Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events. […] Per cognitive theory, depression occurs as a result of cognitive distortions in persons who are susceptible to depression.

• #2 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  Major depressive disorder (MDD), a main cause of disability worldwide, is characterized by physical changes such as tiredness, weight loss, and appetite loss. The prevalence of depression is increasing yearly. About 300 million people in the world are affected by MDD, which has become one of the main causes of disability. In 2018, MDD ranked third in terms of disease burden according to the WHO, and it is predicted to rank first by 2030. Pregnant women, elderly people, children, and others have a higher incidence rate of MDD, which may be related to genetic, psychological, and social factors. […] Due to the complexity of the pathological mechanism of MDD, accurate diagnostic approaches and pharmacological therapeutic strategies are relatively limited. Several hypothesis were developed to explain MDD pathogenesis pathogenic including (i) the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction hypothesis, (ii) the monoamine hypothesis, (iii) the inflammatory hypothesis, (iv) the genetic and epigenetic anomaly hypothesis, (v) the structural and functional brain remodeling hypothesis, and (vi) the social psychological hypothesis. However, none of these hypotheses alone can fully explain the pathological basis of MDD, while many mechanisms proposed by these hypotheses interact with each other.

• #3

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/depression

  Depressive disorder, or depression, is a common mental health condition that can happen to anyone. […] Depression results from a complex interaction of social, psychological and biological factors. […] People who have lived through abuse, severe losses or other adverse events are more likely to develop depression. […] Problems at school and work can also result in depression. […] Depression can cause difficulties in all aspects of life, including performance at school, productivity at work, relationships with family, friends and community. […] People with depression are at increased risk of suicide. […] Research also shows strong relationships between depression and physical health, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and respiratory diseases.

• #4 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events. […] Per cognitive theory, depression occurs as a result of cognitive distortions in persons who are susceptible to depression.

• #5

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression

  Depression results from a complex interaction of social, psychological, and biological factors. […] People who have gone through adverse life events (unemployment, bereavement, traumatic events) are more likely to develop depression. […] Depression can, in turn, lead to more stress and dysfunction and worsen the affected persons life situation and the depression itself.

• #6 Depression (major depressive disorder) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20356007

  Depression is a mood disorder that causes feelings of sadness that won’t go away. […] While there’s no single cause of depression, most experts believe there’s a combination of biological, social, and psychological factors that contribute to depression risk. […] Biologically, we think about genetics or a family history of depression, health conditions such as diabetes, heart disease or thyroid disorders, and even hormonal changes that happen over the lifespan, such as pregnancy and menopause. […] Changes in brain chemistry, especially disruptions in neurotransmitters like serotonin, that play an important role in regulating many bodily functions, including mood, sleep, and appetite, are thought to play a particularly important role in depression. […] Socially stressful and traumatic life events, limited access to resources such as food, housing, and health care, and a lack of social support all contribute to depression risk.

• #7 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events. […] Per cognitive theory, depression occurs as a result of cognitive distortions in persons who are susceptible to depression.

• #8 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  The traditional monoamine theory contends that in addition to common pathogenic factors, deficiencies in monoamine neurotransmitters, such as serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), are the root cause of clinical depression. […] The HPA axis, a component of the neuroendocrine system, is commonly associated with the stress response. Hyperactivity of the HPA axis is thought to be an important pathophysiological mechanism underlying depression. […] There is evidence that GCs, which are released in response to stress, are harmful to neurons in various brain regions. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD.

• #9 Depression (major depressive disorder) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20356007

  Depression is a mood disorder that causes feelings of sadness that won’t go away. […] While there’s no single cause of depression, most experts believe there’s a combination of biological, social, and psychological factors that contribute to depression risk. […] Biologically, we think about genetics or a family history of depression, health conditions such as diabetes, heart disease or thyroid disorders, and even hormonal changes that happen over the lifespan, such as pregnancy and menopause. […] Changes in brain chemistry, especially disruptions in neurotransmitters like serotonin, that play an important role in regulating many bodily functions, including mood, sleep, and appetite, are thought to play a particularly important role in depression. […] Socially stressful and traumatic life events, limited access to resources such as food, housing, and health care, and a lack of social support all contribute to depression risk.

• #10 Psychiatry.org – What Is Depression?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression

  Depression (major depressive disorder) is a common and serious mental disorder that negatively affects how you feel, think, act, and perceive the world. […] Several factors can play a role in depression. Several factors can play a role in depression: […] Biochemical: Differences in certain chemicals in the brain (such as the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine) may contribute to symptoms of depression. […] Genetic: Depression can run in families. For example, if one identical twin has depression, the other has a 70 percent chance of having the illness sometime in life. […] Personality: People with low self-esteem, who are easily overwhelmed by stress, or who are generally pessimistic may be more likely to experience depression. […] Environmental: Continuous exposure to violence, neglect, abuse or poverty can also pose risks for developing depression.

• #11 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  The traditional monoamine theory contends that in addition to common pathogenic factors, deficiencies in monoamine neurotransmitters, such as serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), are the root cause of clinical depression. […] The HPA axis, a component of the neuroendocrine system, is commonly associated with the stress response. Hyperactivity of the HPA axis is thought to be an important pathophysiological mechanism underlying depression. […] There is evidence that GCs, which are released in response to stress, are harmful to neurons in various brain regions. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD.

• #12 Depressive Disorders – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/mood-disorders/depressive-disorders

  Depressive disorders are characterized by sadness severe enough or persistent enough to interfere with function and often by decreased interest or pleasure in activities. Exact cause is unknown but probably involves heredity, changes in neurotransmitter levels, altered neuroendocrine function, and psychosocial factors. […] The exact cause of depressive disorders is unknown, but genetic and environmental factors contribute. Heredity accounts for about half of the etiology (less so in late-onset depression). Thus, depression is more common among first-degree relatives of depressed patients, and concordance between identical twins is high. […] Other theories focus on changes in neurotransmitter levels, including abnormal regulation of cholinergic, catecholaminergic (noradrenergic or dopaminergic), glutamatergic, and serotonergic (5-hydroxytryptamine) neurotransmission. Neuroendocrine dysregulation may be a factor, with particular emphasis on 3 axes: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid, and hypothalamic-pituitary-growth hormone.

• #13 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  The traditional monoamine theory contends that in addition to common pathogenic factors, deficiencies in monoamine neurotransmitters, such as serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), are the root cause of clinical depression. […] The HPA axis, a component of the neuroendocrine system, is commonly associated with the stress response. Hyperactivity of the HPA axis is thought to be an important pathophysiological mechanism underlying depression. […] There is evidence that GCs, which are released in response to stress, are harmful to neurons in various brain regions. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD.

• #14 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Several genetic polymorphisms have been linked to increased risk of depression in response to stress. […] Importantly, individuals with one or two copies of the short allele of 5-HTTLPR experienced more depressive symptoms and higher rates of major depressive disorder in response to stressful life events than individuals who are homozygous for the long allele. […] The effects of the serotonin transporter polymorphism implicated in depression in response to stressful life events may be manifested behaviorally as dysfunctional emotionality in response to stress. […] A dominant model of the neurobiology of depression that has emerged in recent years emphasizes the underlying dysregulation of the bodys response to stress, involving the neuroendocrine system and brain responses. […] Depression has been linked with elevated cortisol and related neurohormones.

• #15 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  The traditional monoamine theory contends that in addition to common pathogenic factors, deficiencies in monoamine neurotransmitters, such as serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), are the root cause of clinical depression. […] The HPA axis, a component of the neuroendocrine system, is commonly associated with the stress response. Hyperactivity of the HPA axis is thought to be an important pathophysiological mechanism underlying depression. […] There is evidence that GCs, which are released in response to stress, are harmful to neurons in various brain regions. […] MDD is accompanied by changes in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines and trophic factors, including BDNF, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Increasing data suggest that the production of certain cytokines by brain astrocytes plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of MDD.

• #16 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  Neuroinflammation is a central pathophysiological mechanism and defining characteristic of MDD. […] In conclusion, there have been so many hypothesis to explain the pathogenesis of MDD associating with many booming researches. However, it is still hard to adopt only one above hypothesis to completely reveal pathophysiology of MDD.

• #17 Depressive Disorders – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/mood-disorders/depressive-disorders

  Depressive disorders are characterized by sadness severe enough or persistent enough to interfere with function and often by decreased interest or pleasure in activities. Exact cause is unknown but probably involves heredity, changes in neurotransmitter levels, altered neuroendocrine function, and psychosocial factors. […] The exact cause of depressive disorders is unknown, but genetic and environmental factors contribute. Heredity accounts for about half of the etiology (less so in late-onset depression). Thus, depression is more common among first-degree relatives of depressed patients, and concordance between identical twins is high. […] Other theories focus on changes in neurotransmitter levels, including abnormal regulation of cholinergic, catecholaminergic (noradrenergic or dopaminergic), glutamatergic, and serotonergic (5-hydroxytryptamine) neurotransmission. Neuroendocrine dysregulation may be a factor, with particular emphasis on 3 axes: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid, and hypothalamic-pituitary-growth hormone.

• #18 Major Depression Causes & Biological Factors – Dr.Stubbeman

  https://drstubbeman.com/conditions-we-treat/understanding-depression/causes-of-major-depression/

  There are numerous causes of major depression as supported by doctors and researchers. Some of these causes can arise organically from within an individual whereas others come from environmental events that affects the person. […] A change in brain activity is almost always associated with major depressive disorder. There is decreased activity in the left frontal lobe during depression and a rise in activity following stabilization of mood. […] The release and reuptake of neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) in the brain is linked to a person’s mood. Depression has been linked to the imbalance of these neurotransmitters (NTs), but unfortunately this is hard to prove, as it is very difficult to measure the concentrations of these NTs in the brain. […] Childhood trauma can cause an individual to be depressed for a prolonged period. […] Losing a loved one, taking a high-stress job, and facing tough financial situations are all known as causes of depression. […] Rapid hormonal changes are one of the causes of major depression, for instance women entering menopause.

• #19 Depression (major depressive disorder) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20356007

  Psychologically, we think of how negative thoughts and problematic coping behaviors, such as avoidance and substance use, increase our vulnerability to depression. […] It’s not known exactly what causes depression. […] Biological differences. People with depression appear to have physical changes in their brains. […] Brain chemistry. Neurotransmitters are naturally occurring brain chemicals that likely play a role in depression. […] Hormones. Changes in the body’s balance of hormones may be involved in causing or triggering depression. […] Inherited traits. Depression is more common in people whose blood relatives also have this condition.

• #20 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events. […] Per cognitive theory, depression occurs as a result of cognitive distortions in persons who are susceptible to depression.

• #21 Causes – Depression in adults – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/depression-in-adults/causes/

  There’s no single cause of depression. It can occur for a variety of reasons and it has many different triggers. […] Different causes can often combine to trigger depression. […] Some studies have also suggested that you’re more likely to get depression as you get older, and that it’s more common in people who live in difficult social and economic circumstances. […] It’s thought that your chance of getting severe depression may be partly affected by the genes you inherit from your parents. […] If someone in your family has had depression in the past, such as a parent, sister or brother, it’s more likely that you’ll also develop it. […] It’s thought that severe depression in particular may be partly caused by the genes you inherit from your parents. […] But depression is usually caused by a combination of triggers such as life events, so having a family history of depression does not always mean that you’ll develop it.

• #22 Depressive Disorders – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/mood-disorders/depressive-disorders

  Depressive disorders are characterized by sadness severe enough or persistent enough to interfere with function and often by decreased interest or pleasure in activities. Exact cause is unknown but probably involves heredity, changes in neurotransmitter levels, altered neuroendocrine function, and psychosocial factors. […] The exact cause of depressive disorders is unknown, but genetic and environmental factors contribute. Heredity accounts for about half of the etiology (less so in late-onset depression). Thus, depression is more common among first-degree relatives of depressed patients, and concordance between identical twins is high. […] Other theories focus on changes in neurotransmitter levels, including abnormal regulation of cholinergic, catecholaminergic (noradrenergic or dopaminergic), glutamatergic, and serotonergic (5-hydroxytryptamine) neurotransmission. Neuroendocrine dysregulation may be a factor, with particular emphasis on 3 axes: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid, and hypothalamic-pituitary-growth hormone.

• #23 Major Depression and Genetics | Genetics of Brain Function | Stanford Medicine

  https://med.stanford.edu/depressiongenetics/mddandgenes.html

  At least 10% of people in the U.S. will experience major depressive disorder at some point in their lives. […] Scientists look at patterns of illness in families to estimate their heritability, or roughly what percentage of their cause is due to genes. […] Heritability is probably 40-50%, and might be higher for severe depression. […] This could mean that in most cases of depression, around 50% of the cause is genetic, and around 50% is unrelated to genes (psychological or physical factors). […] We can also look at adoption studies, to see whether an adopted persons risk of depression is greater if a biological parent had depression. […] There are probably many non-genetic factors that increase risk of depression, many of which are probably not yet known. […] If someone has a family history of depression, are they at very high risk?

• #24 Causes – Depression in adults – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/depression-in-adults/causes/

  There’s no single cause of depression. It can occur for a variety of reasons and it has many different triggers. […] Different causes can often combine to trigger depression. […] Some studies have also suggested that you’re more likely to get depression as you get older, and that it’s more common in people who live in difficult social and economic circumstances. […] It’s thought that your chance of getting severe depression may be partly affected by the genes you inherit from your parents. […] If someone in your family has had depression in the past, such as a parent, sister or brother, it’s more likely that you’ll also develop it. […] It’s thought that severe depression in particular may be partly caused by the genes you inherit from your parents. […] But depression is usually caused by a combination of triggers such as life events, so having a family history of depression does not always mean that you’ll develop it.

• #25 Major Depression and Genetics | Genetics of Brain Function | Stanford Medicine

  https://med.stanford.edu/depressiongenetics/mddandgenes.html

  If someone has a parent or sibling with major depression, that person probably has a 2 or 3 times greater risk of developing depression compared with the average person. […] The siblings and children of people with this form of depression probably develop it at a rate that is 4 or 5 times greater than the average person. […] But many common disorders like depression, diabetes and high blood pressure are also influenced by genes. […] We dont yet know how many genes are involved in depression, but it is very doubtful that any one gene causes depression in any large number of people. […] So no one simply inherits depression from their mother or father. […] Most people who suffer from depression do not have episodes of mania. […] Major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder are the two major mood disorders.

• #26 Causes of Depression: Genetics, Illness, Abuse, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/causes-depression

  Depression is a complex disease. No one knows exactly what causes it, but it can happen for a variety of reasons. Some people have depression during a serious medical illness. Others may have depression because of big life changes such as a move or the death of a loved one. Some people also have a family history of depression and may feel overwhelmed with sadness and loneliness for no known reason. […] Your genes, biology, environment, and overall health can play a role in depression. […] A family history of depression may increase the risk. It’s thought that depression is a complex trait, meaning there are probably many different genes, with each exerting small effects, rather than a single gene leading to disease risk. […] One thing is certain depression is a complex illness with many contributing factors.

• #27 Major Depression and Genetics | Genetics of Brain Function | Stanford Medicine

  https://med.stanford.edu/depressiongenetics/mddandgenes.html

  If someone has a parent or sibling with major depression, that person probably has a 2 or 3 times greater risk of developing depression compared with the average person. […] The siblings and children of people with this form of depression probably develop it at a rate that is 4 or 5 times greater than the average person. […] But many common disorders like depression, diabetes and high blood pressure are also influenced by genes. […] We dont yet know how many genes are involved in depression, but it is very doubtful that any one gene causes depression in any large number of people. […] So no one simply inherits depression from their mother or father. […] Most people who suffer from depression do not have episodes of mania. […] Major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder are the two major mood disorders.

• #28 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Several genetic polymorphisms have been linked to increased risk of depression in response to stress. […] Importantly, individuals with one or two copies of the short allele of 5-HTTLPR experienced more depressive symptoms and higher rates of major depressive disorder in response to stressful life events than individuals who are homozygous for the long allele. […] The effects of the serotonin transporter polymorphism implicated in depression in response to stressful life events may be manifested behaviorally as dysfunctional emotionality in response to stress. […] A dominant model of the neurobiology of depression that has emerged in recent years emphasizes the underlying dysregulation of the bodys response to stress, involving the neuroendocrine system and brain responses. […] Depression has been linked with elevated cortisol and related neurohormones.

• #29 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  Although the etiology of MDD is still unclear, it is widely accepted that MDD is associated with multiple pathogenic factors. In addition to well-known mental factors, MDD is also related to genetic factors, social stress, and even other common chronic diseases. Therefore, the etiology of MDD cannot be described from the perspective of a single factor. […] In addition to heritable factors, environmental influences such as stress also significantly contribute to the development of MDD, both independently and in conjunction with genetic factors. Numerous studies have suggested that adverse life events can lead to the development of MDD. A major depressive episode always follows a traumatic or stressful life event. […] The existence of various physiological and psychological comorbidities in patients with depression reveals a clear link between physical and mental health, which has given us a better understanding of MDD. The presence of MDD is a risk factor for a variety of complications, including neurodegenerative diseases (such as dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease), cardiovascular diseases (such as ischemic coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction), metabolic and endocrine diseases (such as obesity in females and diabetes in males), and some autoimmune diseases.

• #30 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  A major risk factor for depression is the experience of undesirable, negative life events. […] There is ample evidence that most major depressive episodes are triggered by stressful life events. […] According to Mazure (1998) recent stressors were 2.5 times more likely in depressed patients compared with controls, and, in community samples, 80 percent of depressed cases were preceded by major negative life events. […] Gender differences in depression may be accounted for in part by womens greater exposure to interpersonal life events, as well as their greater likelihood, compared with men, of reacting to such events with depression. […] Although acute stress may precipitate depression in vulnerable individuals, the relationship is bidirectional: Those with depression or a history of depression experience significantly more acute stressors than those with no depression.

• #31 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  A major risk factor for depression is the experience of undesirable, negative life events. […] There is ample evidence that most major depressive episodes are triggered by stressful life events. […] According to Mazure (1998) recent stressors were 2.5 times more likely in depressed patients compared with controls, and, in community samples, 80 percent of depressed cases were preceded by major negative life events. […] Gender differences in depression may be accounted for in part by womens greater exposure to interpersonal life events, as well as their greater likelihood, compared with men, of reacting to such events with depression. […] Although acute stress may precipitate depression in vulnerable individuals, the relationship is bidirectional: Those with depression or a history of depression experience significantly more acute stressors than those with no depression.

• #32 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  A major risk factor for depression is the experience of undesirable, negative life events. […] There is ample evidence that most major depressive episodes are triggered by stressful life events. […] According to Mazure (1998) recent stressors were 2.5 times more likely in depressed patients compared with controls, and, in community samples, 80 percent of depressed cases were preceded by major negative life events. […] Gender differences in depression may be accounted for in part by womens greater exposure to interpersonal life events, as well as their greater likelihood, compared with men, of reacting to such events with depression. […] Although acute stress may precipitate depression in vulnerable individuals, the relationship is bidirectional: Those with depression or a history of depression experience significantly more acute stressors than those with no depression.

• #33 Major Depression (Clinical Depression) Symptoms, Treatments, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/major-depression

  A constant sense of hopelessness and despair is a sign you may have major depression, also known as clinical depression. […] Major depression can sometimes occur from one generation to the next in families, but often it may affect people with no family history of the illness. […] Some common triggers or causes of major depression include: Loss of a loved one through death, divorce, or separation; Social isolation or feelings of being deprived; Major life changes — moving, graduation, job change, retirement; Personal conflicts in relationships, either with a significant other or a superior; Physical, sexual, or emotional abuse. […] Once you have had an episode of major depression, you are at high risk of having another. The best way to prevent another episode of depression is to be aware of the triggers or causes of major depression and to continue taking the prescribed medication to avoid relapse.

• #34 Overview – Depression in adults – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/depression-in-adults/overview/

  Depression is more than simply feeling unhappy or fed up for a few days. […] Some people think depression is trivial and not a genuine health condition. They’re wrong it is a real illness with real symptoms. […] What causes depression? […] Sometimes there’s a trigger for depression. Life-changing events, such as bereavement, losing your job or giving birth, can bring it on. […] People with a family history of depression are more likely to experience it themselves. But you can also become depressed for no obvious reason.

• #35 Major Depression (Clinical Depression) Symptoms, Treatments, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/major-depression

  A constant sense of hopelessness and despair is a sign you may have major depression, also known as clinical depression. […] Major depression can sometimes occur from one generation to the next in families, but often it may affect people with no family history of the illness. […] Some common triggers or causes of major depression include: Loss of a loved one through death, divorce, or separation; Social isolation or feelings of being deprived; Major life changes — moving, graduation, job change, retirement; Personal conflicts in relationships, either with a significant other or a superior; Physical, sexual, or emotional abuse. […] Once you have had an episode of major depression, you are at high risk of having another. The best way to prevent another episode of depression is to be aware of the triggers or causes of major depression and to continue taking the prescribed medication to avoid relapse.

• #36 Causes – Depression in adults – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/depression-in-adults/causes/

  Some women are particularly vulnerable to depression after pregnancy. […] Sometimes depression starts before you give birth. […] Menopause can also cause symptoms such as sadness and mood swings. […] Feeling lonely, caused by things such as becoming cut off from your family and friends, can increase your risk of depression. […] When life is getting them down, some people try to cope by drinking too much alcohol or taking drugs. […] This can result in a spiral of depression. […] You may have a higher risk of depression if you have a longstanding or life-threatening illness, such as coronary heart disease, cancer or a condition that causes long-term pain. […] Head injuries are also an often under-recognised cause of depression. […] In some people an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) can cause depression.

• #37 Major Depression (Clinical Depression) Symptoms, Treatments, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/major-depression

  A constant sense of hopelessness and despair is a sign you may have major depression, also known as clinical depression. […] Major depression can sometimes occur from one generation to the next in families, but often it may affect people with no family history of the illness. […] Some common triggers or causes of major depression include: Loss of a loved one through death, divorce, or separation; Social isolation or feelings of being deprived; Major life changes — moving, graduation, job change, retirement; Personal conflicts in relationships, either with a significant other or a superior; Physical, sexual, or emotional abuse. […] Once you have had an episode of major depression, you are at high risk of having another. The best way to prevent another episode of depression is to be aware of the triggers or causes of major depression and to continue taking the prescribed medication to avoid relapse.

• #38 Major Depression (Clinical Depression) Symptoms, Treatments, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/major-depression

  A constant sense of hopelessness and despair is a sign you may have major depression, also known as clinical depression. […] Major depression can sometimes occur from one generation to the next in families, but often it may affect people with no family history of the illness. […] Some common triggers or causes of major depression include: Loss of a loved one through death, divorce, or separation; Social isolation or feelings of being deprived; Major life changes — moving, graduation, job change, retirement; Personal conflicts in relationships, either with a significant other or a superior; Physical, sexual, or emotional abuse. […] Once you have had an episode of major depression, you are at high risk of having another. The best way to prevent another episode of depression is to be aware of the triggers or causes of major depression and to continue taking the prescribed medication to avoid relapse.

• #39 Major Depression (Clinical Depression) Symptoms, Treatments, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/major-depression

  A constant sense of hopelessness and despair is a sign you may have major depression, also known as clinical depression. […] Major depression can sometimes occur from one generation to the next in families, but often it may affect people with no family history of the illness. […] Some common triggers or causes of major depression include: Loss of a loved one through death, divorce, or separation; Social isolation or feelings of being deprived; Major life changes — moving, graduation, job change, retirement; Personal conflicts in relationships, either with a significant other or a superior; Physical, sexual, or emotional abuse. […] Once you have had an episode of major depression, you are at high risk of having another. The best way to prevent another episode of depression is to be aware of the triggers or causes of major depression and to continue taking the prescribed medication to avoid relapse.

• #40 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  In addition to recent negative events and chronically stressful conditions, increasing evidence focuses on the link between childhood exposure to adversity and the development of depression in adolescence or adulthood. […] There is ample evidence from mostly retrospective community and clinical studies of a significant association between childhood sexual or physical abuse and adult depression particularly among women. […] The mechanisms by which specific childhood stressors, such as physical or sexual abuse, have their effects on later depression are not known directly. […] However, such experiences are highly likely to occur in the context of parental lack of care, plus exposure to high levels of chronic and episodic stressors. […] As noted earlier, etiological approaches to depression commonly invoke diathesis-stress models, in which stress precipitates depressive reactions among those with particular vulnerabilities.

• #41 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  A major risk factor for depression is the experience of undesirable, negative life events. […] There is ample evidence that most major depressive episodes are triggered by stressful life events. […] According to Mazure (1998) recent stressors were 2.5 times more likely in depressed patients compared with controls, and, in community samples, 80 percent of depressed cases were preceded by major negative life events. […] Gender differences in depression may be accounted for in part by womens greater exposure to interpersonal life events, as well as their greater likelihood, compared with men, of reacting to such events with depression. […] Although acute stress may precipitate depression in vulnerable individuals, the relationship is bidirectional: Those with depression or a history of depression experience significantly more acute stressors than those with no depression.

• #42 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Another source of depression although not as commonly studied is exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] An important feature of chronic stress, as with acute stress, is the bidirectional effect of stressful chronic conditions and depression on each other. […] A specific example of a chronically stressful condition amplified by co-occurring adverse conditions is single-mother status. […] A number of institutional and sociocultural barriers are responsible for causing and maintaining existing disparities in access to and quality of mental health services received by minority groups. […] The environment can act as a source of chronic stressors as well. […] Many parents are challenged by infants and childrens medical illnesses, developmental disabilities, and psychological disturbances, and the stress associated with such circumstances may result in depression.

• #43 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Another source of depression although not as commonly studied is exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] An important feature of chronic stress, as with acute stress, is the bidirectional effect of stressful chronic conditions and depression on each other. […] A specific example of a chronically stressful condition amplified by co-occurring adverse conditions is single-mother status. […] A number of institutional and sociocultural barriers are responsible for causing and maintaining existing disparities in access to and quality of mental health services received by minority groups. […] The environment can act as a source of chronic stressors as well. […] Many parents are challenged by infants and childrens medical illnesses, developmental disabilities, and psychological disturbances, and the stress associated with such circumstances may result in depression.

• #44 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Another source of depression although not as commonly studied is exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] An important feature of chronic stress, as with acute stress, is the bidirectional effect of stressful chronic conditions and depression on each other. […] A specific example of a chronically stressful condition amplified by co-occurring adverse conditions is single-mother status. […] A number of institutional and sociocultural barriers are responsible for causing and maintaining existing disparities in access to and quality of mental health services received by minority groups. […] The environment can act as a source of chronic stressors as well. […] Many parents are challenged by infants and childrens medical illnesses, developmental disabilities, and psychological disturbances, and the stress associated with such circumstances may result in depression.

• #45 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Another source of depression although not as commonly studied is exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] An important feature of chronic stress, as with acute stress, is the bidirectional effect of stressful chronic conditions and depression on each other. […] A specific example of a chronically stressful condition amplified by co-occurring adverse conditions is single-mother status. […] A number of institutional and sociocultural barriers are responsible for causing and maintaining existing disparities in access to and quality of mental health services received by minority groups. […] The environment can act as a source of chronic stressors as well. […] Many parents are challenged by infants and childrens medical illnesses, developmental disabilities, and psychological disturbances, and the stress associated with such circumstances may result in depression.

• #46 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Another source of depression although not as commonly studied is exposure to enduring, long-term stressful circumstances. […] An important feature of chronic stress, as with acute stress, is the bidirectional effect of stressful chronic conditions and depression on each other. […] A specific example of a chronically stressful condition amplified by co-occurring adverse conditions is single-mother status. […] A number of institutional and sociocultural barriers are responsible for causing and maintaining existing disparities in access to and quality of mental health services received by minority groups. […] The environment can act as a source of chronic stressors as well. […] Many parents are challenged by infants and childrens medical illnesses, developmental disabilities, and psychological disturbances, and the stress associated with such circumstances may result in depression.

• #47 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  In addition to recent negative events and chronically stressful conditions, increasing evidence focuses on the link between childhood exposure to adversity and the development of depression in adolescence or adulthood. […] There is ample evidence from mostly retrospective community and clinical studies of a significant association between childhood sexual or physical abuse and adult depression particularly among women. […] The mechanisms by which specific childhood stressors, such as physical or sexual abuse, have their effects on later depression are not known directly. […] However, such experiences are highly likely to occur in the context of parental lack of care, plus exposure to high levels of chronic and episodic stressors. […] As noted earlier, etiological approaches to depression commonly invoke diathesis-stress models, in which stress precipitates depressive reactions among those with particular vulnerabilities.

• #48 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  In addition to recent negative events and chronically stressful conditions, increasing evidence focuses on the link between childhood exposure to adversity and the development of depression in adolescence or adulthood. […] There is ample evidence from mostly retrospective community and clinical studies of a significant association between childhood sexual or physical abuse and adult depression particularly among women. […] The mechanisms by which specific childhood stressors, such as physical or sexual abuse, have their effects on later depression are not known directly. […] However, such experiences are highly likely to occur in the context of parental lack of care, plus exposure to high levels of chronic and episodic stressors. […] As noted earlier, etiological approaches to depression commonly invoke diathesis-stress models, in which stress precipitates depressive reactions among those with particular vulnerabilities.

• #49 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  In addition to recent negative events and chronically stressful conditions, increasing evidence focuses on the link between childhood exposure to adversity and the development of depression in adolescence or adulthood. […] There is ample evidence from mostly retrospective community and clinical studies of a significant association between childhood sexual or physical abuse and adult depression particularly among women. […] The mechanisms by which specific childhood stressors, such as physical or sexual abuse, have their effects on later depression are not known directly. […] However, such experiences are highly likely to occur in the context of parental lack of care, plus exposure to high levels of chronic and episodic stressors. […] As noted earlier, etiological approaches to depression commonly invoke diathesis-stress models, in which stress precipitates depressive reactions among those with particular vulnerabilities.

• #50 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Considerable research on depression in the past 40 years has focused on three variants of cognitive models of depression the classical cognitive triad model (negative views of the self, world, and future) of Aaron Beck, the versions of the helplessness/hopelessness cognitive style models of Seligman, Abramson, Alloy, and colleagues, and information-processing perspectives. […] The Beck and cognitive style models emphasize the role of distortion in the content of thinking of depressed people. […] Those at risk for depression are hypothesized to have characteristic ways of interpreting events and circumstances that are excessively pessimistic and self-critical, with perceptions of helplessness and hopelessness about changing or improving their situations. […] Depressive disorders are known to be associated with considerable impairment in interpersonal functioning marital discord, intimate partner violence, parenting difficulties, insecure attachment, and low social support, to mention several specific areas.

• #51 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Considerable research on depression in the past 40 years has focused on three variants of cognitive models of depression the classical cognitive triad model (negative views of the self, world, and future) of Aaron Beck, the versions of the helplessness/hopelessness cognitive style models of Seligman, Abramson, Alloy, and colleagues, and information-processing perspectives. […] The Beck and cognitive style models emphasize the role of distortion in the content of thinking of depressed people. […] Those at risk for depression are hypothesized to have characteristic ways of interpreting events and circumstances that are excessively pessimistic and self-critical, with perceptions of helplessness and hopelessness about changing or improving their situations. […] Depressive disorders are known to be associated with considerable impairment in interpersonal functioning marital discord, intimate partner violence, parenting difficulties, insecure attachment, and low social support, to mention several specific areas.

• #52 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events. […] Per cognitive theory, depression occurs as a result of cognitive distortions in persons who are susceptible to depression.

• #53 Major Depressive Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been ranked as the third cause of the burden of disease worldwide in 2008 by WHO, which has projected that this disease will rank first by 2030. […] The etiology of Major depressive disorder is believed to be multifactorial, including biological, genetic, environmental, and psychosocial factors. MDD was earlier considered to be mainly due to abnormalities in neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. […] Recent theories indicate that it is associated primarily with more complex neuroregulatory systems and neural circuits, causing secondary disturbances of neurotransmitter systems. […] Family, adoption, and twin studies have indicated the role of genes in the susceptibility of depression. […] The learned helplessness theory has associated the occurrence of depression with the experience of uncontrollable events. […] Per cognitive theory, depression occurs as a result of cognitive distortions in persons who are susceptible to depression.

• #54 Psychiatry.org – What Is Depression?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/depression/what-is-depression

  Depression (major depressive disorder) is a common and serious mental disorder that negatively affects how you feel, think, act, and perceive the world. […] Several factors can play a role in depression. Several factors can play a role in depression: […] Biochemical: Differences in certain chemicals in the brain (such as the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine) may contribute to symptoms of depression. […] Genetic: Depression can run in families. For example, if one identical twin has depression, the other has a 70 percent chance of having the illness sometime in life. […] Personality: People with low self-esteem, who are easily overwhelmed by stress, or who are generally pessimistic may be more likely to experience depression. […] Environmental: Continuous exposure to violence, neglect, abuse or poverty can also pose risks for developing depression.

• #55 Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) — Seattle Anxiety Specialists – Psychiatry, Psychology, and Psychotherapy

  https://seattleanxiety.com/major-depressive-disorder-mdd

  Personality: People with low self-esteem, self-critical, who are easily overwhelmed by stress, or who are generally pessimistic appear to be more likely to experience depression. […] Environmental Factors: Continuous exposure to violence, neglect, abuse or poverty may make some people more vulnerable to depression. The death or loss of a loved one, a difficult relationship, or financial problems can also contribute to MDD. Certain chronic illnesses, medications as well as abuse of alcohol or recreational drugs may also contribute to the manifestation of depression.

• #56 Depressive Disorders – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/mood-disorders/depressive-disorders

  In peripartum-onset depression, symptoms develop during pregnancy or within 4 weeks after delivery; endocrine changes have been implicated, but the specific cause is unknown. […] In seasonal affective disorder, symptoms develop in a seasonal pattern, typically during autumn or winter; the disorder tends to occur in climates with long or severe winters. […] Depressive symptoms or disorders may accompany various general medical disorders, including thyroid disorders, adrenal gland disorders, benign and malignant brain tumors, stroke, AIDS, Parkinson disease, and multiple sclerosis. […] Certain medications, such as corticosteroids, some beta-blockers, interferon, and reserpine, can also result in depressive disorders. Abuse of some substances and illicit drugs (eg, alcohol, amphetamines) can lead to or accompany depression.

• #57 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Socioeconomic status, including financial problems and perceived low social status, can increase your risk of depression. […] Certain drugs including some types of hormonal birth control, corticosteroids, and beta-blockers may be associated with an increased risk of depression. […] Studies have linked depressive symptoms to low levels of vitamin D. […] The risk of depression for transgender people is nearly 4-fold that of cisgender people, according to a 2018 study. […] About 21 percent of people who have a substance use disorder also experience depression. […] Depression is associated with other chronic medical illnesses. People with heart disease are about twice as likely to have depression as people who dont, while up to 1 in 4 people with cancer may also experience depression.

• #58 Depression: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression

  Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest in things and activities you once enjoyed. […] There are several types of depressive disorders. Clinical depression, or major depressive disorder, is often just called depression. Its the most severe type of depression. […] Researchers dont know the exact cause of depression. They think that several factors contribute to its development, including: Brain chemistry: An imbalance of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, contributes to the development of depression. […] Genetics: If you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with depression, youre about three times as likely to develop the condition as the general population. […] Stressful life events: Difficult experiences, such as the death of a loved one, trauma, divorce, isolation and lack of support, can trigger depression. […] Medical conditions: Chronic pain and chronic conditions like diabetes can lead to depression. […] Medication: Some medications can cause depression as a side effect. Substance use, including alcohol, can also cause depression or make it worse.

• #59 Causes – Depression in adults – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/depression-in-adults/causes/

  Some women are particularly vulnerable to depression after pregnancy. […] Sometimes depression starts before you give birth. […] Menopause can also cause symptoms such as sadness and mood swings. […] Feeling lonely, caused by things such as becoming cut off from your family and friends, can increase your risk of depression. […] When life is getting them down, some people try to cope by drinking too much alcohol or taking drugs. […] This can result in a spiral of depression. […] You may have a higher risk of depression if you have a longstanding or life-threatening illness, such as coronary heart disease, cancer or a condition that causes long-term pain. […] Head injuries are also an often under-recognised cause of depression. […] In some people an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) can cause depression.

• #60 Depression (major depressive disorder) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20356007

  Psychologically, we think of how negative thoughts and problematic coping behaviors, such as avoidance and substance use, increase our vulnerability to depression. […] It’s not known exactly what causes depression. […] Biological differences. People with depression appear to have physical changes in their brains. […] Brain chemistry. Neurotransmitters are naturally occurring brain chemicals that likely play a role in depression. […] Hormones. Changes in the body’s balance of hormones may be involved in causing or triggering depression. […] Inherited traits. Depression is more common in people whose blood relatives also have this condition.

• #61 Depressive Disorders – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/mood-disorders/depressive-disorders

  Psychosocial factors also seem to be involved. Major life stresses, especially separations and losses, commonly precede episodes of major depression; however, such events do not usually cause lasting, severe depression except in people predisposed to a mood disorder. […] People who have had an episode of major depression are at higher risk of subsequent episodes. People who are less resilient and/or who have anxious tendencies may be more likely to develop a depressive disorder. […] Women are at higher risk, but no theory explains why. Possible factors include the following: Greater exposure to or heightened response to daily stresses, Higher levels of monoamine oxidase (the enzyme that degrades neurotransmitters considered important for mood), Higher rates of thyroid dysfunction, Endocrine changes that occur with menstruation and at menopause.

• #62 Depressive Disorders – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/mood-disorders/depressive-disorders

  In peripartum-onset depression, symptoms develop during pregnancy or within 4 weeks after delivery; endocrine changes have been implicated, but the specific cause is unknown. […] In seasonal affective disorder, symptoms develop in a seasonal pattern, typically during autumn or winter; the disorder tends to occur in climates with long or severe winters. […] Depressive symptoms or disorders may accompany various general medical disorders, including thyroid disorders, adrenal gland disorders, benign and malignant brain tumors, stroke, AIDS, Parkinson disease, and multiple sclerosis. […] Certain medications, such as corticosteroids, some beta-blockers, interferon, and reserpine, can also result in depressive disorders. Abuse of some substances and illicit drugs (eg, alcohol, amphetamines) can lead to or accompany depression.

• #63 Types of depression – Beyond Blue

  https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/depression/types-of-depression

  Everyone experiences depression differently. However, there are different types of depression that have particular symptoms. […] Sometimes we use different names for the same type of depression. For example, clinical depression is also called major depressive disorder. […] Major depression is when you feel sad, down or miserable most of the time. You might also lose interest in things you usually enjoy. […] Types of major depression include melancholia, psychotic and antenatal or postnatal. You may be diagnosed with mild, moderate or severe depression. […] Your risk of developing depression is higher during pregnancy and in the first year after childbirth. During pregnancy around 10 per cent of women experience depression. In the first three months after having a baby this increases to 16 per cent.

• #64 Depressive Disorders – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/mood-disorders/depressive-disorders

  In peripartum-onset depression, symptoms develop during pregnancy or within 4 weeks after delivery; endocrine changes have been implicated, but the specific cause is unknown. […] In seasonal affective disorder, symptoms develop in a seasonal pattern, typically during autumn or winter; the disorder tends to occur in climates with long or severe winters. […] Depressive symptoms or disorders may accompany various general medical disorders, including thyroid disorders, adrenal gland disorders, benign and malignant brain tumors, stroke, AIDS, Parkinson disease, and multiple sclerosis. […] Certain medications, such as corticosteroids, some beta-blockers, interferon, and reserpine, can also result in depressive disorders. Abuse of some substances and illicit drugs (eg, alcohol, amphetamines) can lead to or accompany depression.

• #65 Depressive Disorders – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/mood-disorders/depressive-disorders

  In peripartum-onset depression, symptoms develop during pregnancy or within 4 weeks after delivery; endocrine changes have been implicated, but the specific cause is unknown. […] In seasonal affective disorder, symptoms develop in a seasonal pattern, typically during autumn or winter; the disorder tends to occur in climates with long or severe winters. […] Depressive symptoms or disorders may accompany various general medical disorders, including thyroid disorders, adrenal gland disorders, benign and malignant brain tumors, stroke, AIDS, Parkinson disease, and multiple sclerosis. […] Certain medications, such as corticosteroids, some beta-blockers, interferon, and reserpine, can also result in depressive disorders. Abuse of some substances and illicit drugs (eg, alcohol, amphetamines) can lead to or accompany depression.

• #66 Depression: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9290-depression

  Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest in things and activities you once enjoyed. […] There are several types of depressive disorders. Clinical depression, or major depressive disorder, is often just called depression. Its the most severe type of depression. […] Researchers dont know the exact cause of depression. They think that several factors contribute to its development, including: Brain chemistry: An imbalance of neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, contributes to the development of depression. […] Genetics: If you have a first-degree relative (biological parent or sibling) with depression, youre about three times as likely to develop the condition as the general population. […] Stressful life events: Difficult experiences, such as the death of a loved one, trauma, divorce, isolation and lack of support, can trigger depression. […] Medical conditions: Chronic pain and chronic conditions like diabetes can lead to depression. […] Medication: Some medications can cause depression as a side effect. Substance use, including alcohol, can also cause depression or make it worse.

• #67 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Socioeconomic status, including financial problems and perceived low social status, can increase your risk of depression. […] Certain drugs including some types of hormonal birth control, corticosteroids, and beta-blockers may be associated with an increased risk of depression. […] Studies have linked depressive symptoms to low levels of vitamin D. […] The risk of depression for transgender people is nearly 4-fold that of cisgender people, according to a 2018 study. […] About 21 percent of people who have a substance use disorder also experience depression. […] Depression is associated with other chronic medical illnesses. People with heart disease are about twice as likely to have depression as people who dont, while up to 1 in 4 people with cancer may also experience depression.

• #68 Depression: Causes, symptoms, treatment, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/8933

  Depression is a mental health condition that causes chronic feelings of emptiness, sadness, or an inability to feel pleasure. These feelings may seem to happen for no clear reason. […] Major life events, such as the death of a loved one or the loss of a job, can trigger depression. However, depression is distinct from the negative feelings a person may temporarily have in response to a difficult life event. […] The medical community does not fully understand the causes of depression. There are many possible causes, and various factors can combine to trigger symptoms. […] Factors that are likely to play a role include genetic features, changes in neurotransmitter levels in the brain, environmental factors such as exposure to trauma and lack of social support, psychological and social factors, and additional health conditions, such as bipolar disorder. […] Interactions among factors can increase the risk of depression. For instance, a person with a family history or a genetic risk of depression may experience symptoms of depression after a traumatic event.

• #69 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  Etiological models for depression are largely diathesis-stress models in which stressful experiences trigger depression in those who may be vulnerable due to biological and psychosocial characteristics and circumstances. […] Environmental stressors associated with depression include acute life events, chronic stress, and childhood exposure to adversity. Personal vulnerabilities associated with depression include cognitive, interpersonal, and personality factors. […] Biological, environmental, and personal vulnerabilities interact to contribute to the development of depression and also may be affected by depressive states in a bidirectional process. […] Depression rarely occurs independent of other psychological disorders, including anxiety, substance abuse, behavioral, and personality disorders, as well as other medical illnesses. The presence of co-occurring psychological and medical disorders exacerbates the clinical and social consequences of depression, and makes it more challenging to treat.

• #70 Major Depressive Disorder | Abnormal Psychology

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-abnormalpsych/chapter/major-depressive-disorder/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) is believed to be a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors. […] The diathesis-stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. […] The biopsychosocial model is an interdisciplinary model that looks at the interconnection between biological, psychological, and social-environmental factors. […] Major depressive disorder is a serious and incapacitating condition that can have a devastating effect on the quality of one’s life. […] Major depressive disorder is often referred to as the common cold of psychiatric disorders. […] A number of risk factors are associated with major depressive disorder: unemployment (including homemakers); earning less than $20,000 per year; living in urban areas; or being separated, divorced, or widowed.

• #71 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Brain structure. Theres a greater risk for depression if the frontal lobe of your brain is less active. However, scientists dont know if this happens before or after the onset of depressive symptoms. […] Medical conditions. Certain conditions may put you at higher risk, such as chronic illness, insomnia, chronic pain, Parkinsons disease, stroke, heart attack, and cancer. […] Substance use. A history of substance or alcohol misuse can affect your risk. […] Pain. People who feel emotional or chronic physical pain for long periods of time are significantly more likely to develop depression. […] Risk factors for depression can be biochemical, medical, social, genetic, or circumstantial. […] The prevalence of major depression is twice as high in females as in males. […] You have an increased risk of depression if you have a family history of it.

• #72 Major Depressive Disorder – Types | Causes | Symptoms | Treatments

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/emotional-and-mental-health/major-depressive-disorder

  Major depressive disorder is a condition that is characterized by long-lived periods of persistent and intense grief. It is also known as clinical depression and has a severe impact on an individual’s mood, behaviors, and physical functions like appetite and sleep. It has been reported to be one of the most prevalent health conditions in the United States. […] Although not clearly known, several factors may contribute to major depressive disorder, which includes the following: […] The risk of developing major depressive disorder runs in families. People whose blood relatives have this condition are more likely to get this disease. However, the gene responsible for causing depression is under research. […] Depression can occur in any stage but is probably thought to start in the teens, 20s, or 30s. The below factors increases the risk of developing or triggering an existing depression:

• #73 Depression: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/depression

  Socioeconomic status, including financial problems and perceived low social status, can increase your risk of depression. […] Certain drugs including some types of hormonal birth control, corticosteroids, and beta-blockers may be associated with an increased risk of depression. […] Studies have linked depressive symptoms to low levels of vitamin D. […] The risk of depression for transgender people is nearly 4-fold that of cisgender people, according to a 2018 study. […] About 21 percent of people who have a substance use disorder also experience depression. […] Depression is associated with other chronic medical illnesses. People with heart disease are about twice as likely to have depression as people who dont, while up to 1 in 4 people with cancer may also experience depression.

• #74 Major Depressive Disorder | Abnormal Psychology

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-abnormalpsych/chapter/major-depressive-disorder/

  Major depressive disorder (MDD) is believed to be a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors. […] The diathesis-stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events. […] The biopsychosocial model is an interdisciplinary model that looks at the interconnection between biological, psychological, and social-environmental factors. […] Major depressive disorder is a serious and incapacitating condition that can have a devastating effect on the quality of one’s life. […] Major depressive disorder is often referred to as the common cold of psychiatric disorders. […] A number of risk factors are associated with major depressive disorder: unemployment (including homemakers); earning less than $20,000 per year; living in urban areas; or being separated, divorced, or widowed.

• #75

• #76 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  In view of the multiple biological, environmental, social, and personality risk factors for depression, research on risk for depression will be advanced by integrative, multivariable models that link biological factors with environmental and personal characteristics. […] Much is known about risk factors for depression, but further research is needed to test models of how multiple biological and psychosocial factors work together and to clarify the mechanisms by which stressful experiences lead to depressive reactions in individuals and in the family context. […] Depression is highly prevalent and, for many, a chronic or recurring problem that interferes with work and family. […] It is a disorder with many faces starting at different ages, possibly chronic or waxing and waning, and typically mixed with a variety of other complicating problems, such as anxiety disorders, substance abuse, and behavioral disorders. […] Risk factors and causal mechanisms involved in depression have implicated a wide range of biological (genetic, neurological, hormonal, and endocrinological) factors that may play a role in underlying vulnerability or in the processes by which stressors trigger depression in some people.

• #77 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  Major depressive disorder (MDD), a main cause of disability worldwide, is characterized by physical changes such as tiredness, weight loss, and appetite loss. The prevalence of depression is increasing yearly. About 300 million people in the world are affected by MDD, which has become one of the main causes of disability. In 2018, MDD ranked third in terms of disease burden according to the WHO, and it is predicted to rank first by 2030. Pregnant women, elderly people, children, and others have a higher incidence rate of MDD, which may be related to genetic, psychological, and social factors. […] Due to the complexity of the pathological mechanism of MDD, accurate diagnostic approaches and pharmacological therapeutic strategies are relatively limited. Several hypothesis were developed to explain MDD pathogenesis pathogenic including (i) the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction hypothesis, (ii) the monoamine hypothesis, (iii) the inflammatory hypothesis, (iv) the genetic and epigenetic anomaly hypothesis, (v) the structural and functional brain remodeling hypothesis, and (vi) the social psychological hypothesis. However, none of these hypotheses alone can fully explain the pathological basis of MDD, while many mechanisms proposed by these hypotheses interact with each other.

• #78 Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-024-01738-y

  Neuroinflammation is a central pathophysiological mechanism and defining characteristic of MDD. […] In conclusion, there have been so many hypothesis to explain the pathogenesis of MDD associating with many booming researches. However, it is still hard to adopt only one above hypothesis to completely reveal pathophysiology of MDD.

• #79 The Etiology of Depression – Depression in Parents, Parenting, and Children – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215119/

  In view of the multiple biological, environmental, social, and personality risk factors for depression, research on risk for depression will be advanced by integrative, multivariable models that link biological factors with environmental and personal characteristics. […] Much is known about risk factors for depression, but further research is needed to test models of how multiple biological and psychosocial factors work together and to clarify the mechanisms by which stressful experiences lead to depressive reactions in individuals and in the family context. […] Depression is highly prevalent and, for many, a chronic or recurring problem that interferes with work and family. […] It is a disorder with many faces starting at different ages, possibly chronic or waxing and waning, and typically mixed with a variety of other complicating problems, such as anxiety disorders, substance abuse, and behavioral disorders. […] Risk factors and causal mechanisms involved in depression have implicated a wide range of biological (genetic, neurological, hormonal, and endocrinological) factors that may play a role in underlying vulnerability or in the processes by which stressors trigger depression in some people.

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