive behavior, novelty-seeking, and unpredictability might help nomads track down food and other resources. So the same qualities that make it challenging to excel at a desk job may have been an advantage to nomadic ancestors.

• #1 Frontiers | The Four Causes of ADHD: Aristotle in the Classroom

  https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00928/full

  Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most well-established and at the same time controversial disorders to the extreme of being placed in doubt. […] The established concept presents ADHD as a neurodevelopment disorder with a highly inheritable genetic origin which begins in infancy and frequently continues into adulthood. […] The truth is that there is also extensive literature questioning the clinical medical-scientific validity of ADHD. […] The controversy may be reduced to two opposite positions: the standard, which states its well-established existence, such that denying it would be like denying that the Earth is round, and the critical, which denies its clinical entity, such that those who argue for it would only be pathologizing normal behaviors and problems.

• #1 Frontiers | The Four Causes of ADHD: Aristotle in the Classroom

  https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00928/full

  However, the data do not speak for themselves, but by the perspective in which they are taken. […] The variability and inconsistency of the findings may be reflecting the heterogeneity and lack of entity of the so-called “ADHD.” […] The neurodevelopment approach leads to establishing a dichotomy between typical, normal or mature development and atypical, abnormal or immature development defining a psychiatric disorder. […] The behaviors by which ADHD is defined begin to attract attention and even become problematic because they alter functional cycles, starting with the intersubjective interaction cycles. […] The material cause of ADHD would be the behaviors by which, in fact, it is defined. […] The efficient cause of ADHD would consist of social practices (scientific, clinical, educational, and family) by which certain behaviors of children or adults take the form of a diagnostic category. […] The final cause of ADHD refers to a series of functions which it meets for a variety of actors and institutions, beyond the reinforcement of behaviors of those affected.

• #1 Frontiers | The Four Causes of ADHD: Aristotle in the Classroom

  https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00928/full

  The genetic risks implicated in ADHD generally tend to have small effect sizes or be rare and often increase risk of many other types of psychopathology. […] Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder may be hereditary, but not therefore genetic. […] The claimed heritability in ADHD is based on statistical data, not on genetic data as such. […] The metaphors “code” and “program” have seduced the imagination of scientists, professionals and people in general so they sound like genes do more than they really do. […] The problem of heritability is not resolved with larger samples, as in the promise of the overused genetic perspective. […] ADHD is still “complex” even without thinking about genes. […] The literature in favor of the neurodevelopment approach is undeniably enormous and the amount of data overwhelming.

• #1 What Causes ADHD? — Talkspace

  https://www.talkspace.com/mental-health/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/causes/

  Researchers have identified several factors that can increase the likelihood of someone developing Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and in many cases, its a combination of factors thats the cause. […] What are the causes of ADHD exactly? Despite years of research, we still dont know definitively what causes ADHD. However, research and studies have identified potential ADHD causes that are important for us to look at. These might include environmental, biological, and genetic components. […] ADHD is caused by a combination of factors such as genetics, premature birth, and brain function. […] Despite experts not knowing exactly what causes ADHD, there are multiple things that likely play a role. As current research suggests that ADHD can be caused by a combination of factors, weve identified a number of potential causes.

• #1 ADHD: What Causes It?

  https://www.mentalhealth.com/library/causes-of-adhd

  The environment that a young child is exposed to matters, too. Babies and toddlers who experience neglect, abuse, or significant stress may also have disruptions in their brain development. […] The foods we eat and the nutrients we get (or don’t get) may just play a role in the development of ADHD. […] The environment we live in can play a significant role in the development of ADHD. Certain toxins and pollutants that we are exposed to, especially during pregnancy and early childhood, can increase the chances of developing ADHD. […] ADHD is a complex condition. It doesn’t come from just one single cause but rather a mix of the genetic environment and neurological factors all working together.

• #1 Adult ADHD: Symptoms, Statistics, Causes, Types, and Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/adhd-adults

  Scientists aren’t sure exactly what causes someone to get ADHD, but research has shown that it runs in families. […] They do know that people with ADHD have differences in the way their brains are structured. It takes their brains longer to become fully mature. The nerve cells that send and receive signals in the brain work differently, too. […] Studies have found no evidence that ADHD is caused by poor parenting, sugar consumption, or too much screen time. It’s possible these things could make ADHD worse, though.

• #1 Developing ADHD as an adult: Is it possible?

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/can-you-develop-adhd-as-an-adult

  Experts do not yet know the exact cause of ADHD, but research is looking into possible genetic factors. […] Researchers also suspect that several factors may interact to cause ADHD. Social environment, brain injuries, and nutrition may play a role. […] Experts do not know the exact cause of ADHD, but they suspect that genetics, brain injuries, nutrition, and social environment may all play a role in its development. […] ADHD can develop in adults or become apparent for the first time in adulthood. Evidence suggests that adult onset ADHD may have different causes than childhood onset ADHD.

• #1 The Root Causes of ADHD | Genetics, Environment & Brain Function

  https://www.adhdcentre.co.uk/the-root-cause-of-adhd-understanding-the-role-of-genetics-environment-and-brain-function/

  Similarly, sleep deprivation has been linked to ADHD symptoms, as well as other mental health conditions like depression and anxiety, both of which tend to coexist with ADHD. […] The more we learn about the causes of ADHD, the better treatment can be. […] At present, treatments are largely focused on increasing neurotransmitter levels and implementing environmental interventions that look to address executive functioning. […] For example, a deficiency in the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine may contribute to the symptoms of ADHD. […] There is no known method to prevent ADHD. […] As mentioned, links have been made between prenatal exposure to toxins such as mercury and lead, and smoking and alcohol consumption during pregnancy, to ADHD. […] Preventing exposure to these substances may reduce the risk of developing ADHD, but this is not concrete – specifically when you consider that brain anatomy and genes play a role alongside environmental risks. […] Instead, the focus should be on early intervention and treatment to help reduce the effect ADHD symptoms have on daily life.

• #2 What Is ADHD? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms, Causes, TreatmentsFooterLogo

  https://www.additudemag.com/what-is-adhd-symptoms-causes-treatments/?srsltid=AfmBOooUUj-PcRpxxsQiXRLIk9bV_m8UQNh3dRGLYNNy8woVUjr9gQIB

  ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) is a complex brain disorder that impacts approximately 11% of children and almost 5% of adults in the U.S. ADHD is a developmental impairment of the brain’s executive functions. People with ADHD have trouble with impulse-control, focusing, and organization. […] The causes of ADHD remain somewhat unclear. Research suggests that genetics and heredity play a large part in determining who gets ADHD. However, scientists are still investigating whether certain genes, especially ones linked to the neurotransmitter dopamine, play a defined role in developing ADHD. […] ADHD is not caused by bad parenting, too much sugar, or too many video games. ADHD is a brain-based, biological disorder. Brain imaging studies and other research show many physiological differences in the brains of individuals with ADHD.

• #2 What causes ADHD? – ADHDAwarenessMonth 2025

  https://www.adhdawarenessmonth.org/what-causes-adhd/

  In most people having the diagnosis, ADHD is likely to be the result of their genetic make-up (i.e. their DNA) and events that happen to them throughout life. […] ADHD has a high heritability of around 70-80%. What this means is that in an average person with ADHD, 70-80% of the inattention and/or hyperactivity can be explained by contributions of genes. […] While 70-80% heritability sounds like a lot, genetic factors are certainly not the only factors that are important in developing ADHD. Also environmental factors, in particular events occurring before or during birth, but also stress during childhood, play an important role. […] In most cases, a combination of many gene variants and environmental factors is likely involved. […] The genetic factors (together with environmental factors) involved in ADHD are thought to alter brain development very early in life, probably starting already before birth.

• #2 What causes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? | Archives of Disease in Childhood

  https://adc.bmj.com/content/97/3/260

  ADHD also appears to share an inherited liability with other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric problems, notably ASDs, developmental coordination problems, reading ability, IQ, conduct and mood problems. […] The high heritability of ADHD has fuelled efforts to identify susceptibility genes. […] Candidate gene association studies were relatively successful for ADHD compared with other neuropsychiatric/developmental disorders. However, GWAS findings for ADHD are still at an early stage, with no common gene variant having yet been identified. […] Inherited factors are not the only explanation of ADHD. Although there are a number of environmental risk factors that are associated with ADHD, identifying which of these are causal is challenging. […] Most studies, including meta-analyses of premature and/or low birth weight children, find evidence of an association with ADHD and ADHD symptoms/attentional problems.

• #2 ADHD Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments You Should Know | SELF

  https://www.self.com/story/what-adhd-is-and-isnt

  ADHD is listed as a neurodevelopmental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the set of guidelines established by psychiatrists for diagnosing mental illness. Though the exact cause of ADHD isnt clear, one prevalent theory is that neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine, which are critical for thinking and attention, are imbalanced in people with this condition. […] On top of that, an April 2017 study in The Lancet concluded that people with ADHD have structurally different brains than people without it. The study, which used MRIs to examine brain differences in 1,713 people with ADHD and 1,529 who didnt have the disorder, found that people with ADHD had smaller volumes in five brain regions that govern things like motivation and emotion. These differences were most obvious in children, but still existed for adults.

• #2 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  ADHD arises from maldevelopment in brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia and anterior cingulate cortex, which regulate the executive functions necessary for human self-regulation. […] The precise causes of ADHD are unknown in most individual cases. […] Meta-analyses have shown that the disorder is primarily genetic with a heritability rate of 70-80%, where risk factors are highly accumulative. […] The environmental risks are not related to social or familial factors; they exert their effects very early in life, in the prenatal or early postnatal period. […] However, in rare cases, ADHD can be caused by a single event including traumatic brain injury, exposure to biohazards during pregnancy, or a major genetic mutation. […] As it is a neurodevelopmental disorder, there is no biologically distinct adult-onset ADHD except for when ADHD occurs after traumatic brain injury.

• #2 ADHD/ADD in Adults: Symptoms & Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/ss/slideshow-adhd-in-adults

  In people with ADHD, brain chemicals called neurotransmitters are less active in areas of the brain that control attention. Researchers don’t know exactly what causes this chemical imbalance, but they think genes may play a role in ADHD, because it often runs in families. Studies have also linked ADHD to prenatal exposure to cigarettes and alcohol. […] One genetic variation that causes ADHD-like traits is more common in the world’s nomadic peoples. Researchers think that traits such as impulsive behavior, novelty-seeking, and unpredictability might help nomads track down food and other resources. So the same qualities that make it challenging to excel at a desk job may have been an advantage to nomadic ancestors.

• #2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental condition of inattention and distractibility, with or without accompanying hyperactivity. […] The pathology of ADHD is not clear. Psychostimulants (which facilitate dopamine release) and noradrenergic tricyclics used to treat this condition have led to speculation that certain brain areas related to attention are deficient in neural transmission. […] The neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine have been associated with ADHD. […] The underlying brain regions predominantly thought to be involved are frontal and prefrontal; the parietal lobe and cerebellum may also be involved. […] A 2010 study again indicated the presence of frontostriatal malfunctioning in the etiology of ADHD. […] A PET scan study by Volkow et al revealed that in adults with ADHD, depressed dopamine activity in caudate and preliminary evidence in limbic regions was associated with inattention and enhanced reinforcing responses to intravenous methylphenidate. This concludes that dopamine dysfunction may be involved with symptoms of inattention but may also contribute to substance abuse comorbidity.

• #2 ADHD: Why Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is Rising  | Brown University Health

  https://www.brownhealth.org/be-well/adhd-why-diagnosis-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-rising

  ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a common condition that has steadily been on the increase in both children and adults. […] While the causes of ADHD remain unknown, researchers believe genetics plays a key role. In addition, other potential causes and risk factors may include brain injury, environmental risks such as lead exposure, alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy, premature birth, and low birth weight.

• #2 ADHD in Adults: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/signs-symptoms/adhd-in-adults

  Environmental factors most strongly associated with ADHD are low birth weight and maternal smoking during pregnancy. Other risk factors include preterm delivery, epilepsy, brain injury, lead exposure, iron deficiency, fetal alcohol exposure during pregnancy, psychological and social problems, and poor maternal mental health.

• #2 What causes ADHD? And whether or not it can be prevented.

  https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/health-wellness/2024/02/09/what-causes-adhd/72426941007/

  ADHD is a neurodevelopmental syndrome and is something that someone is born with. […] The most studied causes of ADHD is related to genetics, early child development, and risk factors associated with pregnancy. […] Some risk factors for development of ADHD include premature birth, fetal exposure to substances like alcohol or tobacco, or low birth weight. […] ADHD is a complex genetic trait. […] Its genetic expression can be influenced by interaction with environmental factors and stressors. […] Many of these risk factors came from studies that are correlational in nature. […] ADHD is not a condition that is usually thought to be preventable. […] There is a well-documented association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring (with ADHD). […] If any of the aforementioned known environmental risk factors turn out to be causal instead of correlational, then those factors could also be targets for ADHD prevention.

• #2

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/adhd/Pages/Causes-of-ADHD.aspx

  ADHD may be caused by a number of things: […] A lower level of activity in the parts of the brain that control attention and activity level may be associated with ADHD. […] ADHD frequently runs in families. A child with ADHD has a 1 in 4 chance of having a parent with ADHD. […] Significant head injuries may cause ADHD in some cases. […] Prematurity increases the risk of developing ADHD. […] Prenatal exposures, such as alcohol or nicotine from smoking, increase the risk of developing ADHD. […] In very rare cases, toxins in the environment may lead to ADHD. For instance, lead in the body can affect child development and behavior.

• #2 What causes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? | Archives of Disease in Childhood

  https://adc.bmj.com/content/97/3/260

  Specific environmental exposures that seem to have relevance to the ADHD phenotype include organic pollutants (eg, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)) and lead. […] Cumulatively, the available evidence goes some way towards highlighting groups who are at higher risk; specifically those who have a family history of ADHD and/or neurodevelopmental or learning problems, and those who have been exposed to the environmental adversities described earlier. However, none of these risks, including the genetic ones, provide tests or biomarkers of ADHD.

• #2 What Causes ADHD? — Talkspace

  https://www.talkspace.com/mental-health/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/causes/

  One thing weve understood for quite a while is that ADHD impacts brain function, but newer research has given us a better look at exactly how. Evidence suggests that people with ADHD may have structural differences in their brains. […] Approximately 44% of children with childhood ADHD have parents who also exhibit symptoms of the condition. […] Research shows us that children who are exposed to nicotine in the womb are more likely to develop ADHD. […] Serious head injuries have been linked to many mental health conditions, including ADHD. […] Babies who are born prematurely are more likely to develop ADHD, according to some studies. […] Exposure to chemicals and other environmental toxins can interfere with brain development.

• #2 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Adult | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adult

  Some evolutionary psychologists contend that ADHD-like traits may have even been useful to our hunter-gatherer ancestors, though they’re seen as problematic today. […] Per the DSM-5 definition of ADHD, no symptoms must be present from age 12 or earlier in order for someone to qualify for a diagnosis. In recent years, however, some longitudinal studies that followed participants from childhood to adulthood reported that some individuals appeared to meet the threshold for an ADHD diagnosis in their teen or adult years, despite not qualifying for one during childhood. […] Further research is needed to definitively answer the question of adult-onset ADHD.

• #2 Developing ADHD as an adult: Is it possible?

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/can-you-develop-adhd-as-an-adult

  While doctors generally consider attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) a childhood neurodevelopmental disorder, they may diagnose late onset ADHD in adults. […] More recently, researchers have looked into the idea that adults may develop a form of ADHD independent of the childhood version. […] A 2016 study found enough evidence to conclude that ADHD in adulthood is not necessarily a continuation of childhood ADHD. Instead, adult ADHD and childhood ADHD may be two distinct syndromes. […] Another 2016 study noted that childhood ADHD and late onset adult ADHD may have different causes. The authors suggest that future research should look into possible genetic differences to further understand the condition. […] Evidence suggests that adult ADHD may affect 2.55% of the population.

• #2 Untreated ADHD in Adults: Signs, Causes, Impact, and Treatment

  https://www.verywellmind.com/untreated-adhd-in-adults-signs-causes-impact-and-treatment-5222929

  Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurobehavioral condition that usually starts during childhood. ADHD can affect adults as well, whether they were diagnosed in childhood or not. […] Estimates suggest that around 2.5% to 5% of the adult population has ADHD. Some research also suggests that these rates appear to be increasing. While fairly common, it is frequently undiagnosed and untreated, with less than 20% of adults with ADHD receiving an appropriate diagnosis and treatment. […] Studies also indicate that adult ADHD frequently co-occurs alongside other mental health conditions, including anxiety disorders and substance use disorders. […] Some studies have suggested that as many as 90% of adults with ADHD have another psychiatric condition. […] Potential complications associated with a 'missed’ ADHD diagnosis include increased criminal involvement, car accidents, unemployment, relationship problems, and substance misuse.

• #2 About Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/about/index.html

  ADHD can last into adulthood. Some adults have ADHD but have never been diagnosed. The symptoms can cause difficulty at work, at home, or with relationships. Symptoms may look different at older ages, for example, hyperactivity may appear as extreme restlessness. Symptoms can become more severe when the demands of adulthood increase. […] The causes of ADHD are unknown, but scientists have identified some possible risk factors. […] Genetics. […] Exposure to environmental risks (for example, lead) during pregnancy or at a young age. […] Alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy and other pregnancy-related factors. […] Child health conditions, including head injuries. […] Parental mental health and family environment.

• #2 Adult-Onset ADHD Raises Questions

  https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/adult-onset-adhd-raises-questions

  Specifically, 10 patients had conduct disorder in childhood; 15 had substance use disorders as adults; and 15 sought treatment for major psychiatric disorders as adults. […] Two other studies that looked at purported cases of adult-onset ADHD concluded that the majority (93% to 95%) of the cases were better explained by sleep disorders, substance use disorders, or another psychiatric disorder. […] If adult-onset ADHD does exist, it may not be the same disorder as childhood-onset ADHD. […] Indeed, most cases of adult-onset ADHD can be better explained as true ADHD that was partially expressed in childhood; false positives in patients whose symptoms are due to another disorder; or false positives in healthy people who overendorsed their symptoms during the diagnostic interview. […] These studies point to that possibility, but they do not tell us whether these cases share common biological markers, familial patterns, and treatment response with childhood-onset ADHD. […] Medical and environmental factors, including age-related cognitive decline, sleep deprivation, sleep apnea, inflammation, obesity, air pollution, chemical exposure, and excessive use of digital media, can also cause ADHD-like symptoms.

• #2 What are the causes of ADHD? Biology vs. environment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-adhd

  Some research connects ADHD to complications that affect fetal development during pregnancy, such as prenatal alcohol exposure and prenatal smoking. […] Psychological trauma may play a role in ADHD, but it is unclear how, or to what extent. […] ADHD appears to be something a person has from birth, or that develops in early childhood. […] Researchers are still learning about the causes of ADHD. However, they suspect a combination of genetic and environmental factors increases a person’s chances of developing the condition.

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